The Old liberal and Christian Paradigm in John Henry Newmans The Idea of a University.

The Place of Religion in Education as d!ocated by Newmans through the Choices of "oo#s to $ut on the %hel!es of Circulating &ibraries 'The Tamworth Reading Room(. Thomas Henry Hu)leys New Term* gnosticism.

John Henry Newman has come to the fore these days again because in +,-, he was beatified as "lessed John Henry Newman. in recognition of his role as a Roman Catholic Cardinal after -/01 and. after his death. as a miracle2wor#er. 3n the 4ictorian age. howe!er. he had acted as the leader of the O)ford 5o!ement 'or Tractarian 5o!ement(6 in the -/7,s 2 which was a re!i!al within the nglican or High church that started from some doctors of di!inity at O)ford 'the Oriel College. considered at the time the ac#nowledged centre of O)ford intellectualism(. The Tractarians 'whose name deri!ed from the series of 1, Tracts for the Times that they $ut in circulation throughout the -/7,s( declared the nglican dogmas and rites 'the 71 rticles of the "oo# of Common Prayer more a#in to Catholicism than to Protestantism and led to the creation of a faction within the nglican Church. the nglo2Catholic creed(. Their $am$hlets or tracts were $art of a theological contro!ersy started at O)ford in the -/+,s by the grou$ of the Oriel Noetics 'from nous. the facutly of intellectual understanding( religious matters. 8or students of 4ictorian education. Newmans name is connected to his series of lectures The Idea of a University deli!ered at the Catholic 9ni!ersity of :ublin. whose rector he was a$$ointed in -/;<. after being recei!ed into the Church of Rome in October. -/<;. fter $resenting the ideas in his -/;< te)t in the light of an older ty$e of liberalism than the one $resented in connection with 5ill. rnold and Hu)ley and in connection with Newmans Christianity. an e)tension about his thought and writings in general will be introduced. too. Newman was a fine intellectual and the last great mind of the modern ages to militate for a mi)ture of uni!ersality deri!ed from faith and from learning -. Newman regarded learning in the frame of the first medie!al and Renaissance uni!ersities. namely in the old liberal frame or hierarchy which $laced theological #nowledge at the to$ and deri!ed further #nowledge by means of the se!en artes liberales organi=ed into the core once of the Trivium* >rammar. Rhetoric and &ogic and the second tier of the Quadrivium. which included mathematics. music and astronomy 'with astrology as a more $o$ular. user2friendly !ersion(. and later on medicine. 3t is from the $ers$ecti!e of this hierarchy of the old liberal arts and sciences that Newman drew his arguments about what a uni!ersity should ideally be in the -/;< te)t. %ince it deals with the ideal which it tries to enforce this is an instance of a discourse of legitimation. Newmans discourse of legitimation $roceeds !ery ?udiciously 'and therefore liberally( when $resenting both what liberal knowledge and liberal education are and what they are not. showing. in addition. their ?oint effects. lthough Newmans old liberalism is not
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Contrast this with the uni!ersality of scientific laws and the uni!ersality of mythical or archety$al beliefs.

the same with either 5ills or rnolds. he is the one 4ictorian essay2writer who uses the word @liberalA constantly and insistently. The Organic %ystem of Bnowledge d!ocated in The Idea of a Univeristy Newman $laces #nowledge as they #ey conce$t at the to$ of the hierarchy. Bnowldege is the su$reme target in his conce$tion. ?ust as theological #nowledge had been in res$ect to the liberal arts and sciences. His !iew of #nowledge as it can be acCuired in a uni!ersity is organic. he thin#s all sciences are $art of the same whole. 3n :iscourse 4 of The Idea of a University Newman states the following All Knowledge is a whole and the separate Sciences parts of one There is no science but tells a different tale! when viewed as a portion of a whole! from what it is li"ely to suggest when ta"en by itself! without the safeguard! as I may call it of others #$%& I pp ''( ) * Newmans concern with knowledge $resu$$oses a com$rehensi!e !iew of truth @in all its branches. of the relations of science to science. of their mutual bearings. and their res$ecti!e !aluesA 'PE4 3. $. 77/(. This is $recisely li#e 5ills !iew of synthetic truth as the sum of the truths arri!ed at by $eo$le. lso. li#e 5ill. Newman belie!es that #nowledge can and should be attained with a great deal of effort of the indi!idual* it is an ob+ect! in its own nature so really and undeniably good! as to be the compensation of a great deal of thought in the compassing! and a great deal of trouble in the attaining 'PE4 3. $. 77/(. Newman circumscribed #nowledge and legitimated it by showing that it is ca$able of being its own end. not a $reliminary of certain arts I am as"ed what is the end of University %ducation! and of the ,iberal or $hilosophical Knowledge which I conceive it to impart- I answer! that what I have already said has been sufficient to show that it has a very tangible! real! and sufficient end! though the end cannot be divided from that "nowledge itself Knowledge is capable of being its own end Such is the constitution of the human mind! that any "ind of "nowledge! if it be really such! is its own reward 'PE4 3. $. 77/(. #.* because that alone is liberal "nowledge which stands on its own pretensions! which is independent of se/uel! e0pects no complement! refuses to be informed #as it is called* by an end! or absorbed into any end! or in order to present itself to our contemplation 'PE4 3. $. 7<+(. The #ey word here is @contem$lationA. which is a meta$hysical and artistic rather than a $hysical and scientific acti!ity common to all men 'notice the use of the inclusi!e $ossessi!e $ronoun @ourA and it testifies to the fact that in the old liberal conce$tion

about learning and education arts and sciences had not yet been se$arated or s$ecialised. but they were united in ser!ing the contem$lati!e aims of theology. s a contem$lati!e. self2sufficient end. #nowledge was in com$etition with the other acCuirements '!alues( sought by man and by modern man in $articular. 1hat the worth of such an ac/uirement 'contem$lati!e. disinterested #nowledge. our note( is! compared with other ob+ects which we see"!2wealth or power or honour or the conveniences and comforts of life! I do not profess here to discuss3 but I would maintain! and mean to show! that the most ordinary pursuits have this specific character! if they are self4sufficient and complete3 the highest lose it! when they minister to something beyond them D 'PE4. $. 7<+( 3t is interesting to notice how Newman. a theologian by formation. $leads for the worth and the $ower of theory in his conce$tion of education with these words. by contrasting the liberal with the useful !alues. To illustrate the distinction between the liberal. disinterested #nowledge and the useful. he offers the e)am$le of theology itself when legitimately or illegitimately used. One can see the hierarchical ordering of the higher theoretical or liberal $ursuits of men by contrast to the useful. inferior means. He isolates the useful from the liberal attributes by an illustration that em$loys the word @losesA* Theology! he continues a few paragraphs further! instead of being cultivated as a contemplation! be5ing6 limited to the purposes of the pulpit or be5ing6 represented by the catechism! it loses! 4 not its usefulness! not its divine character! not its meritoriousness! 4 but it does lose the particular attribute which I am illustrating3 +ust as a face worn by tears and fasting loses its beauty! or a labourer7s hand loses its delicateness3 4 for Theology thus e0ercised is not simple "nowledge! but rather is an art or busines ma"ing use of Theology #our underlining* And in li"e manner the 8aconian $hilosophy! by using its physical sciences in the service of man! does thereby transfer them from the order of ,iberal $ursuits to! I do not say inferior! but the distinct class of the Useful 'PE4 3 $$. 7<+27(. nd discriminating further down in the hierarchy between #nowledge as the source of all &iberal Pursuits and the class of the 9seful $ursuits. Newman considers education nobler than instruction. He affirms that* It is more correct! as well as more usual! to spea" of a University as a place of education! than of instruction! though! when "nowledge is concerned ! instruction would at first sight have seemed the more appropriate word 1e are instructed! for instance! in manual e0ercises! in the fine and useful arts! in trades! and in ways of business3 for these are methods! which have little or no effect upon the mind itself! are confined in rules committed to memory! to tradition or to use! and bear upon an end e0ternal to themselves 8ut education is a higher word3 it implies an action upon our mental nature! and the formation of a character3 it is something individual and permanent! and is commonly spo"en of in connection with religion and virtue

3t is useful to com$are the targets of the new liberal education ad!ocated by 5ill with Newmans targets. 5ills essay wished to reassure the a!erage. ordinary modern $eo$le. stating that there is enough truth for the $ur$oses of action. Newman transfers the necessaryEsufficient criterion beyond action. bac# into the s$iritual realm of DreligionD and D!irtueD. in so far as he o$$oses the &iberal to the 9seful $ursuits. %till. ama=ingly enough. they are both of them tal#ing about the same ideally rational model regulating one domain of actual life. They are both of them dedicated to defining. circumscribing and in this way legitimating $rinci$les for their res$ecti!e domains. 5ills target is ci!ic. as he contem$lates the means for achie!ing harmonious coe)istence of $eo$le in society6 this is why he de!elo$s a system of ostensible relationshi$s between truth and action. Newmans target is intellectually educati!e first and ci!ic only secondly. as he tries to isolate the o$timum configurations for the transmission of #nowledge in a $lace of learning aimed at forming reliable. reasonable. instructed $eo$le ca$able of carrying culture further in a Cualified way6 this is why he will only em$loy the criterion of action to test and $ro!e the Cuality of liberal #nowledge in thoroughly liberal education . 3n :iscourse 433 DBnowledge 4iewed in Relation to Professional %#illD. Newman circumscribes liberal #nowledge. howe!er. by indicating its conte)ts and effects in action. This process of training! by which the intellect! instead of being formed or sacrificed to some particular or accidental purpose! some specific trade or profession! or study or science! is disciplined for its own sa"e! for the perception of its own proper ob+ect! and for its own highest culture! is called ,iberal %ducation3 and though there is no one in whom it is carried as far as is conceivable! or whose intellect would be a pattern of what intellects should be made! yet there is scarcely any one but may gain an idea of what real training is! and at least loo" towards it! and ma"e its true scope and result! not something else! his standard of e0cellence3 and numbers there are who may submit themselves to it! and secure it to themselves in good measure And to set forth the right standard! and to train according to it! and to help forward all students towards it according to their various capacities! this I conceive to be the business of a University He isolates the man who $ossesses liberal #nowledge in a legitimate way. namely. the man who possesses it from within the edifice! or from within the whole of "nowledge. This man. the rector Newman declares. is an insider because he can Dbuild u$ ideasD6 on the contrary. the man who Dmay ha!e no $ower at all of ad!ancing one ste$ forward of himselfD is the man who reads without com$aring and understanding each item of information in its own conte)t. 9e defines a university as A seat of learning! considered as a place of education An assemblage of learned men! :ealous for their own sciences! and rivals of each other! are brought! by familiar intercourse and for the sa"e of intellectual peace to ad+ust together the claims and relations of their respective sub+ects of investigation Thus is created a pure and clear atmosphere of thought! which each student also breathes! though in his own case he can only pursue a few sciences out of the multitude 9e profits by an intellectual tradition! which is independent of particular teachers! which guides him in his choice of sub+ects #.* 9e apprehends the great outlines of "nowledge! the principles

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on which it rests! the scale of its parts! its lights and its shades! its great points and its little as he otherwise cannot apprehend them 9ence it is that his education is called liberal A habit of mind is formed which lasts throughout life! of which the attributes are! freedom! e/uitableness! calmness! moderation! and wisdom.D ':iscourse 4 2PE4 3. $. 770(. E)actly the same attributes formed the ob?ect of 5ills $lea for #nowing the grounds of the o$inion that an Dalmost liberalD $erson holds. in DOf the &iberty of Thought and :iscussionD 'PE4 3. $$ ;-0 D ;-/(. &i#e Newman. 5ill taught $eo$le to be free. eCuitable. moderate and wise in the o$inions held. There is a class of $ersons 'ha$$ily not Cuite so numerous as formerly( who thin# it enough if a $erson assents undoubtingly to what they thin# true. though he has no #nowledge whate!er of the grounds of the o$inion. and could not ma#e a tenable defence of it against the most su$erficial ob?ections. %uch $ersons. if they can once get their creed taught from authority. naturally thin# that no good. and some harm. comes of its being allowed to be Cuestioned. Fhere their influence $re!ails. they ma#e it nearly im$ossible for the recei!ed o$inion to be re?ected wisely and considerately. though it may still be re?ected rashly and ignorantly6 for to shut out discussion entirely is seldom $ossible. and when it once gets in. beliefs not grounded on con!iction are a$t to gi!e way before the slightest semblance of an argument. Fai!ing. howe!er. this $ossibilityGassuming that the true o$inion abides in the mind. but abides as a $re?udice. a belief inde$endent of. and $roof against. argumentGthis is not the way in which truth ought to be held by a rational being. This is not #nowing the truth. Truth. thus held. is but one su$erstition the more. accidentally clinging to the words which enunciate a truth. 3f the intellect and ?udgment of man#ind ought to be culti!ated. a thing which Protestants at least do not deny. on what can these faculties be more a$$ro$riately e)ercised by any one. than on the things which concern him so much that it is considered necessary for him to hold o$inions on themH 3f the culti!ation of the understanding consists in one On &ibertyE7; thing more than in another. it is surely in learning the grounds of ones own o$inions. Fhate!er $eo$le belie!e. on sub?ects on which it is of the first im$ortance to belie!e rightly. they ought to be able to defend against at least the common ob?ections. "ut. some one may say. @&et them be taught the grounds of their o$inions. 3t does not follow that o$inions must be merely $arroted because they are ne!er heard contro!erted. Persons who learn geometry do not sim$ly commit the theorems to memory. but understand and learn li#ewise the demonstrations6 and it would be absurd to say that they remain ignorant of the grounds of geometrical truths. because they ne!er hear any one deny. and attem$t to dis$ro!e them.A 9ndoubtedly* and such teaching suffices on a sub?ect

li#e mathematics. where there is nothing at all to be said on the wrong side of the Cuestion. The $eculiarity of the e!idence of mathematical truths is that all the argument is on one side. There are no ob?ections. and no answers to ob?ections. "ut on e!ery sub?ect on which difference of o$inion is $ossible. the truth de$ends on a balance to be struc# between two sets of conflicting reasons. E!en in natural $hiloso$hy. there is always some other e)$lanation $ossible of the same facts6 some geocentric theory instead of heliocentric. some $hlogiston instead of o)ygen6 and it has to be shown why that other theory cannot be the true one* and until this is shown. and until we #now how it is shown. we do not understand the grounds of our o$inion. Newmans Practical Obser!ations about Bnowledge and Education fter the com$arison of the $rinci$les of Newmans old liberal and 5ills newerEmodern liberal conce$tion of education. we can turn to the $ractical side of Newmans conce$tion of education in which faith ta#es the #ey $lace occu$ied by #nowledge in The Idea of a University. The source te)t to be used is an anonymous letter that Newman $ublished under the $seudonym ;atholicus at the o$ening of the Tamworth Reading Room to counter the ideas of &ord "rougham. a &iberal 5.P. The reading room was a circulating library to be o$ened in the mar#et2town of Tamworth. -,7 miles away from &ondon. in the !icinity of "irmingham. on the ri!er Tame. The Cuestion of what boo#s the newly literate $o$ulation should read was raised D ?ust as in the end of the $re!ious lecture in Thomas Henry Hu)leys general statements about education and the $alaeontolgy of men re$resented by the classics. Here are a number of !ery emoti!e $ractical considerations about what boo#s should be $laced on the stac#s of a circulating library. Newman is $leading for the "ible. 1hy! we are so constituted that <aith not Knowledge or Argument is our principle of action= # $%& II! p '>?* and independent of all other considerations! the greatest difference in practical light! betweren the ob+ect of ;hristianity and of heathen belief! is this that glory! science! "nowledge! and whatever other fine names we use! never healed a wounded heart! nor changed a sinful one3 but the @ivine 1ord is with power 'PE4 33. $. 7-7(.

:uring his refutation of &ord "roughams declarations. Newman re!iewed $olemically both his ad!ersaries tenets and his own. lea!ing the reader to infer the ?uster ideas* The old bond. he seems to say was Religion6 &ord "roughams is Bnowledge. Newman o$$oses faith to #nowledge in a fine $assage of nostalgic $ersuasion*

<aith 5was6 once the soul of social union. Ance! indeed! it was a living power! "indling hearts! leavening them with one idea! moulding them on one model! developing them into one polity #$%& II! p '>B* He is ad!ocating the su$eriority of Christian faith o!er the secular faithfor for achie!ing the peace and good order of the community! and the easy wor"ing of the national machine #$%& II! p 'CD* ;hristianity and nothing short of it! must be made the element and principle of all education 1here it has been laid as the first stone! and ac"nowledged as the governing spirit! it will ta"e up into itself! assimilate! and give a character to literature and science #.* The evidence of religion! natural theology! metaphysics! 4or! again! poetry! history! and the classics! 4or physics and mathematics! may all be grafted into the mind of a ;hristian! and give and ta"e by the grafting 8ut if in education we begin with nature before grace! with evidences before faith! with science before conscience! with poetry before practice! we shall be doing much the same as if we were to indulge the appetites and passions! and turn a deaf ear to the reason #$%& II! p 'C)* and he concludes. brilliantly. with an argument ta#en from the logic of nature which he $uts to a s$iritual use* In morals! as in physics! the stream cannot rise higher than its source ;hristianity raises men from earth! for it comes from heaven3 but human morality creeps! struts! or frets upon the earth7s level! without wings to rise The Knowledge school does not contemplate raising man above himself3 it merely aims at disposing of his e0isting powers and tastes! as is most convenient! or is practicable under circumstances.'PE4 33. $. 7-;( Newman was $olemically addressing a secular society which Carlyle. as cited by 5ill in Note ;I of An ,iberty. had characterised as @destitute of faith but terrified at its sce$ticismA. That secular society. howe!er. had made its own $rogress in disco!ering the term agnosticism to delimitate itself from what it had ceased to understand. gnosticism was coined by Thomas Henry Hu)ley at a meeting of the 5eta$hysical %ociety in -/0I and it became the label for the $rogressi!e sce$tics of the -1th century. 8irst $$endi) from the Fi#i$edia*
Agnosticism is not a creed but a method! the essence of which lies in the vigorous application of a single principle $ositively the principle may be e0pressed as in matters of intellect! do not pretend conclusions are certain that are not demonstrated or demonstrable Hu)ley also wrote in @ gnosticism and ChristianityA* I further say that Agnosticism is not properly described as a Enegative= creed! nor indeed as a creed of any "ind! e0cept in so far as it e0presses absolute faith in the validity of a principle! which is as much ethical as intellectual This principle may be stated in various ways! but they all amount to this- that it is wrong for a man to say he is certain of

the ob+ective truth of a proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically +ustifies that certainty That is what agnosticism asserts and! in my opinion! is all that is essential to agnosticism The one thing in which most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which I differed from them They were /uite sure they had attained a certain Egnosis= 2 had! more or less successfully! solved the problem of e0istence3 while I was /uite sure I had not! and had a pretty strong conviction that the problem was insoluble So I too" thought! and invented what I conceived to be the appropriate title of Eagnostic = It came into my head as suggestively antithetic to the Egnostic= of ;hurch history! who professed to "now so much about the very things of which I was ignorant lthough the origins of the term agnosticism are normally attributed directly to Hu)leys in!ol!ement in the 5eta$hysical %ociety in -/0I. we can in fact find clear e!idence of the same $rinci$les much earlier in his writings. s early as -/I, he wrote in a letter to Charles Bingsley* 3 neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. 3 see no reason for belie!ing it. but. on the other hand. 3 ha!e no means of dis$ro!ing it. 3 ha!e no a $riori ob?ections to the doctrine. No man who has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about a $riori difficulties. >i!e me such e!idence as would ?ustify me in belie!ing in anything else. and 3 will belie!e that. Fhy should 3 notH 3t is not half so wonderful as the conser!ation of force or the indestructibility of matter... 3t should be noted in all of the abo!e that for Hu)ley. agnosticism was not a creed or a doctrine or e!en sim$ly a $osition on the issue of gods6 instead. it was a methodology with res$ect to how one a$$roaches meta$hysical Cuestions generally. 3t is curious that Hu)ley felt the need for a word to describe his methodology. for the term rationalism was already being used to describe $retty much the same thing. 3t is im$ortant to #ee$ in mind that while Hu)ley introduced a new name. he certainly did not introduce the $ers$ecti!e or method which that name described.

Fi#i$edia $$endi) 33 D Necessary for the understanding of the O)ford 5o!ement. * he Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion were established in -;I7 and are the historic defining statements of nglican doctrine in relation to the contro!ersies of the English Reformation6 es$ecially in the relation of Cal!inist doctrine and Roman Catholic $ractices to the nascent nglican doctrine of the e!ol!ing English Church. J-K The name is commonly abbre!iated as theThirty-Nine Articles or the XXXIX Articles. The Ten Articles were $ublished in -;7I by Thomas Cranmer. They were the first guidelines of the Church of England as it became inde$endent of Rome. 3n summary. the Ten rticles asserted* -. The binding authority of the "ible. the three Lcumenical creeds. and the first four Lcumenical councils +. The necessity of ba$tism for sal!ation. e!en in the case of infants ' rt. 33. says that Minfants ought to be ba$ti=ed6M that. dying in infancy. they Mshall undoubtedly /

be sa!ed thereby. and else not6M that the o$inions of naba$tists and Pelagians are Mdetestable heresies. and utterly to be condemned.M( 7. The sacrament of $enance. with confession and absolution. which are declared Me)$edient and necessaryM <. The substantial. real. cor$oral $resence of ChristMs body and blood under the form of bread and wine in the eucharist ;. Justification by faith. ?oined with charity and obedience I. The use of images in churches 0. The honoring of saints and the 4irgin 5ary /. The in!ocation of saints 1. The obser!ance of !arious rites and ceremonies as good and laudable. such as clerical !estments. s$rin#ling of holy water. bearing of candles on Candlemas2 day. gi!ing of ashes on sh Fednesday -,.The doctrine of $urgatory. and $rayers for the dead in $urgatory 'made $urgatory a non2essential doctrine( --. transubstantiation. -+. the reasonableness of withholding of the cu$ from the laity during communion. -7. clerical celibacy. -<. obser!ance of !ows of chastity. -;. $ermission for $ri!ate masses. -I. the im$ortance of auricular confession.J/K 'the last si) articles reinforced the Catholic doctrine and were introduced in ( These became fi)ed as the Thirty2Nine rticles in -;I7 in com$liance with the command of Nueen Eli=abeth 3. into four sections* rticles -D/. OThe Catholic 8aithO6 rticles 1D -/. OPersonal ReligionO6 rticles -1D7-. OCor$orate ReligionO6 and rticles 7+D71. O5iscellaneous.O They are a re!ealing window into the ethos and character of nglicanism. in $articular in the way the document wor#s to na!igate a via media. or Omiddle $ath.O between the beliefs and $ractices of the Roman Catholic Church and of the English Puritans. thus lending the Church of England a mainstream Reformed air. The O!ia mediaO was e)$ressed so adroitly in the rticles that some nglican scholars ha!e labeled their content as an early e)am$le of the idea that the doctrine of nglicanism is one of OReformed CatholicismO [edit]Summary Articles IVIII: The Catholic faith* The first fi!e articles articulate the Catholic credal statements concerning the nature of >od. manifest in the Holy Trinity. rticles 43 and 433 deal with scri$ture. while rticle 4333 discusses the essential creeds. Articles I ! VIII: "ersonal religion* These articles dwell on the to$ics of sin. ?ustification. and the eternal dis$osition of the soul. Of $articular focus is the ma?or Reformation to$ic of ?ustification by faith. The rticles in this section and in the section on the Church $lant nglicanism in the via media of the debate. $ortraying an Economy of %al!ation where good wor#s are an outgrowth of faith and there is a role for the Church and for the sacraments.

Articles I I: Cor#orate religion* This section focuses on the e)$ression of faith in the $ublic !enue D the institutional church. thecouncils of the church. worshi$. ministry. and sacramental theology. Articles II! I : $iscellaneous* These articles concern clerical celibacy. e)communication. traditions of the Church. and other issues not co!ered elsewhere.

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