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SHORTER ITEMS
WHAT DO WE NEED TO BE A GOOD TRANSLATOR? Wide cultural knowledge to understand the texts that we have to translate and know what we are talking about A vast knowledge of our maternal language We should know how to produce a coherent and cohesive text A wide and rich vocabulary will help to avoid repetition and redundancy WORDS AND CONTEXT: The fact of saying that a translator doesnt translate words but messages and ideas is a way of saying that, in fact, he translates words (the elements in the SL text), that are in some way influenced (linguistically, culturally, subjectively, etc.). Sometimes, a word can convey a whole large sentence in the translation (e.g. an extended metaphor or proverb, or just the word as it is. Other variations in translating can be the repetition of a word that is only referred to in the SL text, used for its linguistic or conceptual meaning, to convey a message beyond the sentence written, or vice versa (a word repeated in the SL text that is only referred to in the TL text). All of this means that every word is more or less context-bound in meaning (except for those which are 100% technical or unmarked with the lexical chain or deep meaning of the text). A common mistake is to ignore the context, and a not so uncommon mistake is to use the context as an excuse for an inaccurate translation. TRANSLATION OF DIALECTS: There are some cases of genres which are most of the time seen as an impossible field to go into for translators, such as poetry. This is of course, not true at all; although it is true that some characteristics are lost in the translation , the main features are usually retained as much as possible and the skilled translator tries to make up for the losses made. Another instance of difficulty is dialects.

When dialects are used metalingually (as an example of a specific dialect of a language) it has to be transferred, and only after that, translated into neutral language with an explanation about it. However, most of the time, when dialects appear in fiction or drama, which are not metalingually used, there is no reason to replace them for another ones. The translator has to bear in mind the function of the use of such dialect, which can be: To show a slang use of the language To stress social class contrast To indicate local cultural features

If the use of certain types of structures (like sayings and idioms) have declined in the TL text, one has to make up for them with current hints that show the function of the original structures in the dialect (e.g. use of informal phrasal verbs and newly coined nouns in English to make up the declined existence of dialects). USE OF THE COMPUTER: Nowadays computers have taken a main role in translation. There are a couple of steps to follow for every translator more or less when working with a computer. Important things to take into account: Usage of Word-Processors (WPs). Major employers of staff translators regard the ability to use WP as an essential qualification for translators. The existence of an economical, though not quality translation when using translation programs (machine translation, MT). The result is a clumsy, unnatural usage of the language (for internal use), which is better to master by the actual translator. Translation that is meant to be widely or formally publicized, which is less economical since it needs a careful translation made by a human.

An important difference between MT and human translation is that, the more restricted the language and the greater the proportion of standard or technical terms, the more likelihood there is of MT being acceptable. If the translator knows that MT is not very useful when translating seriously, it may be useful as pre-editing (rough version of the translation), or as a tool to help you find correspondences for difficult terms. FUNCTION AND DESCRIPTION: Function: The aims, the reasons and the general meaning or reference of a concept. Description: The characteristics of a substance in itself, the specific features and possible paradigmatic associations with other meanings. In translation, normally Function precedes Description (it is for most people more important to know what the House of Commons DO than what they are or what they consist of in a first place). Nevertheless, a purely functional transcription gives licences to an overuse of synonymy, paraphrase and grammatical variation, which ends up being inaccurate. Function is simpler, more concise than substance, and sometimes tempting, but the translator has to use on its own only as a last resort. A good and accurate translation includes both Function and Description. E.g.: SL: double-barrelled names. TL: nombres soberbios (only function) SL: double-barrelled names. TL: apellidos elegantes que consisten en dos palabras (both function and description). SL: His mother couldnt afford to send him to Eton. TL: Su madre no poda pagar para mandarlo a una de esas costosas escuelas privadas (function). SL: His mother couldnt afford to send him to Eton. TL: Su madre no poda pagar para enviarlo a Eton, una de las renombradas escuelas privadas

It is normally assumed that, for the TL reader, it is easier to understand the concepts if used function, but, in this case for example, double-barrelled and Eton are important cultural facts that the reader shouldnt be deprived of. TRANSLATION OF EPONYMS: Eponym: any word that is identical with or derived from a proper name which gives it a related sense (Shakespearean, coming from Shakespeare; Marxism, economic and political trend led by Marx, etc.). The main problem with eponyms derived from persons is whether the TL reader will understand the full meaning. For example, many regional or national people that are of a great influence within the nation have eponyms known by their people, but its use and transference into the TL text is likely to be misunderstood or not to be understood at all (Leavisite, to summarize literary principles and criticism within England, but not outside England.) In these cases, if the translator chooses to retain the original term, it needs the statement of its function, so that the reader can associate it with familiar terms and meanings. If not, a cultural adaptation could do. In other cases, such as with Judas for example, where terms are internationally and historically known and the eponym has a single connotative meaning, it is usually transferred. If the readership is unlikely to know the sense of the word, the writer can add footnotes, though its up to him to consider if it is worth giving so much importance to such term, depending on its cultural interest and its recurrence or permanence in the TL. When eponyms derive from objects, it is usually from brand names, which tend to monopolize such object nationally and internationally. If the brand name is not known in the TL, it needs a brief description so as to be understood. Secondly, one has to avoid subliminal publicity for manufacturers of products (Velcro, Scotch, Bic, etc.), translating them by a brief descriptive term or phrase rather than transferring them. The same happens with geographical eponyms, which have a metonymic use (Whitehall for the British Government, The Pentagon for the US military leadership), which, if

internationally known should be transferred and they should carry a short description with them otherwise. FAMILIAR ALTERNATIVE TERMS: They are words used to replace another term and they are called familiar because in order to understand them we have to be acquainted with the context in which they are used. We have to make clear that they are neither synonyms (the tendency in language to replace one word by another for the well-known reason of sense or word change) nor slang(the use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's language or dialect but are considered acceptable in certain social settings). Many names appear to be untranslatable into another language. In fact theres no translation problem. When a translator decides to use a familiar alternative term interchangeably, he has to make sure not to show the difference in meaning. They can be presented in many ways: Derived from proper names. Their meaning depends on the cultural context or the ideology of the reader. Eg: Kirchnerismo for some people this may be interchangeable with progreso or desarrollo, whereas for others the same term would mean corrupcin or populismo Synonymous couplets which are sometimes used as familiar alternatives with each other. We often prefer one to the other unconsciously simply because it sounds better in the word group or sentence. Eg: liberty and freedom. According to the context they may be used interchangeable, if we are translating an informal text we would never use libre albedro instead of libertad Nicknames are the most common and the best way to represent a familiar alternative term since they are only used by those who are familiar with the context. There are many contexts where the choice is a matter of taste. The translator has to bear in mind that most familiar alternative words have themselves alternative senses. WHEN AND HOW TO IMPROVE A TEXT?: The translator has no right to improve an authoritative text. You have to pursue the same style, making slight concessions for the

different stylistic norms of the target language, but assuming on the whole that the personality of the author is more important than any norms of language. In anonymous texts your first loyalty is to the truth or the facts of matter. LOGICAL SEQUENCE: This is a matter of orderly sequences: in time, in space and in argument. The translators purpose is to help the source language writer to get his message or information across without distorting it. Eg: -Es una valerosa congresal por Nueva York; tiene 48 aos, se cri de forma dura. X -Es una valerosa congresal por N.Y; tiene 48 aos, en su juventud debi afrontar muchas dificultades. METAPHORS: The basic question about metaphors in informative texts is when and whether one is permitted to convert sense to metaphor and vice versa. The translator has to translate the most obvious sense of the metaphor bearing in mind the context (because of ambiguity), if the two senses are important you have to make a note at the end of the text, explaining both. Eg: John is a snake in the grass -John is the name of a snake that is on the grass -John is a deceitful person who pretends to be a friend REDUNDANCY: The translator has to use restraint in excising redundant source language features, since if he goes too far, he is sometimes likely to find the whole text redundant. Eg: As for example: como/ por ejemplo SLIPS, MISPRINTS, ERRORS AND MISCOPYING: Where the translator is certain that the SL writer has made a referential, linguistic, grammatical or lexical

slip, he has the right to correct it, as well as the errors. This automatic and mandatory, and requires no acknowledgement. Eg: Helen are a girl Helen son una chica Helen es una chica JARGON: Jargon is the specific vocabulary used by certain fields. For example, there is medical jargon, legal jargon, internet jargon (BFF=Best Friend Forever), etc. We are able to reduce, delete or slim down jargon when we consider that the TL reader is not acquainted with this specific vocabulary. How far the translator can go in reducing the jargon depends on two factors: the degree of authoritativeness of the SL statement and the norms of the SL and TL. Eg: In the contemplated eventuality If so AMBIGUITY: Ambiguity is the property of having two or more distinct meanings or interpretations. A word or sentence is ambiguous if it can be interpreted in more than one way. According to Newmark, there are many forms of ambiguity: GRAMMATICAL: It is the ambiguity that some phrases and sentences exhibit when their (constituent) syntactic structure can be interpreted in more than one way. This is very common in English because it has fewer grammatical inflections. EG: We need more intelligent leaders. o Necesitamos lderes ms inteligentes o Necesitamos ms lderes inteligentes FUNCTIONAL WORDS Prepositions: have more than one meaning. ONThe picture is on the wall La pintura esta EN la pared.

The book is on the tableEl libro est SOBRE la mesa. Pronouns: It is difficult to identify the reference of pronouns Mary asked Janice if she could come into her room; she seemed to be more upset that she had ever seen her. LEXICAL: It is the ambiguity that some sentences exhibit when they contain words that can be interpreted in more than one way. Words with more than one meaning RUN Run a raceCORRER una carrera Run a businessDIRIGIR un negocio A run on the bankUn DEPSITO en el banco Metaphorical and Literal meaning The landscape smiled in the sunlight El paisaje resplandeca bajo la luz del sol The girl smiled innocentlyLa nia sonri inocentemente PRAGMATIC: According to Newmark it is more common in written than in spoken language due to the fact that arises when the tone or emphasis in the SL is not clear. For example, it is very difficult to express irony in a written work. Eg: L: Hi Penny! How was work? P: Great! I hope im a waitress at the Cheesecake Factory my whole life! CULTURAL: Cultural terms should not be ambiguous because they refer to a particular feature of a single culture. However, ambiguity arises when a word has a different meaning in the TL.

Eg: Argentina: Cajeta (manera ordinaria para denominar una parte del cuerpo) Mxico: Cajeta (dulce) IDIOLECTAL: Newmark defines Idiolect as the particular way in which each person speaks. This means, that most people use some words in a sense that is peculiar to them. Eg: My name is Jack; you know what im saying? Im 16; you know what im saying? The person who said this tends to add the phrase you know what Im saying, and this is a feature of his own idiolect. In Spanish a widely used word, typical of the idiolect of many people is tipo. This word is usually misused; therefore the translator must try to establish the sense in which the misused word is meant from the context, and translate it accordingly. COLLOCATIONS: According to Newmark, collocations consist of lexical items that enter mainly into high frequency grammatical structures. He maintains that if grammar is the bone structure of a text, collocations are the nerves, since, through the combinations of words, we achieve coherence and meaning TYPES OF COLLOCATIONS: 1) ADJ+NOUN: Economic situation Situacin econmica 2) VERB+NOUN: Pay a visit Hacer una visita 3) NOUN+NOUN: Nerve cell Clula Nerviosa. Notice that the last group of words (N+N) is normally translated as ADJ+NOUN.

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Eg: Government Securities Seguridades Gubernamentales. PARTITIVES: Partitives are used when we want to make reference to a single item of an uncountable noun. Once more, collocations play a major role, because depending on the uncountable noun we will use one collocation or the other. Eg: A bottle of milk Un sachet de leche Quiero UNA leche A bar of chocolate Una barra de chocolate Quiero UN chocolate Notice that in Spanish, the use of partitives is not so necessary, due to the fact that in colloquial situations, people tend to use the uncountable noun as countable. FIGURATIVE MEANINGS: It is important to bear in mind that many words only collocates with one type of words when the meaning is literally. However, if we take into account figurative meanings, the range of collocations is wider. Eg: Rancid butter/meat/smell Manteca/carne/olor rancia/o Rancid taste mal gusto PROPER NAMES PEOPLES NAMES: They are normally tranferred, thus preserving their nationality. Eg: Harry Potter; Hermione Granger; Eliza Doolittle (transferred) EXCEPTIONS o Names of Saints and Monarchs are translated Saint Thomas Santo Toms Henry VIII Enrique VIII

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o Names of Popes are translated Pope Francis Papa Francisco o Prominent figures of classical Greece, Rome and Renaissance are naturalized Sophocles Sfocles o Imaginative literature consisting of comedies, allegories, fairy tales, normally translated. Snow white Blancanieves NAMES OF OBJECTS: Names of objects as proper names consist of brands and trademarks. These are often transferred and coupled with a classifier if the brand is not likely to be known by the TL reader. Eg: Tipp-Ex corrector lquido, Tipp-Ex Tampax Tampones Tampax We are also advised to be careful not make an eponym of a product. If we choose to write corrector lquido, without using Tipp-ex, we should not use liquid paper because it is the brand of the product and not the generic name. GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES: Translators must respect a countrys wish to determine its own choice of names for its own geographical feature. In order to do this, translators must be acquainted with the latest terms. Eg: England Inglaterra Italy Italia Spain Espaa

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TRANSLATION OF PUNS: One makes a pun by using a word, or two words with the same sound (piece/peace), or a group of words with the same sound in their two possible senses, usually for the purpose of arousing amusement. Eg: Maid in Manhattan (made and maid) -Mucama en Manhattan -Hecho en Manhattan Here the translator has to choose which of the two meanings he wants to translate. MEASURES: Newspaper and Periodical Articles are normally converted from the British System to the International System Eg: 1mile1.6KM 1pound5oogr Specialized articles, professional magazines are transferred Eg: 1miles 1 milla 1pound 1 libra Fiction: unless the translator wants to retain local colour, he must make the conversion. Currency Eg:

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1 pound 1 libra WARNING!!! Billion= 10 one thousand million Billn=10 un milln de millones CONCLUSION: what we learnt through this chapter is that the translator has the right and is entitled to improve the text only if he believes that it would be easier for the TL reader to understand the message that the SL writer was trying to convey. However, the translator must be able to give reasons for its transference, direct or indirect translation or deletion. Moreover, we have to be especially careful with ambiguity since it may interfere with the proper interpretation of the original source.