Issue 4 June 2013

DNA, the New DVD?

97% of GPs Prescribe Placebos

In Vivo

The Antibiotic Apocalypse

Contents
Biomedical Sciences -Conflict Between Modern Lifestyles and The Natural Body Clock p3 -97% of GPs Prescribe Placebos p4 Biochemistry - DNA, the New DVD? p6 Microbiology & Virology - The Antibiotic Apocalypse p8 - The Disastrous Impact of the MMR Scandal p10 Biological & Environmental Sciences -Plants Attract Ants that Deter Less Effective Pollinators p11 -Myriad Patenting Feud: Should DNA be Patentable? p12

Contact Us
If you are interested in writing for In Vivo or have any questions for the editing team, please dont hesitate to get in touch via our emails below. Caroline Gill - Editor invivowarwick@gmail.com Hayley Clissold - Biochemistry biochem.invivo@gmail.com Rebecca Crosby - Biomedical Science biomed.invivo@gmail.com Beth Francis - Environmental and Biological Sciences env.bio.invivo@gmail.com Sam Rollins - Microbiology and Virology viromicro.invivo@gmail.com John George - Assistant Editor

This magazine is available to read online at: www.warwick.ac.uk/lifesci/intranet/guide/news/invivo

* The front cover image is accredited to Andrew MacIntyre

In Vivo Biomedical Sciences Conflict Between Modern Lifestyles and The These disorders have been shown to cause Natural Body Clock
By Katie Pantelli Third Year Biomedical Science
Our modern-day lifestyle may be affecting us in ways we have never thought of. By lengthening our day artificially with things like caffeine and electrical lighting, our way of life could disrupt normal physiological cycles in our bodies and cause serious health problems. In the human body many processes are regulated by our circadian clock, (bodys internal machinery which is matched to the relative movement of the sun over roughly 24 hours), including feeding, thirst, the synthesis and release of hormones, our sleep-wake cycles, blood pressure and core body temperature. This system is largely programmed by genetics and there is interindividual variation. Specific genes whose level of proteins rise and fall with regular rhythmicity, due to a transcriptional-translational feedback loop, regulate these circadian preferences. In mammals these are the period genes: PER1, PER2 and PER3, the CLOCK gene, and two cryptochrome genes. These circadian rhythms permit cellular, metabolic and developmental processes to take place at the right time, allowing us to adapt to and anticipate our external environment. However, we are disrupting this process every day; ignoring our bodys sleep signals to integrate ourselves into modern society. Late nights, excessive daytime sleepiness, disrupted sleep, social commitments, jet lag and even work, are a few things that could cause the beginning of a circadian rhythm disorder and seriously damage your health. various health problems in the population, including cardiovascular disease, depression, alcohol and substance abuse, obesity, and cancer. Sleep hygiene is part of a behavioural therapy that can be used to help control these disorders, however it is also important for us to implement the themes which underpin sleep hygiene, to prevent future health problems occurring. In order to have a good nights sleep, scientists suggest we adhere to the following rules: - Avoiding naps: except for a brief 10-15 minute nap after waking up. - Daily exercise: to take place around six hours before bedtime. - Take a hot bath: raise body temp 2C for 30minutes within two hours before sleeping. - Keep a regular time out of bed, seven days a week. - No bright light at night. - Exposure to at least 30 minutes of sunlight each day. - No tobacco or drugs. - A limit to your caffeine use. (No coffee later than 10.00 am) - Restriction on your alcoholic beverage consumption. - An effort to minimise arousals in sleep setting. - Avoidance of strenuous exercise after 6pm. - Do not eat or drink heavily at least three hours before bedtime. - Use the bed for sleep only, not for work or other activities that lead to prolonged arousal. These guidelines may seem simple, but they can easily be overlooked and forgotten about. Even doing a few of these things every day will help in improving our sleep and more importantly our health.

In Vivo Biomedical Sciences 97% of GPs Prescribe Placebos

undoubtedly undermines their credibility. And judging by some of the comments on the BBC Health article the general public are concerned. Eddiegb commented: Of A recent study undertaken by the University course lying to someone might make them of Oxford and the University of Southampton feel better, but when it comes to health it (Howick et al, 2013) revealed the majority is much more important we can trust the of British doctors have prescribed placebo medical profession as a whole to be telling treatment to patients, the use of which is us the truth. By prescribing a a controversial topic, posing placebo you only undermine an interesting ethical 77% of the this trust. Oxford research dilemma. Research shows 783 GPs surveyed fellow Dr Jeremy Howick, one that misleading patients can help them get better, frequently prescribe of the studys leaders, was whilst preventing exposure placebos that are quick to defend the results of the study: This is not about to physical side effects of unimpure doctors deceiving patients. necessary drugs (Niemi, 2009; The study shows placebo use Sherman & Hickner, 2008). is widespread in the UK, and doctors clearly However, it is a phenomenon that is not believe placebos can help patients. completely understood and as such, should it be used so frequently by GPs? What affects placebo success? The survey involved a random sample of Quantity (4 pills are more successful than 2 783 doctors who completed a survey online, in clearing gastric ulcers, for example) the results of which found that 97% of GPs prescribe placebos; with 77% admitting they Colour (green/blue: sedating; red/orange: prescribe placebos at least once a week. alerting) Most of the GPs surveyed said they gave placebos because patients had requested Administration (injection more effective treatment, to reassure patients, or to produce than oral pill) a psychological effect.

By Charlotte Leigh Second Year Biomedical Science

The most worrying data to come from this survey is that 77% of the 783 GPs surveyed frequently prescribe placebos that are impure - including antibiotics for viral infections. Prescribing pure placebos (with no active ingredients) is one problem but with the growing, and very real, problem of antibiotic resistance, this practice seems counter-productive (Kumar et al, 2003). More than 90% agreed that placebos were not acceptable if they endangered doctorpatient trust. Nevertheless, this survey is at risk of shedding doubt over GPs as paternalistic lying, even in the interest of health,

Healing environment with confident, happy doctors Do placebos really work? There are two distinct types of placebos, pure and impure. Pure placebos are truly inert, they contain no medicinal ingredients. These are sugar pills, saline injections, and most homeopathic remedies. Impure placebos, on the other hand, contain medicinal ingredients, but are ineffective for the condition being treated. This could be because of a sub-therapeutic dose, or the active ingredient has no effectiveness

In Vivo Biomedical Sciences

against the condition being treated - for instance, the use of antibiotics to treat a virus, off-label uses of medications, or probiotics for diarrhoea. Impure placebos are used far more frequently than pure placebos, which is understandable because prescribing antibiotics for what is likely (but not unequivocally) a viral infection, is more justifiable than the deliberate use of sugar pills with no active ingredients. Experimentation has proven that when a patient with a health condition expects their symptoms to improve, they often do (Brown 1998; Foddy, 2009). Interestingly, the placebo can affect everyone, whether we know about the placebo effect or not illustrating the amazing power of the mind over the body. However, there is still debate over the efficacy of placebos; in their 2010 paper Hrbjartsson and Gtzsche concluded that in general, placebo treatments produced no major health benets. Although they did concede that on average they had a modest effect on outcomes reported by patients, such as pain. Therefore some GPs might argue that if the aim of a specific treatment is to alleviate pain, then why not use a placebo? The approach is backed by Ben Goldacre who believes there is a lot to be learnt from placebo effect research: by taking methods or drugs that are already proven effective and making them even more efficient by implementing some placebo methods such as quantity, colour, administration and a healing environment. This practice is supported by the The Royal College of GPs, who stand by placebo use, stating there is a place for placebos in medicine. Dr Clare Gerada, chairwoman of the Royal College of GPs, said it was perfectly acceptable to use a placebo as long as it did not cause harm and was not expensive: Lots of doctors use them and they can help peoplebut there are risks. Not all of the placebo treatments that the researchers

>>Image credited to Psyberartist

investigated in this study are inert. If you take too many vitamins, for example, some can cause harm (BBC, 21-Mar-13). In light of this study the General Medical Councils ethical codes have been called into question, with Dr Howick calling for reform: Current ethical rulings on placebos ought to be revisited in light of the strong evidence suggesting that doctors broadly support their use. This is an area that requires extensive research, and will probably involve a lot more research in the lab, and debate outside of it, with the backing of the General Medical Council to ensure that when placebos are used they are done so responsibly. Placebo use is clearly common in primary care but questions remain about their benefits, harms, costs, and whether they can be delivered ethically.

In Vivo Biochemistry DNA, the New DVD?

By Afsaneh Khetrapal First Year Biomedical Science To date, a teacup has only been used to contain our morning brew and, with it, the pale promise of a productive day. Now, researchers have estimated that at least 100 million hours of high-definition video can fit into the same teacup, holding DNA instead of the ritualistic beverage. It might not quench ones thirst, but thanks to DNA data storage, it will be possible to literally hold all those episodes of Sherlock and Downton Abbey you treasure in the palm of your hand. a density more than six orders of magnitude higher than that of a computer hard disk. The recent research by the EBI has surpassed the work of Kosuri and Church and raised the storage density to an overwhelming 2.2 petabytes per gram i.e. three times the previous effort. How did they do it? A sequencing machine was used to polymerise the nucleic acid components of DNA; adenosine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G). It was first supposed that the bases could be used in a binary code format, in which there is numeric representation of text and computer processor instructions by digits made of ones and zeros. However, this would necessitate a lot of base repetitions, which will lead to high error rates when the sequence is replicated or later decoded. To eradicate this problem, the digital realm of ternary was used (in which the nucleotide

The storage density of DNA is currently 2.2 petabytes per gram.

The hope that DNA could realistically have more than a biological standing in the world only arose on Wednesday the 23rd of January 2013, when a team of researchers, from the UK-based European Bioinformatics Institute (EBI)-, published a remarkable set of experiments in the journal Nature. These findings described the process by which all 154 of Shakespeares sonnets, a digital photo of their lab, a PDF of the 1953 Watson & Crick Structure of DNA study, and a 26-second sound clip from Martin Luther King Jr.s I Have a Dream speech were stored in manufactured DNA. All of these iconic elements were encoded in DNA and later sequenced by a computer to reconstruct the written, audio, and visual information. This is not the first advancement of its kind, as last year, bioengineers Sriram Kosuri and George Church of Harvard Medical School successfully stored a copy of Churchs book; Regenesis, 11 images, and a computer program in DNA. This was accomplished with

>> We can encode data using bases of DNA, instead of numbers. Picture accredited to Pixels Of Green.

In Vivo Biochemistry
bases are assigned numerals 0, 1, or 2). To further reduce the likelihood of errors, every stretch of DNA was repeated four times (twice of which were in reverse to be extra sure). Like a library, the data was then organised according to an index system so that different entries could be looked up. Unlike a library book, in which one might find Thou art more lovely and more temperate... amongst one of Shakespeares mellifluent sonnets, the DNA media would begin with TAGAT, GTGTA, CAGAC. The final step was then to use a computer for the reversion of the nucleotide sequences into comprehensible English. The Advantages Life-span & Durability: The current archiving medium used is magnetic tape. The tape lasts a few decades, but once this time has passed they are subject to degradation as they become brittle and lose their coating. DNA, on the other hand, remains readable and functional for thousands of years, providing it is kept in cool, dark conditions. Even subjection to electromagnetic fields has no effect on this resilient medium. Capacity: Magnetic tape has been used for less than one hundred years and has proved superior to disks and other storage media, with an impressive capacity of 5 Terabytes. However, these reeled-hardware systems still fall short in comparison to the 3 zettabytes that DNA can store. The Disadvantages Speed: The rate at which DNA data can be read back is relatively slow compared to magnetic tape. In fact, it took the EPI researchers two weeks to reconstruct their five translated files. They claim that better equipment could have the task done within only 24 hours, and beyond that, the process can be sped up by the addition of more sequencing machines. Cost: Magnetic tape is currently the most cost-effective of storage media and the DNA-alternative is not expected to be on the market anytime soon. The estimated cost of the DNA synthesis required comes to approximately $12,400 per megabyte of data stored. Until this dovetails to an affordable price (which we are told to expect within the next decade) magnetic tape will continue to support our archives. DNA has endured for billions of years and we stand testament to its vital presence in our existence. Now, as it extends across the threshold of technological territory, one wonders whether there is an end to the marvels that this molecule can bring.

The Different Storage Capacities. Kilobyte (kB) = 10^3 Megabyte (MB) = 10^6 Gigabyte (GB) = 10^9 Terabyte (TB) = 10^12 Petabyte (PB) = 10^15 Exabyte (EB) = 10^18 Zettabyte (ZB) = 10^21 Yottabyte (YB) = 10^24

In Vivo Microbiology & Virology The Antibiotic Apocalypse

By Harindi Loku Waduge First Year Biomedical Science
Antibiotic resistance is developing at such a pace that we may soon face a future without cures for infection Professor Dame Sally Davies, Englands Chief Medical Officer, March 2013 same mode of action as previous ones, increasing the selection pressure for resistant strains of bacteria. Carbapenems, the most powerful class of antibiotics, have seen a shocking 657 cases of Enterobacteriaceae infections that were resistant to it. These threats have always been present but now it is even more prominent because the antibiotic pipeline is running dry.

Antibiotics, the wonder drugs of the 20th century, have improved our lives dramatically and yet unwittingly endangered us at the same time. The continual battle between humans and microorganisms improved with Sir Alexander Flemings discovery of antibiotics. But even in 1945, he was able warn the public of imminent development of resistance of >>The clear areas indicate the antibiotic present in the central bacteria to antibiotics.

It is indeed the misuse of antibiotics that is causing this crisis; the unnecessary prescription of antibiotics for common coughs and colds (viruses) and patients not completing their perscribed antibiotic courses can allow the selection for antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria. What is paper disks could kills the even more worrying, is that this resistance can transfer between The time may come when surrounding bacteria. Image credited to Nathan Reading. different strains and it is penicillin can be bought by predicted that within the next anyone in the shops. There is decade modern advances the danger that the ignorant in medicine such as surgery, man may easily under-dose chemotherapy and organ himself and by exposing transplants will become lethal, his microbes to non-lethal as opposed to life-saving, quantities of the drug, due to our increasing inability making them resistant. to fight infection. If we carry Sir Alexander Fleming, 1945 on this way we risk relapsing Nobel Prize lecture into a health system of the >> Dedoxil is a typical amoxycillin19th Century. Patients will die As predicted the excitement based antibiotic. Image accredited of simple surgeries such as hip over the discovery of antibiotics to rbrwr replacements. However, this is was cut short when increased not the only reason that antibiotic resistance use of antibiotics showed various forms of has developed. resistance increasing in complexity with time. The resolve to out-wit bacteria with the Just 1 gram of soil contains more bacteria discovery of new antibiotics is weakening. than the entire population of the Earth and There has been no discovery of a new class naturally they would all produce antibiotics in of drug since the 1980s but merely the order to compete for nutrients. The addition reiteration of pre-existing drugs. Therefore, of manmade antibiotics makes this the these semi-synthesised drugs contain the prefect breeding ground for resistant strains.

In Vivo Microbiology & Virology

Between 2006 and 2011, up to 400 tonnes of antibiotics were used each year in the UK livestock production industry to enhance animal growth and an estimated 70 million tonnes of animal manure, that contained residues of antibiotics, was spread onto agricultural land. Although this was banned, the phrase too little, too late comes to mind as it has already started the vicious cycle. The resistant strains enter our food chain when we consume the contaminated crops, and the bacteria are then able to evolve by mixing with natural microbial flora in our gut. These resistant bacteria will reach our sewerage system and eventually the agricultural land, where the cycle begins again. How do antibiotics work? There are four major mechanisms by which antibiotics deter bacterial growth; interference with cell wall synthesis, inhibition of protein synthesis, interference with nucleic acid synthesis and finally inhibition of metabolic pathways. Bacteria rely on these processes for growth and survival, which will both be affected by the antibiotics. Table 1 shows the different classes of antibiotics with their respective mechanisms of action. Unfortunately, bacteria will start to become resistant to these attacks. Antibiotic resistance is the process by which a microorganism becomes unresponsive to a previously sensitive antibiotic. There are several mechanisms by which this can happen. For example, bacteria can develop efflux pumps which pumps the antibiotic out of the bacterium before it reached its target. The bacteria may also acquire genes that encode enzymes, such as beta-lactamases, which would destroy the bacteria before it can have any effect at all. And lastly, bacteria may acquire genes that change the metabolic pathways, which would eventually lead to bacterial cell walls that no longer contain the binding site for the antibiotic. Solutions The main reason that new antibiotics are not being discovered is because the discovery of a new antibiotic is not deemed profitable by the pharmaceutical industry. This is because antibiotics have a short life span in the market due to quick developing resistance. To overcome this financial hurdle, pharmaceutical companies need to be encouraged to develop new drugs by means of government funding for clinical trials. It has become increasingly clear that concentrating our efforts in just one area will show no significant improvement in combating antibiotic resistance. Instead we must work internationally across many disciplines as this looming global crisis becomes more threatening.

In Vivo Microbiology & Virology The Disastrous Impact of the MMR Scandal
An otherwise healthy 25 year old male recently died not necessarily uncommon Measles is a highly infectious viral illness. It globally, but he was the first suspected victim can be very dangerous and leads to serious in the UK from Measles for over a decade. complications, including a systemic rash, Is this because of Dr Andrew Wakefields fatigue, blindness and even death. publication in the Lancet 1998, Fortunately, it is relatively rare in In 2011 claiming that there was a strong the UK, due to the effectiveness and 2012 there association between autism and of the MMR vaccine, but because the MMR vaccine? In 2002, there of this accomplishment, measles were more than was a 28% drop nationally in MMR is often perceived as a mild, 2,450 cases. vaccinations uptake, with some childhood disease. areas dropping to just 50%, as parents decided not to immunise Measles can be very severe, especially in their children for fear of the suggested risks. those that are immunocompromised or the Measles is such an infectious disease that extremely young. Before the vaccination around 94% of the population must be immune programme periodic spikes in the UK were to stop it spreading, so as the unvaccinated common, with general rises towards the end cohorts of children accumulated, new cases of the year, correlating with the winter months started to emerge. that require individuals to spend a lot of time indoors, in close contact with others. Even though Dr Wakefield was removed from his position of authority in the General Medical Council, many children remained susceptible leading to the recent outbreaks since in Wales, totalling 1,191 cases so far (11th June), proving what a disastrous impact he has had. Pleas to vaccinate the local children continue, supported by pop-up vaccination centres, as parents rushed to protect their children. There is no specific treatment for measles. Once the rash starts, the only advice is to rest and solely treat the symptoms until the natural immune system clears the viral infection. So for now, prevention is definitely better than the cure.

By Rebecca Crosby Second Year Biomedical Science

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In Vivo Biological & Environmental Sciences Plants Attract Ants that Deter Less Effective amount of pollen, the Xylocopa bees were Pollinators more likely to fertilize the flowers and the
Charlotte Bezzina Second Year Biological Sciences
Plants have long lived with ants in a tight mutualistic relationship where plants provide attractants such as a nest or food, and in return the ants ward off any herbivorous predators that could reduce plant fecundity. Whilst the presence of the ants provides protection from pests, they are not specific in what insects they deter and therefore many important visitors, such as pollinators, can also be warned off, dramatically decreasing a plants chance of survival. However, a recent study has put forward the idea that some species of plant attract ants that act as deterrents to less effective pollinators, therefore overcoming this important trade-off. Weaver Ants

smaller Nomia bees were chased away by the ants. Therefore, because ant colonized plants were more likely to receive visits from the more effective pollinators, despite the production of a similar numbers of flowers for both types of plant, fruit set and per-fruit seed set was higher at plants with weaver nests. Ant-attractants If ants are critical for the increased fecundity of M. malabathricum, how is it that they are attracted to the flowers? A simple experiment designed by the scientists using a petri-dish, a withering flower, a new flower and some leaves a twigs showed that ants chose new flowers preferentially over their older counterparts, yet were indifferent when it came to leaves and twigs. In this way, it is thought that the new flowers produced an as yet unidentified cue to the ants to patrol in these areas.

Researchers carried out a number of experiments on the interaction of weaver ants; aggressive generalist predators >>Weaver ants on M. Interspecific Competition that patrol at the base of trees malabathricum. and shrubs, and the pollen-less The preference for the Nomia tropical shrub, Melastoma malabathricum bees for plants without the presence of their (Flowers attract weaver ants that deter less ant guards can be reasoned as a simple effective pollinators, Journal of Ecology anti-predator response, but how can the 2013, DOI: 10.1111/1365-2745.12006). 25 M. preference of Xylocopa for ant colonized M. malabathricum plants with weaver ant nests malabathricum be explained? Occams razor and 25 without nests were selected, and suggests that Xylocopa are simply acting it was determined that ants did not select against interspecific competition put in their homes based on plant productivity. place by the preference of Nomia, therefore Due to the large gap between the anthers taking part in optimal foraging at plants and the stigma of M. malabathricum, only which were likely to be less pollen-depleted. large bees were successful pollinators and it was found that two bees, the large carpenter At present this is only the second plant bee, Xylocopa latipes, and the smaller species of 64 tested that produces an ant solitary bee, Nomia strigata, visited these attractant, and therefore shed lights onto plants most frequently. Furthermore, while the evolution of novel traits that occur in both species of bee extracted the same plants to increase their fecundity.

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In Vivo Biological & Environmental Sciences Myriad Patenting Feud: Should DNA be and be capable of being produced Patentable? someone with expertise in the field.
Caroline Anderson Third Year Biological Sciences
by

Conversely, patents will not be granted if the invention is considered to be against public morality. Until now, as in the case of The debate surrounding the right of the the transgenic Oncomouse, courts have biotech company, Myriad, to hold patents weighed the perceived benefits of a claim for two key breast cancer susceptibility against any negative aspects. In 2004, the genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2, reached the European Patent Office concluded that the heights of the US Supreme Court last month. Oncomouse had the potential to make The revelation that DNA is substantial advances in cancer patentable came as a surprise Patents research, which outweighed to many, despite larger scale ethical concerns over suffering for isolated DNA cases involving companies caused to the transgenic sequences give such as Celera Genomics, animal. companies exclusive which date back to 1999.

rights to any diagnostic Similarly, it is undeniable Patents for isolated DNA tests involving the that the ingenuity involved sequences give companies in isolating DNA and genes.
exclusive rights to any diagnostic tests involving the genes. Opponents argue such monopoly rights would limit the options available to patients whilst biotechnology companies claim that patents are the only way to ensure the costs of research and development are recouped. Looking at the wider picture, the issue of patenting DNA unearths innumerable ethical questions, which are of particular relevance in this post-genomic era where data is being produced at rates higher than those at which it can be analysed.

The question of patenting DNA first arose in 1999 when Celera Genomics Group filed patent applications for over 6000 human genes. At the time the US courts concluded that, isolated DNA is a new chemical matter with important utilities which can only exist as the product of human ingenuity. Yet is there a difference between genes that have been isolated from the human body and those still found within it? To be deemed patentable, inventions must be entirely novel, include an inventive step not obvious to someone knowledgeable in the subject,

characterising the effects of mutations, such as those affecting the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, has already been beneficial to medicine. The development of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors as a targeted breast cancer therapy is a testament to this. PARP1 is critically involved in the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks, whilst the BRCA1 gene product mediates homologous recombination. BRCA1- deficient individuals have increased sensitivity to PARP1 inhibition due to the phenomenon of synthetic lethality (where loss of one gene is viable yet loss of both is lethal) which could remove the need for additional broad-spectrum chemotherapy, making these drugs particularly attractive. The reasoning behind patents has the best interests of scientific research at heart, aiming to encourage innovation by forcing publication and the disclosure of ideas. Patenting individual genes, however, has been seen as an affront to the collaborative ethos of the scientific community which was exemplified by the Human Genome Project. According to the main opponent in the

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In Vivo Biological & Environmental Sciences

Myriad case, the American Civil Liberties Union, genes cannot be patented under US laws given that they are products of nature. Furthermore, given that the majority of the human genome is freely available on internet databases, how will the use of patented sequence data be regulated? Beyond legal considerations, the Myriad patent battle raises a number of ethical issues. There are fears that if a company holds monopoly rights over the development of diagnostic tests to detect cancer-causing mutations in a patented gene then the costs of such tests could soar. This would render those patients who are unable to afford the tests ill-informed about the best treatment options available to them, whilst preventing competing companies from developing alternative and more effective tests. Similarly, patents covering individual genes could enable companies to dramatically increase the price of targeted therapies, further limiting patient access. A further issue raised by the patenting of isolated DNA sequences is the grey area over who should reap the financial rewards of the patent; the organisation that isolated and sequenced the DNA or the individual whose DNA was sequenced? This question has a number of precedents of which the Moore case is the most famous. John Moore developed a rare cancer, hairy-cell leukaemia, in 1976 for which he underwent a splenectomy at UCLA Medical Centre. Following his surgery Moores physician,

>> Location of BRCA1 on chromosome 17

Dr David Golde, requested that he provide a number of tissue samples. Unbeknown to Moore, Golde used these tissues to develop a medically important cell line capable of over-producing lymphokines. Patents were obtained and the cell line was commercialised with an estimated value of $3 billion. When Moore found out about the exploitation of his cells he sued Golde, UCLA and the private companies involved yet was not awarded full compensation because he did not have a claim of ownership over the cell line. One solution to these problems is to revise the current patent system, which many consider out-dated in the age of modern genetics. Luigi Palombi, a legal expert, proposes the development of a genetic sequence right, which would provide the discoverer a certain amount of IP protection without affording them a monopoly hold on the market. A key factor raised by this case is that scientific practices should be constantly questioned in a transparent and accessible manner to ensure that the best interests of the global community as a whole are upheld.

>>Structure of BRCA1 protein

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