Kurdistan Iraqi Region

Ministry of Higher Education

Sulaimani University
College of Science
Physics Department

Electronic Lab.
Experimentals
Prepared by
Dr. Dlear Rafic Saber
Dr. Omed Ghareb Abdullah

2007 – 2008
 Exp. (1)
Characteristics of Ordinary Crystal Diode

Theory:
The term of diode refer to an electronic device having two external
electrodes to which electrical connections may be made. Such an
arrangement is called a P-N junction diode. It includes the boundary or P-N
junction and some of N-type and of P-type semiconductor material on each
side of the boundary.
If a voltage is applied to the diode as shown in figure (1), holes in P-
region move across the junction into N-region and electron in N-region
move across the junction into P-region. External voltage that applied to the
diode with the polarity positive side to side and, negative to N-side is called
forward biasing. Forward biasing reduces the strength of barrier potential.
The result is a current (flow of both electrons and holes). That is mach
greater than that the resistance of the germanium (pure semiconductor) alone
would allow.
When the positive terminal of applied voltage is connected to N-side
and negative terminal to the P-side the diode is said to be reverse biased.
The barrier region contains no free carriers and it has higher resistance
than remainder of crystal on either side of the barrier. In fact, the P- and N-
regions have such comparatively low resistance that they act much like
metal contacts between the external connecting leads and barrier at the
common boundary. The external voltage source attracts electrons and holes
away from the junction. This result increases the potential charge carriers
must overcome in traversing the P-N junction.
+ -

++++++ ------
P ++++++ - - - - - - N
++++++ ------
++++++ ------
++++++ ------ Fig.(1): Forward biased P-N junction.
R + -

Vf
Barrier
+ Region -
+ + + + + +- +- -----
P + + + + + +- +- ----- N
+ + + + + +- +- -----
+ + + + + +- +- -----
+ + + + + +- +- ----- Fig.(2): Reverse biased P-N junction.
Negative ions Positive ions
- +

Vr
 Procedure:

Forward:
1- Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. (3).
2- Fix the voltage V f = 0 volt, using the potentiometer ( P1 ).
3- Increase the voltage in step (0.1 in each step) and note the current ( I f )
and record it for each step.
4- Draw a graph of ( I f ) against V f .
5- Determine threshold voltage Vt at which current starts through diode.
6- Calculate dynamic resistance r = ∆V ∆I at two different voltage values.
mA IN4007
+15 V 220 Ω

2 KΩ
P1 Vf

Fig.(3)

Reverse:
1- Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. (4).
2- Fix the voltage Vr = 0 volt, using the potentiometer ( P1 ).
3- Increase reverse voltage Vr in step (0.2 in each step) and record current
( I r ) for each step.
4- Draw a graph of ( I r ) against Vr .

IN4007 µA

0 150V Vr

Fig.(4)

Discussion:
1- Why the forward current is very small in the beginning, and increases so
fast when the voltage reaches to a certain value?
2- In forward state the voltage reaches to a fixed value explain why? Does
this value of voltage is same for all type of semiconductor diode?
3- Does the current flow in reveres state? Why? Explain the advantage and
disadvantage of this phenomenon?
 Exp. (2)
Characteristics of Zener Diode

Theory:
The P-N junction diode normally dose not conduct when a revers
biased is applied. If the revered biased voltage is increased up to particular
voltage it starts to conduct heavily. This voltage is called breakdown
voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage it. To
avoid high current, we connect a resister in series with the diode in the
circuit. This resistance is extremely important and its value is quite critical.
Reverse voltage breakdown must be taken into account in practical
application of diode.
One type of breakdown process that can supply carriers to support
conduction when the voltage across the junction is large, called the Zener
effect. It arises when the barrier potential becomes so large that electrons
may be ripped from covalent in the barrier region. Thus, electron-hole pairs
are created in the ion layers at the junction. The hole moves quickly into the
P-region under the influence of the electric field in the barrier region and
electron is swept into the N-region. These moving charges constitute an
increase in reverse current in the junction. When the electric field is strong
enough to break a single covalent bond, it is sufficiently strong to break
many, once the Zener effect has started.
The Zener effect occurs when the diode is heavily doped and the
breakdown occurs at a low voltage about 10 volts or so. When the
breakdown occurs in lightly doped crystals or at high voltages, the
mechanism is something other than the Zener effect. Operation in the
breakdown region does no damage to the diode, provided the current is
limited to the value set by the manufacturer.

Procedure:

1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig. (1), fix the potentiometer ( P1 ) at

maximum right side.

mA
+15 V 100 Ω

ZF4.7 V
2 KΩ
P1

Fig.(1)
2- Increase slowly the supply voltage using ( P1 ), and record the voltage and
current, (Note that these values are negative). Once breakdown occurs V
remain constant even though I increases.
3- Tabulate your data in table.
4- Replace the Zener diode ZF4.7 with ZF6.2, and then repeat steps (1-3).
5- Draw graphs for both cases between ( I ) and ( V ) as I = f (V ) , on the
same paper.
6- Calculate the Dynamic resistance in the following current ranges,
( 5 ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯→ 20 mA ) and, ( 20 ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯→ 25 mA ).
The students can use any ranges of current for determining the Dynamic
resistance.

Discussion:

1- What do you understand from the graphs?

2- What is we meaning by the Dynamic resistance?
3- As we know that the Zener diode is used for voltage rectification, what is
the basic factor which controls the rectification process from your
results?

Table (1):
V (volt)

I (mA)
 Exp. (3)
Half Wave Rectification and Filtration

Theory:
The characteristic of an ideal diode shows that it carries forward
current, its voltage drop is zero regardless of how large the current may
become. Thus an ideal diode behaves as a short circuit to current in the
forward direction. However, it behaves as an open circuit when the voltage
drop across the diode is negative. No reverse current passes through the
diode regardless of the magnitude of the reverse voltage.
When an alternating voltage Fig.(1A) is applied to a crystal diode
connected in series with a resistor, the diode acts as a half-wave rectifier by
current flow only the positive half of each alternating voltage cycle. During
the negative half of each cycle the diode act in reverse region and the current
can not pass through the diode. Thus only the positive half wave of the input
wave is rectified as shown in Fig.(1B), so these circuits are used to converts
an AC voltage in to DC voltage.
Volts
Volts

Time Time

1 Cycle 1 Cycle

Fig.(1A): Input Voltage Fig(1B): Output (Rectification)

Volts

Time

1 Cycle

Fig(1C): Output (Rectification & Filtering)

Procedure:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(2). In the beginning replace the
resistor RL and capacitor C from circuits.
 IN4007

+
Vrms=10 V C R VDC CRO

Fig.(2)

2- Use the first channel (CH1) of the oscilloscope to obtain the input
voltage, and draw it.
3- Draw the output voltage as a function of time, on graph papers, and
record V pp , and V DC .
(Note: to measure the peak to peak voltage V pp of input voltage, put the
channel of the oscilloscope on AC, and select the suitable scale for
measuring, while in the case of output voltage put the channel of the
oscilloscope on DC).
4- Connect RL and C with the following values, and repeat step (3).

R L (Ω ) C ( µF ) VDC (volt ) V pp (volt )

100 10

1000 10

100 100

1000 100
5- Calculate ripple r factor for all previous cases.
1 1
r=
2 3 fCR L
Discussion:
1- Discuss briefly the role of diode, RL , and C in the circuit.
2- Find the efficient of the circuit.
3- How can you estimate the value of V DC from figure (without using
voltmeters)?
 Exp. (4)
Full Wave Rectification and Filtration

Theory:
The circuit in Fig.(1) is called full wave rectification circuits because it
utilizes the full wave of input voltages to supply to the load. Each diode is
forward biased on an alternate half cycle of the input voltage, and each
conducts current through the load in the same direction. Thus the full wave
of input voltage is rectified and produces two half sine waves of load
voltages and current for each cycle of input sine wave.

Volts
Volts

Time Time

1 Cycle 1 Cycle

Fig.(1A): Input Voltage Fig(1B): Output (Rectification)

Volts

Time

1 Cycle

Fig(1C): Output (Rectification & Filtering)

Procedure:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(2). In the beginning replace the
resistor RL and capacitor C from circuits.
 IN4007
12 V

Vin (1)
+
6V C R VDC CRO

Vin (2)
IN4007
0V
Fig.(2)

2- Use the first channel (CH1) of the oscilloscope to obtain the input
voltage, and draw it.
3- Draw the output voltage as a function of time, on graph papers, and
record V pp , and V DC .
(Note: use oscilloscope to measure the peak to peak voltage V pp , and
voltmeter to measure V DC ).
4- Connect RL and C with the following values, and repeat step (3).

R L (Ω ) C ( µF ) VDC (volt ) V pp (volt )

100 10

1000 10

100 100

1000 100

Discussion:
1- Discuss briefly the role of two diodes, RL , and C in the circuit.
2- Compare the results of this experiment with previous experiment (Half
Wave Rectification and Filtration), in terms V pp , V DC , and the frequency
of output value.
3- Find the ripple factor.
4- Calculate the efficiency of the circuit.
 Exp. (5)
Full Wave Rectification and Filtration by using Bridge
Rectification

Theory:
Four diodes may be connected in bridge circuit as shown in Fig.(1).
This type is widely used because it does not require center tap, although it
produce full wave rectification.

Procedure:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(1). In the beginning remove the
resistor RL and capacitor C from circuits.

D4 D1

6 Vrms
D2 D3

+
C R VDC CRO

Fig.(1)

2- Use the first channel (CH1) of the oscilloscope to obtain the input
voltage, and draw it.
3- Draw the output voltage as a function of time, on graph papers, and
record V pp , and V DC .
(Note: use oscilloscope to measure the peak to peak voltage V pp , and
voltmeter to measure V DC ).
4- Connect RL and C with the following values, and repeat step (3).
 R L (Ω ) C ( µF ) VDC (volt ) V pp (volt )

100 10

1000 10

100 100

1000 100

Discussion:
1- Discuss briefly the role of two diodes D1 and D2 during the first half of
the wave, and role of two diodes D3 and D4 during the second half of
the wave.
2- Compare between the most important differences of this experiment and
the previous experiment (Full Wave Rectification and Filtration), in
terms V pp , V DC , and the frequency of output value. (Note that the Vrms is
the same in both experiments).
3- Explain, the bridge rectifier is better than the full wave rectification using
two diodes.
 Exp. (6)
Diode as a Voltage Limiter (Clipper)

Theory:
The diode is a useful circuit element in applications requiring voltage
levels to remain with prescribed amplitude levels. A circuit which uses a
diode as a voltage limiter is illustrated in Fig.(1). This circuit is designed to
prevent the output voltage from exceeding the value of the DC source
voltage marked E . The circuit operation is easy to understand, when the
diode is reverse biased by external source no current can pass through the
diode and the output voltage will follow any variation of the external source.
However, when this value reaches the amplitude of E1 + V f , the diode will
be forward biased. Current can then pass through the diode, and the output
voltage will be equal to E1 + V f during periods of forward biasing. If the
internal voltage drop of the diode is very small compared to the DC source,
then the output voltage will be practically limited to the value of E1 as
required.
It is sometime necessary to limit voltage variations in both positive and
negative ranges about some zero reference voltage. The additional circuitry
and wave form of the output voltage are shown in Figs.(2-3). The diode
limiter might be used to alter the wave form of a sinusoidal as the input
voltage. If E1 and E2 are chosen equal magnitude and much smaller than
the input amplitude, then the output will be very nearly a square wave of
voltage.

Procedure:

PART 1: Clipping the positive part of the sine wave:

1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(1).
2- Let Vin = 10 V pp and plot it on a graph paper. Use the same signal for all
other parts.
3- Take E = 2 volt , then plot the output voltage.
220 Ω

IN4007
10 Vpp CRO Fig.(1)

E=2V
PART 2: Clipping the negative part of the input wave:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(2).
2- Repeat the step (3) in the first part.
220 Ω

IN4007
10 Vpp CRO Fig.(2)
E=2V

PART 3: Clipping the negative and positive parts of the input wave:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(3).
2- Plot output voltage for; E1 = E2 = 3volt , and E1 = E 2 = 0

220 Ω

D1 D2
10 Vpp CRO Fig.(3)

E=2V E=2V

Discussion:
1- Discuss and analyze all circuits operation in Figs.(4-8).
2- Estimate the output voltage in first and second cases, when E = 0 .
3- What is the signification of the clipping circuits?
 Exp. (7)
Diode as a Voltage Clamper

Theory:
In many electronics applications, it is necessary or desirable to
eliminate either all positive or all negative amplitudes of input voltage wave
form. The circuit which can perform this alteration of input wave form is
called a clamper circuit. The clamping circuit can be define as that circuit
which clamps the out voltage at a fixed level or to restore DC component,
which is not present in the input signal.
The output voltage in clamping circuit is similar in shape and
magnitude with the input voltage, but there is a difference in the positive
peak or the negative peak level.
The diode voltage limiter can be extended to this application, simply by
making E1 equal to zero; the positive output voltage will be limited to
internal voltage drop of the diode. The negative voltage will be clamped by
D1 and E1 at the output terminal. If the other voltage in the circuit are very
large compared to the internal diode drop, which is usually than 1 volt , then
it can be said that the output voltage is clamped at zero volts. The diode
limiter might also be said to be a clamper, where its output is clamped to
positive E1 and negative E2 . For these applications sometimes employ the
terms voltage limitation and voltage clamper synonymously.

Procedure:

PART 1:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(1).
2- Chose input voltage Vin = 7 sin(wt ) ; use the same signal for all other parts.
3- Draw the input and output voltage.
2µF
+

Fig.(1)
6 Vrms IN4007 CRO
PART 2:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(2).
2- Draw the output voltage.
2µF
+

Fig.(2)
6 Vrms IN4007 CRO

PART 3:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(3).
3- Put E = 3 volt .
2- Draw the output voltage.
2µF
+

IN4007
Fig.(3)
6 Vrms CRO
E=2V

PART 4:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(4).
3- Put E = 3 volt .
2- Draw the output voltage.
2µF
+

IN4007
6 Vrms CRO Fig.(4)
E=3V

Discussion:
1- Discuss the work of the circuit in part one, then compare it with part two.
2- Compare the state in part one, with part three.
3- What is the advantage of clamping circuits?
 Exp. (8)
Half Wave Voltage Doublers

Theory:
For some application we need the DC voltage more than the maximum
input voltage; In the previous cases we get the output DC voltage less or
equal to the maximum input voltage. For the cases when the load current
very less, we can use the doubling voltage circuit to get DC voltage whose
value is double of the input peak voltage.
The circuit for the half wave voltage doubling is shown in Fig.(1). On
the negative half cycles C 2 charges through D2 . On positive half cycles the
input current is flows through D1 because D2 will be in reverse bias. The
capacitances are usually equal C1 = C2 .
The DC voltage across RL nearly double the peak value of input
voltage for large value of RL . The resistance RL should be at least ten times
the sum of the source resistance and internal resistance of diode.

C2 D1
+
10µF
+
6 Vrms Vin D2 C1 10µF RL Vout
CRO

Voltage Clamper Voltage Rectifier & Filterer

Fig.(1)

Procedure:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(1).
2- Draw the input AC voltage, and measure its V pp .
3- Put RL equals the following values ( 100Ω , 220Ω , 470Ω , 680Ω , 1KΩ ,
4.7 KΩ , 10KΩ , and 100KΩ ) for each value of RL record and draw the
output DC voltage.
4- Draw a graph between ( VDC output ) as a function of ( RL ).
5- Replace C 2 by 100µF , then repeat the steps (3-4).

Discussion:
1- What is the role of C1 , C 2 , and RL in the circuit.
2- Discuss the effect of RL in the circuit.
 Exp. (9)
Full Wave Voltage Doublers

Theory:
The maximum output voltage of full wave rectifier is 0.636 times the
maximum instantaneous of the AC input voltage. It is possible to double the
output of full wave rectifier by employing capacitors in what is called a
voltage doublers circuits.

D1 VDC3 D2

10Vrms VDC1 VDC2

RL
+ +
10µF 10µF

Fig.(1)

Procedure:
1- Connect the circuits as shown in Fig.(1).
2- Remove the resistance in this step.
3- Measure VDC 1 , VDC 2 , and VDC 3 without the load.
4- Put RL equals the following values ( 100Ω , 220Ω , 470Ω , 1KΩ , 2.2 KΩ ,
and 10KΩ ), and measure VDC 3 in each steps.
4- Draw a graph between ( VDC 3 ) as a function of ( RL ).

Discussion:
1- What is the role of D1 , and D2 in the circuit.
2- Discuss the effect of RL in the circuit.
3- What is the relation between VDC 1 and VDC 2 , with VDC 3 .
4- Estimate the out put VDC in the following circuit:
C1 C3 C5
+ + +
2µF 2µF 2µF

D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
10 Vrms

+ + VDC
C2 2µF C4 2µF