Indus and Nile River Valley Civilizations Humanities river valley river project. by Leo Sabin on 30 November 0!

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0ranscript o( Indus and Nile River Valley Civilizations Nile and Indus Valley Civilizations +eo'rap,y-s In(luence on 1ot, Civilizations 2daptions to t,eir Natural 3nvironments Social and Cultural C,aracteristics 2dvancements Similarities Indus River Valley 2dvancements 4ni(ormed5sized bric)s /erpendicular streets 1uildin's cau',t t,e .ind creatin' natural air conditionin' 6r'anized an e((ective se.er system 7ade seals used as identi(ication on 'oods Nile River Valley 2dvancements Nile t,e Nile River (looded once a year t,e (loodin' started in 8uly and lasted until November made amazin' pyramids (loodin' 'ot rid o( .aste (loodin' .ould create ne. soil (ull o( nutrients Indus (looded t.ice a year made buildin's t,at provided natural air conditionin' ,iero'lyp,ics made 3"95day calendar created 'eometry Reli'ions Nile one o( t,e most important 'ods .as t,e sun 'od Ra Indus 0,e Indus practiced Hinduism and 1udd,ism. +overnment 6r'anization Nile 0,e /,arao, .as t,e ,i',est ran)ed person in t,e Nile River Civilization. His .,ole (amily .as ,i',ly t,ou',t o(. 6r'anization o( Society Indus mountains and t,e 2rabian Sea prevented disease and .ar Indus river enric,ed t,e soil and crops river .as an important source o( transportation Nile cra(tsmen created tools and en,anced t,e loo)s o( tombs most people in t,e Nile .ere (armers servants created t,e /yramids Indus t,e social class you .ere born in stayed t,at .ay 1ra,mins .ere ,i', status people suc, as t,e )in' and priests :s,atriyas .ere soldiers and aristocrats .,o .eren-t as ,i',ly reco'nized as 1ra,mins Vais,yas .ere (armers; cra(tsmen; and merc,ants t,e lo.est level citizens .ere S,udras .,o .ere

peasants and servants eac, villa'e ,ad a teac,er .,o tau',t youn' boys discipline Indus Raja,s ruled cities priests .ere ,i',ly reco'nized and reli'ion ,ad a lot to do .it, ,o. cities .ere run created irri'ation systems used river as transportation Nile plantin' crops .as so e((icient and easy t,at (armers .ould scatter seeds around a (ield and t,eir animals .ould pus, t,e seeds into t,e soil Nile used t,e Nile (or transportation and trade created basin irri'ation .,ic, led to t,e 'ro.t, o( lots o( crops and not a lot o( labor needed <i((erences 1ot, Civilizations... ,ad rivers ,ad irri'ation systems ,ad .ritten lan'ua'e ,ad rivers t,at (looded eac, year used t,eir rivers (or transportation and trade <i((erences in t,e Civilizations Include... t,e Indus (looded t.ice a year .,ile t,e Nile (looded once a year t,e Indus ,ad a lan'ua'e t,at .e still can-t understand .,ile t,e Nile River Civilization used ,iero'lyp,ics and most o( t,em are understood t,e Indus .as surrounded by mountains .,ile t,e Nile .as surrounded by desert Nile t,e Nile river Indus 2rabian Sea t,e Himalayas Indus river Hinduism is one o( t,e oldest reli'ions and is still around today. Hinduism 1iblio'rap,y believed in many 'ods ot,er important 'ods included 6siris; Isis; and Hapi t,e 3'yptians believed in t,e a(terli(e and t,at .,en you died you .ent to a better; peace(ul .orld Nile t,e 3'yptians believed t,at .,en a p,arao, .ent to t,e a(terli(e t,ey .ould protect 3'ypt to prevent decayin' o( t,e body; t,ey created embalmin' .,ere t,ey .ould do many procedures to reassure t,e bodies- sa(ety a(ter t,e many procedures; t,e body .ould be ready to be buried and 'o to t,e a(terli(e Ra t,e sun 'od Hinduism .as developed around !900 1.C.3. Hinduism In Hinduism; people believe in t,ousands o( 'ods includin' 1ra,man; Vis,nu; and Siva. 1ra,man is one o( t,e most important 'ods and is t,e creator o( t,e .orld. Hinduism Hindus believe t,at people )eep livin' over and over a'ain until t,ey reac, 1ra,man#t,e creator o( t,e .orld$ t,is is )no.n as reincarnation 1udd,ism 0,e actual 1udd,a .as a prince named Sidd,art,a +autama. 0,is prince .ent outside o( ,is palace one day and sa. t,at people .ere su((erin' severely. He .anted to )no. ,o. to stop t,eir pain but ,e couldn-t (i'ure it out. He le(t t,e castle (or 'ood in searc, o( an ans.er. He started (astin' and almost died (rom t,at. He t,en decided to meditate to see i( t,at ,elped. It is believed t,at ,e meditated (or &= strai',t days. >,en ,e .as done; ,e spent t,e rest o( ,is li(e in(ormin' ot,ers on .,at ,e ,ad (i'ured out. 1udd,ism 0,e 1udd,a believed t,at to understand .,at ,e (ound out; one ,ad to let 'o o( all o( t,e t,in's t,ey desired most. ?3arly India.? >abas,. N.p.; n.d. >eb. @,ttpABBmembers..abas,.netBCnort,clayBncj,sBteDtboo)sB8ourney2cross0imeB/<EBdocsBc ,ap0".pd(F. ?2ncient 3'ypt.? 2ncient 3'ypt. N.p.; n.d. >eb. Nov. 0! . @,ttpABBmembers..abas,.netBCnort,clayBncj,sBteDtboo)sB8ourney2cross0imeB/<EBdocsBc ,ap0 .pd(F. ?0,e River Valley Civilizations.? 0,e River Valley Civilizations. N.p.; 0!0. >eb. 0 Nov. 0! . @,ttpABB....rivervalleycivilizations.comBF. ?India 5 +overnment.? India 5 +overnment. >illiam /enn C,arter Sc,ool; n.d. >eb. 0 Nov. 0! . @,ttpABB....)idsne.sroom.or'BelmerBin(ocentralB(ramesetBcivilizationsBindiaB'ovBindeD.,t

mlF. ?Lesson ! >,at <oes It 0a)e to 1e 2 ?Civilization?? N.p.A n.p.; n.d. !5G. /rint. In Class 2rticle. ?2ncient 3'ypt.? 2ncient 3'ypt. N.p.; n.d. >eb. Nov. 0! . @,ttpABBmembers..abas,.netBCnort,clayBncj,sBteDtboo)sB8ourney2cross0imeB/<EBdocsBc ,ap0 .pd(F. desert little is )no.n about Indus 'overnment 0,e River Valley Civilizations. N.d. In Class 2rticle. HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHhistory of the Ancient Indus River Valley Civilizations
Topics The Indus Valley, Character and Significance Map Of Indus Valley The Indus Valley And The Genesis Of South Asian Civilization Edited By: R. A. Guisepi Introduction i!e Su"er, #gypt, and other early civilizations in the Middle #ast, civilizations first developed in #ast and South Asia in the vicinity of great river syste"s$ %hen irrigated &y the "assive spring floods of the 'ello( River, the rich soil of the )orth China plain proved a super& &asis for (hat has &een the largest and "ost enduring civilization in hu"an history$ Civilization first developed in the Indus River valley in present*day +a!istan in the "iddle of the ,d "illenniu" -$C$, "ore than a thousand years earlier than it did in China$ In fact, the civilization of the Indus valley, usually called .arappan after its chief city, rivals Su"er and #gypt as hu"anity/s oldest$ -ut li!e Su"er and its successor civilizations in the Middle #ast, .arappan civilization (as una&le to survive natural catastrophes and no"adic invasions$ In contrast to the civilization of the Shang rulers in China around 0122 -$C$, .arappa vanished fro" history$ 3ntil the "id*04th century it (as 5lost5 or forgotten, even &y the peoples (ho lived in the vicinity of its sand*covered ruins$ I"portant ele"ents of .arappan society (ere trans"itted to later civilizations in the Indian su&continent$ -ut unli!e the Shang !ingdo", .arappa did not survive to &e the core and geographical center fro" (hich a unified and continuous civilization developed li!e that found in China$ The difference in the fate of these t(o great civilizations provides one of the !ey 6uestions in dealing (ith the history of civilized societies7 %hat factors per"itted so"e civilizations to endure for "illennia (hile others rose and fell (ithin a fe( centuries8 -et(een a&out 0122 and 0222 -$C$, as the great cities of the Indus region cru"&led into ruins, no"adic Aryan invaders fro" central Asia "oved into the

fertile Indus plains and pushed into the Ganges River valleys to the east$ It too! these unruly, (arli!e peoples "any centuries to &uild a civilization that rivaled that of the .arappans$ The Aryans concentrated on assaulting .arappan settle"ents and different Aryan tri&al groups$ As peoples (ho depended pri"arily on great herds of cattle to provide their su&sistence, they had little use for the great irrigation (or!s and advanced agricultural technology of the Indus valley peoples$ Though they conserved so"e .arappan &eliefs and sy"&ols, the Aryan invaders did little to restore or replace the great cities and engineering syste"s of the peoples they had supplanted$ #ventually, ho(ever, "any of the Aryan groups &egan to settle do(n, and increasingly they relied on far"ing to support their co""unities$ -y a&out 922 -$C$, their priests had &egun to orally record the sacred hy"ns and ritual incantations that had long &een central to Aryan culture$ In the follo(ing centuries, strong (arrior leaders &uilt tri&unal units into larger !ingdo"s$ The e"ergence of priestly and (arrior elites signaled the &eginning of a ne( pattern of civilization in South Asia$ -y the :th century -$C$, the rene(al of civilized life in India (as "ar!ed &y the e"ergence of great (orld religions, such as .induis" and -uddhis", and a rene(al of trade, ur&an life, and splendid artistic and architectural achieve"ents$ The early develop"ent of civilization in China co"&ined the successive phases of advance"ent of Mesopota"ian history (ith the continuity of #gyptian civilization$ Civilization in China coalesced around 0122 -$C$ Chinese civilization e"erged gradually out of )eolithic far"ing and pottery"a!ing cultures that had long &een present in the 'ello( River region of #ast Asia$ The esta&lish"ent of the Shang !ingdo" at this point in ti"e gave political e;pression to a co"&ination of civilizing trends$ The appearance of a distinctive and increasingly specialized elite supported &y the peasant "a<ority of the Chinese people, the gro(th of to(ns and the first cities, the spread of trade, and the for"ulation of a (ritten language all indicated that a "a<or civilization (as e"erging in China$ Though the political do"inance of the Shang ca"e to an end in 00== under the ne( royal house of the >hou, civilized develop"ent in China (as enriched and e;tended as the Chinese people "igrated east and south fro" their original 'ello( River heartland$ -y the end of the >hou era, (hich (ould last officially until =1: -$C$, "any of the central ele"ents in Chinese civilization, one of hu"an!ind/s oldest, (ere fir"ly esta&lished$ So"e of those ele"ents have persisted to the present day$ The Indus Valley And The Genesis Of South Asian Civilization Great torrents of (ater fro" the (orld/s highest "ountain range, the

.i"alayas, carved out the vast Indus River syste" that (as to nurture the first civilization in the Indian su&continent$ As the rapidly running "ountain strea"s reached the plains of the Indus valley, they &ranched out into seven great rivers, of (hich five re"ain today$ These rivers in turn converge "id(ay do(n the valley to for" the Indus River, (hich runs for hundreds of "iles to the south(est and e"pties into the Ara&ian Sea$ The strea"s that flo( fro" high in the .i"alayas are fed &y "onsoon rains$ Rain clouds are carried fro" the seas surrounding the Indian su&continent &y "onsoons * seasonal (inds * across the lo(lands to the "ountains (here, cooled and trapped, they release their life*giving (aters$ These 5su""er5 or (et "onsoons, (hich &lo( to(ard central Asia fro" the sea, are also a critical source of "oisture for the plains and valleys they cross &efore they reach the "ountain &arriers$ The strea"s fro" the "ountains also carry prodigious a"ounts of rich soil to these plains, constantly enlarging the" and giving the" the potential for e;tensive cultivation and dense hu"an ha&itation$ The Indus is only one of "any river syste"s in the Indian su&continent for"ed &y "elting sno( and "onsoon rains, &ut it (as the first to nurture a civilization$ The lo(er Indus plains (ere a very different place in the ,d "illenniu" -$C$ than they are today$ Most of the region is no( arid and desolate, crisscrossed &y dried*up river&eds and virtually devoid of forests$ In .arappan ti"es, it (as green and heavily forested$ Ga"e ani"als and pasturage for do"esticated ani"als (ere plentiful$ ong &efore the first settle"ents associated (ith the .arappan co"ple; appeared, the plains (ere dotted (ith the settle"ents of sedentary agriculturists$ -y at least ,222 -$C$, these pre*.arappan peoples cultivated (heat and &arley, and had developed sophistacated agricultural i"ple"ents and cropping techni6ues$ The pre*.arappan peoples !ne( ho( to "a!e &ronze (eapons, tools, and "irrors, and they had "astered the art of pottery"a!ing$ Recurring "otifs, such as &ulls and long*horned cattle on ela&orately decorated &o(ls and storage urns, suggest lin!s to early agricultural co""unities in the Middle #ast, (hile fish designs indicate a preoccupation (ith (hat (as pro&a&ly a "a<or source of food$ The long*horned &ull (as a central i"age in the .arappan culture and re"ains i"portant in Indian iconography, the art of pictorial representation$ +re*.arappan peoples in the Indus valley also carved large nu"&ers of s"all figurines of (o"en$ These statuettes differ fro" those found in "any other early cultures in the detailed attention given to hairstyles and <e(elry$ #arly village sites also contained tiny carts (ith clay (heels that "ay &e the earliest children/s toys yet discovered$ The ?iscovery And Mystery Of .arappa In the late 0@12s, the -ritish (ere directing the &uilding of rail(ay

lines through the Indus valley$ In need of &ric!s for the rail(ay &ed, the engineers allo(ed the construction (or!ers to plunder those &ric!s found in the dirt "ounds of long*a&andoned cities in the valley$ A -ritish general na"ed Cunningha", (ho (ould later &e the head of the Indian Archeological Survey, visited one of these sites in 0@1:$ %hile there, he (as given a nu"&er of artifacts including several soapstone seals i"printed (ith various carvings, including the figure of a &ull and (hat (ere apparently letters in a script$ Cunningha" (as convinced that the artifacts (ere of ancient origin and (as intrigued &y the strange script, (hich &ore little rese"&lance to that of any of the languages then in use in various parts of India$ As head of the archeological survey, Cunningha" too! steps to ensure the full*scale e;cavation of (hat ca"e to &e recognized as one of the earliest and "ost "ysterious of all hu"an civilizations$ Today the script still has not &een deciphered and "uch of the original "ystery re"ains$ -ut decades of e;tensive e;cavation at the original site and hundreds of other sites throughout the Indus valley have uncovered a huge co"ple; of cities and villages that "ade up the first civilization in South Asia$ The evidence found so far indicates that .arappan civilization developed 6uite rapidly in the "iddle centuries of the ,d "illenniu" -$C$ There are sharp divergences fro" the village cultures that preceded it in levels of "aterial culture, scale, and organization$ #6ually nota&le is the lac! of strong rese"&lances to other early civilizations to the (est of Mesopota"ia, (hich indicates that .arappa (as not a colony$ S!eletal re"ains, ho(ever, sho( that the do"inant hu"an type of the peoples (ho &uilt the civilization (as a tall, long faced, dar!* haired strain "uch li!e those fro" the Mediterranean region$ The civilization (as anchored on t(o cities7 .arappa in the north on one of the five great rivers that for"s the Indus, and Mohen<o*daro, A22 "iles to the south on the &an!s of the Indus proper$ These cities for"ed the to(n capitals of a co"ple; of s"aller ur&an centers and villages that covered an area four ti"es the size of Su"er and t(ice the size of #gypt during the Old Bingdo"$ That the "any sites associated (ith the .arappan co"ple; (ere part of one civilization has &een esta&lished due to e;cavations of layer after layer of cities and to(ns re&uilt in the sa"e (ay, (ith the sa"e proportions, at the sa"e locations$ The Great Cities Though hundreds of "iles apart, .arappa and Mohen<o*daro (ere re"ar!a&ly si"ilar in layout and construction$ -oth (ere &uilt on a s6uare grid pattern that (as divided &y "ain thoroughfares into 0= s"aller and precisely "easured grids$ #ach of the cities (as surrounded &y (alls, (hich e;tended one "ile fro" east to (est and one*half "ile fro" north to south$ The &uildings of the cities and the surrounding (alls (ere "ade of standardized !iln*dried &ric!s$ Controlled &uilding on such a "assive scale (ould have re6uired an autocratic govern"ent (ith the capacity to organize and supervise the daily

tas!s of large nu"&ers of la&orers$ This control appears to have e;tended to the .arappans/ do"estic lives as (ell$ The e;istence of a strong ruling class is also indicated &y the presence of large and (ell*fortified citadels in each of the capital cities$ These citadels served as sanctuaries for the cities/ populations in ti"es of attac! and as co""unity centers in ti"es of peace$ The citadel at Mohen<o*daro included a very large &uilding that "ay have &een a palace$ -oth citadels contained (hat are &elieved to have &een audience and asse"&ly halls or places of (orship, and &athing tan!s for pu&lic use$ The ela&orately decorated &ath at Mohen<o*daro (as surrounded &y a cloister, (hich opened onto "any s"all roo"s that "ay have housed priests of the city/s cults$ arge granaries (ere located near each of the citadels, (hich suggest that the state stored grain for cere"onial purposes, ti"es of shortage, and possi&ly the regulatation of grain production and sale$ Though the "ain avenues of the cities (ere straight and a&out ,2 feet (ide, the lanes and paths in the cities/ 6uarters (ere narro( and t(isting$ -ric! houses of one to three stories (ere <u"&led together in these areas, (hich "ust have &een densely populated at the height of .arappan civilization$ The layout of the houses (as stri!ingly unifor" in that each consisted of a courtyard surrounded &y roo"s for sleeping, coo!ing, and, in the larger ho"es, receiving visitors$ #ntrance to the houses (as gained through a long passage(ay fro" the street, (hich in co"&ination (ith fe( (indo(s reflects a concern for security$ The lac! of orna"entation on the houses and the dun*colored &ric! (alls "ust have given the cities a very dra& appearance$ #ach of the ho"es had a &athing area and drains that e"ptied into a covered, city(ide se(age syste", (hich (as the &est in the ancient (orld$ The .arappans apparently &athed standing up &y pouring pitchers of (ater over their &odies$ So"e scholars &elieve that &athing (as related to religious rituals rather than hygiene$ .arappan Culture And Society The great cities and "any to(ns of the .arappan co"ple; (ere supported &y a rather advanced agricultural syste" &ased on the cultivation of (heat, rye, peas, and possi&ly rice$ Cotton (as (idely cultivated and nu"erous do"esticated ani"als (ere reared$ It is li!ely that irrigation syste"s (ere &uilt to catch and control (aters fro" the "onsoon and the rivers, and that fish caught in the rivers provided an additional dietary staple$ The cities of .arappa (ere "a<or trading centers$ The "ysterious seals fro" the Indus civilization have &een found in ur&an ruins as far a(ay as Su"er in Mesopota"ia$ Cade fro" present*day China and precious <e(els fro" (hat is no( -ur"a have &een unearthed at various Indus sites$ ?espite these

overseas contacts, .arappan peoples appear to have &een intensely conservative and highly resistant to innovations introduced fro" the outside$ They cast tools and (eapons in &ronze, &ut "ost of their tools (ere inferior to those of Mesopota"ian peoples (ith (ho" they had contacts, and their (eapons (ere even "ore pri"itive$ They lac!ed s(ords, tipped their spears (ith &ronze points so thin that they (ould cru"&le on contact, and used stone for their arro(heads$ These shortco"ings "ay have proven fatal to the survival of the .arappan civilization$ .arappan society (as do"inated &y a po(erful priestly class that ruled fro" the citadel of each of the capitals$ Though there "ay have &een specialized (arriors, the priests appear to have &een the "ain coordinators of fortress construction and preparation for defense$ The location of granaries and artisan d(ellings near the citadels indicates that the priests "ay have also overseen handicraft production and supervised &oth regional and long*distance trade$ The priests derived their i"pressive control over city and to(n d(ellers fro" their role as the inter"ediaries &et(een the .arappan populace and a nu"&er of gods and goddesses, (hose provision of fertility (as of para"ount concern$ Several of the gods are depicted on the undeciphered seals that are do"inated &y a na!ed "ale figure (ith a horned head and a fierce facial e;pression$ On so"e of the seals he is pictured in a crossed*legged posture of "editation si"ilar to that (hich (as later !no(n as the lotus position$ )u"erous figurines of fe"ales, also na!ed e;cept for a great deal of <e(elry, have &een found$ These 5"other goddesses5 appear to have &een o&<ects of (orship for the co""on people, (hile the horned god (as apparently favored &y the priests and upper classes$ The o&session (ith fertility (as also reflected in the veneration of sacred ani"als, especially &ulls, and &y the large 6uantity of phallic*shaped o&<ects that have &een found at .arappan sites$ Along (ith a handful of super&ly carved figurines of "ale nota&les, dancing girls, and ani"als, these cult o&<ects represent the pinnacle of artistic e;pression for the rather uni"aginative and practical*"inded peoples of .arappa$ The control e;hi&ited &y the unifor"ity and rigid ordering of .arappan culture (ould not have &een possi&le (ithout an e;tensive ad"inistrative class serving the priests$ It is pro&a&le that "e"&ers of this class and possi&ly (ealthy "ercantile fa"ilies lived in the large t(o* and three*story houses$ Characteristically, size * not decoration * set their d(ellings off fro" the artisans, la&orers, and slaves that "ade up the rest of the ur&an population$ Outside of the t(o great cities, the su&<ects of the priest*rulers (ere agriculturists, (hose surplus production (as essential to ur&an life and the

"aintenance of very vulnera&le defenses against natural cala"ities and hu"an aggressors$ The Slo( ?e"ise Of .arappan Civilization It (as once (idely accepted that .arappan civilization (as the victi" of assaults &y no"adic invaders eager to clai" the rich Indus valley as pasturelands for their herds of cattle$ A dra"atic vision of a (ave of 5&ar&arian5 invaders s"ashing to(n d(ellers/ s!ulls "ade for good storytelling &ut &ad history$ Archeological investigations carried out in recent decades de"onstrate rather conclusively that .arappa declined gradually in the "iddle centuries of the =d "illenniu" -$C$ The precise causes of that decline re"ain a "atter of dispute$ The later layers of &uilding at .arappa and Mohen<o*daro as (ell as at other sites sho( a clear deterioration in the 6uality of construction and &uilding "aterials$ There also are a fe( s"ashed s!ulls, &ut these have &een dated so"e(hat earlier than the period (hen the civilization disappears fro" history$ It is li!ely that a co"&ination of factors led to .arappa/s de"ise$ There is evidence of severe flooding at Mohen<o*daro and other sites$ Short*ter" natural disasters "ay have co"pounded the adverse effects of long*ter" cli"atic changes$ Shifts in the "onsoon pattern and changes in te"perature "ay have &egun the process of desertification that eventually transfor"ed the region into the arid steppe that it has re"ained for "ost of recorded history$ Rapid changes in types of pottery suggest a series of sudden (aves of "igrants into the region$ It is possi&le that the .arappans (ere too (ea! "ilitarily to prevent these inco"ing peoples fro" settling in or ta!ing over their to(ns and cities$ The "ar!ed decline in the 6uality of &uilding and to(n planning indicates that the priestly elite (as losing control$ So"e of the "igrants pro&a&ly (ere &ands of Aryan herders (ho entered the Indus region over an e;tended period of ti"e, rather than in "ilitant (aves$ -ut the Aryan pastoralists "ay have consciously destroyed or neglected the di!es and canals on (hich the agrarian life of the .arappan peoples depended$ #;tensive cattle raising (ould then have replaced intensive crop cultivation, further under"ining the econo"ic &asis of the civilization$ That there (as a good deal of violent conflict in this transition cannot &e ruled out$ Groups of s!eletons in postures of flight have &een found on the stair(ays at so"e sites$ There is evidence of &urned*out settle"ents and the flight of refugees through the passes into the .i"alayas to the north$ Thus, a co"&ination of factors &rought an end to India/s first civilization$ These factors also gave rise to an e;tended transition period, do"inated increasingly &y the no"adic Aryan invaders$ Analysis7 The egacy Of Asia/s Dirst Civilizations

In their size, co"ple;ity, and longevity, the first civilizations to develop in South Asia and China "atch and in so"e respects surpass the earliest civilizations that arose in Mesopota"ia and #gypt$ -ut the long*ter" i"pact of the .arappan civilization of the Indus &asin and the Shang*>hou civilization in north China (as stri!ingly different$ The loess zone and north China plain (here the Shang and >hou e"pires too! hold &eca"e the center of a continuous civilization that (as to last into the =2th century A$?$, and, "any historians (ould argue, to the present day$ Though regions farther south, such as the 'angtze &asin, (ould in so"e ti"e periods en<oy political, econo"ic, and cultural predo"inance (ithin China, the capital and center of Chinese civilization repeatedly returned to the 'ello( River area and the north China plain$ The Indus valley proved capa&le of nurturing a civilization that endured for over a thousand years$ -ut (hen .arappa collapsed, the plains of the Indus (ere &ypassed in favor of the far "ore lush and e;tensive lands in the &asin of the Ganges River net(or! to the east$ Though the Indus (ould later serve, for "uch shorter ti"e spans, as the seat of e"pires, the core areas of successive Indian civilization (ere far to the east and south$ The contrast &et(een the fate of the original geographical centers of Indian and Chinese civilizations is paralleled &y the legacy of the civilizations the"selves$ .arappa (as destroyed and it disappeared fro" history for thousands of years$ Though the peoples (ho &uilt the Indus co"ple; left their "ar! on su&se6uent Indian culture, they did not pass on the funda"ental patterns of civilized life that had evolved$ Their "other goddess and the dancing god of fertility endured, and so"e of their sy"&ols, such as the s(asti!a and linga" Eusually stone, phallic i"agesF, (ere pro"inent in later artistic and religious traditions$ .arappan tan!s or pu&lic &athing ponds re"ain a centralefeature of Indian cities, particularly in the south$ Their techni6ues of gro(ing rice and cotton (ere preserved &y cultivating peoples fleeing no"adic invaders, and (ere later ta!en up &y the ne(ly arrived Indo*Aryan tri&es$ Virtually everything else (as lost$ In contrast to the civilizations of Mesopota"ia, (hich fell &ut (ere replaced &y ne( civilizations that preserved and &uilt on the achieve"ents of their predecessors, "uch of (hat the .arappan peoples had acco"plished had to &e redone &y later civilized peoples$ The cities of the Indus civilization (ere destroyed and co"para&le ur&an centers did not reappear in South Asia for hundreds or, &y so"e scholars/ rec!oning, thousands of years$ Their re"ar!a&ly advanced standards for the "easure"ent of distance and (eight ceased to &e used$ Their syste" of (riting (as forgotten, and (hen rediscovered, it (as cele&rated as an intriguing &ut very dead

language fro" the past$ .arappan s!ills in co""unity planning, se(age control, and engineering (ere "eaningless to the no"adic peoples (ho too! control of their ho"elands$ The .arappan penchant for standardization, discipline, and state control (as profoundly challenged &y the &ra(ling, independent*"inded (arriors (ho supplanted the" as "asters of the Indian su&continent$ In contrast to the civilization of the Indus valley, the original civilization of China has survived no"adic incursions and natural catastrophes and profoundly influenced the course of all Chinese history$ Shang irrigation and di!e syste"s and "illet and (heat cultivation provided the &asis upon (hich su&se6uent dynasties innovated and e;panded$ Shang and >hou (alled to(ns and villages surrounded (ith sta"ped earth have persisted as the predo"inant patterns of settle"ent throughout Chinese history$ The founders of the Shang and >hou dynasty have &een revered &y scholar and peasant ali!e as philosopher*!ings (ho ought to &e e"ulated &y leaders at all levels$ The Shang and >hou (orship of .eaven and their ancestral veneration have re"ained central to Chinese religious &elief and practice for thousands of years$ The concept of the Mandate of .eaven has &een pivotal in Chinese political thin!ing and organization$ A&ove all, the syste" of (riting that developed in connection (ith Shang oracles developed into the !ey "eans of co""unication &et(een the elites of the "any peoples (ho lived in the core regions of Chinese civilization$ The scholar*&ureaucrats (ho &oth developed this (ritten language and profited the "ost fro" it soon e"erged as the do"inant force in Chinese culture and society$ Chinese characters provided the &asis for the educational syste" and &ureaucracy that (ere to hold Chinese civilization together through thousands of years of invasions and political crises$ In contrast to India, "any of the !ey ingredients of China/s early civilizations have re"ained central throughout Chinese history$ This persistence has "ade for a continuity of identity that is uni6ue to the Chinese people$ It has also "eant that China, li!e the early civilizations of Mesopota"ia, (as one of the great sources of civilizing influences in hu"an history as a (hole$ Though the area affected &y ideas and institutions developed in China (as less e;tensive than that to (hich the peoples of Mesopota"ia &e6ueathed (riting, la(, and their other great achieve"ents, contacts (ith the Chinese led to the spread of civilization to Capan, Borea, and Vietna"$ %riting and political organization (ere t(o areas in (hich the earliest for"ulations of Chinese civilization vitally affected other peoples$ In later periods Chinese thought and other "odes of cultural e;pression such as art, architecture, and eti6uette also strongly influenced the gro(th of

civilized life$ China/s technological innovation (as to have an i"pact on civilized develop"ent on a glo&al scale co"para&le to that of early Mesopota"ia$ -eginning (ith the increasingly sophisticated irrigation syste"s, the Chinese have devised a re"ar!a&le share of hu"an!ind/s &asic "achines and engineering principles$ In the Shang*>hou era they also pioneered !ey "anufacturing processes such as sericulture * the "anufacture of sil! cloth through the do"estication of sil!(or"s$ The reasons for the differing legacies of India and China are nu"erous and co"ple;$ -ut critical to the disappearance of the first and the resilience of the second (ere different patterns of interaction &et(een the sedentary peoples (ho &uilt the early civilizations and the no"adic herders (ho challenged the"$ In the Indian case, the no"adic threat (as re"ote, perhaps none;istent for centuries$ The .arappan peoples (ere deficient in "ilitary technology and organization$ %hen co"&ined (ith natural cala"ities, the (aves of (arli!e no"ads "igrating into the Indus region proved too "uch for the .arappan peoples to resist or a&sor&$ The gap &et(een the no"ads/ herding culture and the ur&an, agriculture*&ased .arappan civilization (as too great to &e &ridged$ Conflict &et(een the" "ay (ell have proven fatal to a civilization long in decline$ The loess regions of northern China (ere open to invasions or "igrations on the part of the no"adic herding peoples (ho lived to the north and (est$ +eoples fro" these areas (ere "oving al"ost continuously into the core zones of Chinese civilization$ The constant threat the no"ads posed forced the peoples of the north China plain to develop the defenses and "ilitary technology essential to defending against no"adic raids or &ids for lasting con6uest$ Contrasting cultures and (ays of life enhanced the sense of identity of the cultivating peoples$ The o&vious no"adic presence prodded these sa"e peoples to unite under strong rulers against the outsiders (ho did not share Chinese culture$ Constant interaction (ith the no"ads led the Shang peoples to develop a culture that (as "allea&le and receptive to outside influences, social structures, and political syste"s$ )o"adic energies reinvigorated and enriched the !ingdo" of the Shang and >hou, in contrast to India (here they proved catastrophic for the relatively isolated and unprepared peoples of .arappa$ Conclusion -eginnings And Transitions The spread of the Aryan pastoralists into the hills and plains of northern and eastern India &et(een 0122 and 122 -$C$ and the esta&lish"ent and

decline of the >hou !ingdo" in the latter half of the sa"e ti"e span "ar!ed !ey transition phases in the develop"ent of civilization in India and China$ -ut in each case a very different sort of transition occurred$ i!e Mesopota"ia, the (ell*(atered Indus valley had given rise to one of hu"an!ind/s earliest civilizations$ In contrast to the succession of "ore li"ited civilized centers that arose in Mesopota"ia, .arappa e;tended over the largest territory of any of the first civilizations, and it e;isted (ithout interruption for over a "illenniu"$ Its longevity invites co"parison (ith #gypt$ -ut #gypt proved "ore a&le than either .arappa or individual Mesopota"ian civilizations to a&sor& "assive invasions of no"adic peoples$ Daced (ith "a<or cli"atic shifts, the .arappans proved una&le to also (ithstand the steady and prolonged pressure of the Aryan incursions$ Thus, the do"inance of these invaders in the .arappan core regions and "uch of the rest of northern India &y 0222 -$C$ "eant the end of India/s first civilization$ The >hou con6uest and later the slo( disintegration of the >hou dynasty represented a continuation rather than a &rea! in the develop"ent of civilization in China$ Though civilization arose later in China than in the other three original centers in the #astern .e"isphere, li!e the others it e"erged independently and resulted in a distinctive pattern of develop"ent$ In its capacity to endure, China rese"&led #gypt "ore than Mesopota"ia or .arappa$ +erhaps as a result, the Chinese proved the "ost adept at a&sor&ing and assi"ilating outside invaders (hile preserving their o(n sense of identity and their &asic &eliefs and institutions$ The Chinese &oth originated and perpetuated these !ey ingredients for thousands of years$ The con6uering >hou did not destroy Chinese society and cultureG they (ere assi"ilated &y the" so thoroughly that they &eca"e Chinese$ Thus, though the >hou period &rought "a<or changes in the nature and direction of civilized develop"ent in China, funda"ental the"es and patterns persisted fro" the Shang era, and the >hou rulers strove to conserve and &uild upon the achieve"ents of their predecessors$ HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH H