Rice University

Gender, Empire, and Nation in Sarah Fielding's "Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia" Author(s): Sara Gadeken Source: Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, Vol. 39, No. 3, Restoration and Eighteenth Century (Summer, 1999), pp. 523-538 Published by: Rice University Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1556218 . Accessed: 19/12/2013 07:39
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SEL 39,3 (Summer1999) ISSN 0039-3657

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and Gender, Empire, Nationin Sarah Fielding's Lives ofCleopatra and Octavia
SARA GADEKEN

ThenovelsofSarah Fielding (1710-65) offer freshly conceived notions ofmasculinity and redefinitions offemininity, as wellas thepossibility of new relationships betweenmenand womenbased on nonhierarchical ofmutual structures benevolenceand caring. fifth Fielding's novel,The Lives and Octavia(1757), ofCleopatra waspublished bysubscription early in theSevenYears'War, theoutcomeofwhichwould maketheBritish Empire possible. Itexplores theuneasy tensions ofan emerging commercial culture, as genderand class relations are renegotiated in a nascent mercantile ClassicRomerepresents a constant ofthe economy. reminder evilsofluxury and overconsumption, and,as England's commercial enand empire terprise begintodevelop,comparisons with theRomanEmpirebecomeincreasingly this uneasy. Against and background, Cleopatra Octaviaexploits ofeffeminacy, cultural fears and moralcorrupluxury, inan effort tion toclaim a placefor andactive womenintherepubstrong licofvirtue. Inthis, heronly historical novel, Fielding usesthesimple format oftwo from narratives told personal rather than beyondthegravebyhistorical fictional hertitle reference characters, to Plutarch's Lives. beingan ironic inherintroduction Shecontends that historical "are better suited to figures andgiveus juster ofOurselves, inform, Notions as they areOriginals, and theEyewith theprospect ofHumanNature, present taken from and Life, notextended ofCredibility theLimits Yetsheretells beyond andTruth."1 a that hasbeen retold times story sheremany before, and,likeeach teller, visesandreinterprets her"Originals" tofit herown allegiances.
SaraGadekenisassistant ofEnglish atTexasTechUniversity. Sheisatwork professor on a longer ofSarahFielding and theproblems ofmid-eighteenth-century study female satirists.

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Sherejects theimage ofthevirtuous butmisunderstood Cleopatra that uses inAllfor Love.Or,theWorld Well John Dryden Lost(1678).Instead, Fielding's Cleopatra represents a luxurious orientalism and theatricality that threatens republican manhood.The choicewas a careful one. The Elizabeth ina letter tohersister Sarah bluestocking Montagu, Scott, disapproves ofFielding's decision toportray Cleopatra as evilqueenrather than virtuous victim, but she understands the reason forit:"Octaviaand ina fewdays. aretocomeforth As[Fielding] isa virtuous maiden Cleopatra ofthetwowhich willgivehisshewillmakeOctaviathemoreagreeable torythe lye and make Anthony appear a greaterfool thanever he Anxious indeedtoappeara virtuous assures appear'd."2 maiden, Fielding herreaders that hernovelwill"impress thefatal Consequencesofa mad Lover Woman" intoxicated anda false insinuating andthat "the Distresses of Pityor of a virtuous Octavia will excitea more lastingSensibility Relentment [sic]" (p. 55).Yetmorethan ofthevolumeconthree-quarters withthispowerful cernsCleopatra, and Fieldingis clearly fascinated woman. a newlookandmeaning whenthey Well-known anecdotes aregiven arenarrated from Cleopatra's ironic ofview: point whenAnthony hadprovided a very One Evening, expensive SupI in hiswholeEntertainment that per, toldhim a veinofPleasantry, inComparison I coulddo,for I wouldprovide was trifling ofwhat hima Supperinwhichwe might each ofus consumemorethan a Supper inwhich theValueofSixMillion Sesterces ... I provided . . then one ofthePearls was nothing there extraordinary. taking was equal invaluetothesumabove-menoutofmyEars, which itinVinegar anddrank ... Anthony I dissolved itoff looked tioned, first a little at myDevice; on whichI smiling confounded said, that came intomyPossessionfrom a longRace of "these Pearls, I wouldconsume,as I wouldindeedtheWorld royal Ancestors, him togiveAnthony a Moment's Diversion"...Thisturned itself, into thegreatest heesteemed Contrivance Rapture imaginable; this a Mark ofmyIngenuity, andtheconsuming myPearlas a Signof myLove. (p. 107) "Six Whentheexotic Egyptian queen takesintoherbodythepearlworth Million shebecomesherself a part oftheluxurious treasure of Sesterces," Thistreasure, so frivolous andyet so powerful, empire. seducesthemanly Incontrast, andconfounds theRoman isa noble Anthony Octavia Empire.

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Romanmatron of considerable power in herown right, that although poweris necessarily mediated herfather, through and husband. brother, Yet, virtuousOctavia cannot compete withsensuous, extravagant for Cleopatra love. Anthony's

Cleopatra's seduction ofAnthony playson English anxieties about proper masculinity, whicharetiedbothtofears abouttheFrench military threat toEnglish national security andtofears abouttheeffect ofcommerce on England's morallife. Atthebeginning oftheSevenYears'War, these concerns appearinpopular print as anti-French convictions expressed as anxieties aboutgender.3 One ofthemostinfluential critics isJohn Brown (1715-66)-a clergyman, satirist, poet,andplaywright-who perceives an increasing ofEnglishmen effeminacy that he blameson a Machiavellian French plot. Brown's Estimate on theManners and Principles ofthe Times (1757)vehemently condemns what he perceives tobe theblurring ofgenderdistinctions inwhich theboundary between maleandfemale iseroded. Asa result ofsuchblurring, he insists, thegenders arenow indistinguishable: "Itmayprobably be asked,whytheruling Manners ofourWoman havenotbeenparticularly delineated? TheReasonis,becausethey areesthesamewith sentially thoseofthemen, andaretherefore inthis included Estimate. TheSexeshavenowlittle other apparent Distinction, beyond that ofPersonand Dress:Theirpeculiar and characteristic Manners are conandlost: founded Theone Sexhaving advanced into as theother Boldness, havesunk into Effeminacy."4 According toBrown, suchblurring produces a "vain, and selfish luxurious, that renders effeminacy" England defenselessagainst invasion byherenemies.5 Thiscondition, Brownfears, is especially seriousin thearistocracy, which ismarked by"luxurious andeffeminate inthe Manners higher Ranks, together with a general ofPrinciple."6 Defect Proof ofthis, heinsists, exists inthecowardly oftheEnglish reaction upperclasstotheinvasion bythe Scotsin1745: "Howfar this dastard ofEffeminacy Spirit hath crept uponus anddestroyed thenational ofDefence, Spirit mayappearfrom thegeneral PanictheNation was thrown atthelateRebellion. into, WhenthoseofevRank above a Constable, ery instead ofarming themselves andencouragingthePeople,generally fledbefore theRebels,a Mob ofraggedHighlanders marched unmolested totheHeart ofa populousKingdom."7 The publicworldofheroism and powerhas collapsedintoa private worldof effeminate luxury.

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than even moreeffeminate Frenchmen Although Brownconsiders leaders are French military he argues that, unlike theEnglish, Englishmen, intheir intheir retain their virtue They manly effeminate private lives. only the Heroesin theField."8 In contrast, attheToilet, publiclives:"Women "the gentleas their ruling classes: andNavy areas effeminate English Army taste inDress, bytheir Professions aredistinguished menof[the military] that it Amusement, provided their Skill atPlay, their Attendance on every and vanity thedeSuchinsidious recallvividly be fashionable."9 luxury "Would this notbe a faithful CopyofdegenerclineoftheRoman Empire: Written the same year as Brown's essay, ate and decliningRome?"10 warwith between England's present these parallels Fielding's novelevokes thenewly develmilitary defeat, as wellas between France andAnthony's British and the fall the Roman of Empire. Empire oping II condemnaherculture's for herownpurposes Before she can utilize must suchcondemreconcile tionofeffeminate Fielding men,however, inearlier for of want with her novelsofsomething that, valorization nation men. an appropriate term, can be called"feminized" eighteenth-century ofDavid Simple, aubefore thepublication theanonymous Several years oftheSophiapamphlets this although thor problem, (1739-40)recognized if"effemiShe suggests that "feminized." "Sophia" does notuse theterm andintegrity, thechartomean"humanity propriety" nate" wereused"with ... ofoursex... a Man... possestofourvirtues shou'dbe called acteristics andjustice.""1 effeminate praiseofhisgood nature bywayofthehighest feminized distinguish betweenthe novelsmust The reader ofFielding's towomenandpolitiattractive whomFielding regards as personally man, whothreatens for national andtheeffeminate man, virtue, cally necessary Thisdistinction is certainly and no eighteenth-censuchvirtue. unstable, makeitas baldly as this, writer couldactually yetsome suchdistinctury ofmantionis essential inorder to understand Fielding's interpretations inTheGoverness andagaininDavid (1747), hood.12 InDavidSimple (1744), Volume the Last(1753),Fielding, like"Sophia," that cercontends Simple, virtues theworld calls"feminine" areactually universal anddesirtain that to able human valuesthat menhavedeliberately and wrongly attributed womenonly. Asa result, menwhopossessthese traits seem"feminized" oranyother uses,but nota wordthat eighteenth-century writer Fielding 13 Her condition. one which describes whatis for heran entirely desirable suchas David Simple, andMignon, feminized Valentine, Fidelus, heroes,

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Women for aregentle, soft, andself-effacing. lovethem their kindly ways. Fielding argues inDavid Simple that suchmenarea force for therenewal ofEnglish ifmenandwomenalikewould emulate society, for, their tenderness and compassion, "the various Humours and thedifferent understandings with whichHumanNature is supplied, would,instead ofDiscord, produce sucha Harmony, as wouldinfallibly makethe wholeSpecies happy."14 "Feminized," then, describes a kindofmanwhomFielding admires bothpolitically and personally. onthe "Effeminacy," other hand, isa common eighteenth-century term, forexample, and thewordis alwayspejorative. Brown'stracts, deliberately assignto womencertain negative qualities commonto thehuman ofluxury, for condition-love a preference desire overcivic personal duty, obsessionwith fashion-andhe considers menwho possessthesequalitwin ties"effeminate." French influence andconsumer luxury, those threats inthefigure oftheeffeminate tothenation, arelinked manwho neglects tospendhistime on personal hissubhiscivicduties adornment, wasting inthewholebodyof on luxuries. usestheterm stance Fielding only twice iteffeminate herwork:David Simpleconsiders to weep forhimself, alhistears on behalf ofothers denotea manly though compassion, andMiss in TheHistory Lucum's father oftheCountess ofDellwyn (1759)worries overhisdaughter's effeminate bashfulness.15 Anthony's effeminization paradoxically stems from hisculturally ap"Hisgeneral proved lowregard for women: Discourse concerning Women ofthem; implied a Contempt as ifthey wereproperly slavesto menand for women'sintellicouldnotbe toosubmissive" (p. 90). Hisslight regard for to makes it the gence easy quick-witted Cleopatra deceive him. is amazed athow quickly that Cleopatra Anthony acceptsherassurance shelovedhimevenbefore weretogether whilehe was inEgypt with they "Theimprobability ofthis was no BartoAnthony's belief Gabinius: Story ofit;Nay, on thecontrary, themoreastonishing itwas,with moreeagerthat a woman, nessdidhe seemtogiveitcredit" (p. 63).He cannot imagine ofhim, be benton dewho shouldbe blindwith adoration couldinstead him. ceiving "Iinstituted for rational a Kind reflection: Cleopatra giveshimno time and we ofthe ofOrder, to whichI gave theNameoftheInimitable Life, Livers. The first and grandRuleofthis OrderwerecalledtheInimitable of was to contrive Amusements andDelights, as might suchVariety Order, orreflection allThought from takeup ourwholeTime, andprevent daring ourPleasures" to intrude upon,or interrupt, (p. 67). Distracted byinceshiscivic sant andcharmed frivolity, bysensuousluxury, Anthony neglects

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duties for personal tospeakofhim as though pleasure, allowing Cleopatra "I led himinTriumph ofwarand she theconqueror: he werea prisoner himthere intoEgypt; anddetained likea Captive" (p. 67). as Brown this lossofmanhood meansmilitary disaster for Just warns, hiscampaign theempire. During theParthian War, Anthony manages badly inthe tobe with "which becausehewants Cleopatra winter, proposal urged him intheScheme, so little tobegintheWarso early andtocarry itonwith as plainly that he longedmoreto Conduct, provedto hisWholeArmy, toovercome throw himself atmyFeetthan theEnemy" (p. 97).Hiseffeminacymeansa lossofpolitical poweras well:"Anthony was now divested of his Government: For,being ruled by a Woman,Caesar said, that with herCharms and Potions, that had so bewitched Cleopatra Anthony him ofhisSenses;andthat whowas shehadbereaved itwas notAnthony tomanage theWar theRomans, butMardion theEunuch, against Photinus, Iris,and Charmian, Cleopatra's women,who were become Anthony's ofState" Counsellors and Prime Ministers thus identifies (p. 111).Fielding theeffeminized with eunuchs andwomen. Anthony Randolph Trumbach considers that effeminacy becomesuncomprotosodomy connected butFieldmisingly bythemid-eighteenth century, 16 ingcannot overtly makethis she comes connection.Asa female satirist, closetobeingone oftheboldwomentowhomBrown perilously objects; shecannot heralready compromise precarious position byplaying openly ofthefop, with reversals. thebeau, Sheavoidsthestock characters gender orthecastrato in whose presence ofgender figures indicates thefluidity and she indicates that mid-eighteenth-century England, onlyindirectly reverse "Wewent about Cleopatra andAnthony gender positions: rambling inthe atMidnight ... I beinghabited likean ordinary Woman andAnthony Disguiseofa Servant. Sometimes he camehomefrom theseExpeditions illtreated and severely ofthis beaten" (p. 68).Theveiledsadism passage, in feminized, with intensified by itssetting eroticized Egypt, resonates sexualsubmission. alsocallsAnthony herslave, which evokesa Cleopatra connection betweenwomenand slaves.Daniel Defoe's commonplace for Roxana, example, to one ofherlovers of asserts that "the very Nature theMarriage-Contract butgiving was,inshort, nothing up Liberty, Estate, Authority, andevery-thing, andtheWoman totheMan, was indeeda mere Woman ever after, thatis to say,a Slave."17 Reduced to the level of of abandonshis command thebattle Cleopatra's slave,Anthony during Actium inorder tofollow and overwhelming that efher-thefinal proof tothis feminate state men, brought bytheir culturally approved contempt for thenation. threaten women,

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III Through thefigure ofCleopatra, offers a scathing Fielding of critique oftheconsumer culture that herculture, butnot,likeBrown, produces she satirizes theconventions that womento beluxury. Instead, require for haveartificially and then condemn them seduces doingso. Cleopatra Anthony with thevery maxims that conduct for booksrecommend virtuofsuchrecommendations ouswomen, andFielding exposestheabsurdity simply bynarrating from them Cleopatra's pointofview.GeorgeSavile, ofHalifax, marquis to hisdaughter explainsin a 1688letter that women onlyappeartobe subordinate tomen.Inreality, he assures her, "Youhave itinyourpowernotonlytofree your butto subdueyour selves, Masters, andwithout violencethrow boththeir Natural andLegalAuthority atyour Feet... you have stronger Influences, which, well manag'd, have more inyour behalf force than allourPrivileges andJurisdictions canpretend to haveagainst inyour you.You havemorestrength looks,than we havein our Laws,and morepower by yourTears,thanwe have by our Argu18 Such advice romanticizes ments." femalesubordination by assuring womenthat exert enormous they actually powerin spiteoftheir inferior Inherfirst with legalstatus. meeting Anthony, Cleopatra behavesas Savile recommends: "Thefirst I saw him, I arose moment itwas Apparent that with ofsuchAlertness, tomeet anAir andwelcomemy that Foot Guest, my as itwerebyAccident, slipped, and I fellon myKnees.Anthony flewto I could recover raiseme; and as soon as itmight be thought theFright, to be inatmyFall,I thanked whichI affected and said,I hoped this him, atourfirst Accident, was a good Omen,that Interview, byhisStrength he wouldsupport a Woman's and defend a Queen who resigned Weakness, tohisPower" herself affectation (p. 62). Suchdeceitful characterizes their relationship: "He little imagined how this was inreality an Omen,that by Tricks andDeceitI shouldrulehim for theremainder ofhislife" (p. 62). By these maxims with the treacherous associating Cleopatra, Fielding exposes oftheartifice them as part towhich thecritics ofluxury so strongly object. ofCleopatra The figure also drawson thepatronizing notions offeinhistreatise malebehavior recommended Burke on thesubbyEdmund limeandthebeautiful, published thesameyear as Cleopatra and Octavia. inthefemale "This quality [beauty], whereitis highest sex,almost always itan ideaofweakness with carries andimperfection. Women senarevery for sibleofthis; whichreason, learnto lisp,tototter intheir they walk,to In thisthey counterfeit and even sickness. are guidedby naweakness, 19AsBurke indistress ture. is themuchmoreaffecting Beauty adbeauty."

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weaknessand disbycounterfeiting conquersAnthony vises,Cleopatra that one is too putting himinMind "Togovern a Manbycontinually tress: butitwas a is an odd Effect ofMan'sCapriciousness; him, weaktogovern out I couldfind I hadonce appearedtothink Anthony. Forif fact with Mark himwith anySchemeofwhichhe was notcapable,itwouldhavestruck theSuperiority; and he theApprehension that he had notin all Things I desired: echowith Whereas bythus wouldnothavecomplied anything inhisFancy, was pictured inhisEars, hisown Strength ingmyWeakness ofviewing that was theResult pleasing Image"(p. 71). and good Humor contempt suchdemeaning wilesonlyoutofa profound Women practice suchconduct for argues, and thosemenwho recommend men,Fielding to ofthem that suchmenprofess for theveryduplicity womenrequire despise.
IV

Egyptransgressive andsexually Incontrast tothedeceitful, luxurious, ofOctavia an English tradition literary tian appropriates queen,thefigure for whomtrue womanmatron ofthehonest, andvirtuous Roman frugal, that this anactive moral life. Fielding argues Through figure, hoodrequires for honor, strong friendship, bothmenandwomenpossessthecapacity modelofmasculine themilitary andthat therefore loyalty, and civicduty, ofcivic draws canbe attached thediscourse humanism virtue uponwhich inaddition YetOctaviais a deeplyconflicted figure, for, toeither gender. inher ownright, civic sheisalsoa wronged tobeing a modelofactive virtue sheisonlya passivevictim. woman.Inthat role, ofcivic virtue ofOctavia as a female embodiment portrayal Fielding's whichhas of civichumanism, themasculine nature contradicts directly in their Barrell separate been examined byJ.G. A. Pocock and byJohn In his work on of the Venus of figure thought. studies eighteenth-century ofcivic "the ineighteenth-century humanism callsthediscourse art, Barrell Britinearly ofmasculinity eighteenth-century most authoritative fantasy as above all,whichrepresented publicvirtue ain; itwas thisdiscourse, or of the citizen the state and which virtue describes the corruption 'manly' In thecivicdiscourse on thearts, for as 'effeminacy."'20 example, "[t]hose in therefrom who are notcitizens are excludedas firmly participation two andthey include as they thepolitical arefrom republic, publicoftaste ofthis inparticular: Theterms actofexcluthevulgar andwomen. groups as ofgenderin thecivicdiscourse, sion therefore disclose... a politics ofclass."'21 wellas a politics

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of eighIn likemanner, Pocock arguesthatan important segment from theRenaissance ideteenth-century political thought derives political who most himself ologythat posits manas a political animal fully realizes ingovernment. tothis byparticipating Independence, according discourse, ofrealproperty, is guaranteed whichenablesa citizen bytheownership notsusceptible in the to be self-supporting and therefore to corruption ofthosewho are in need ofpatronage. Pocock manner Thisdiscourse, to a financial is modelinwhichvirtue contends, developsin opposition not"real" butimaginary, basednoton solidtangible landbutonsomeimaginedvalueinthedistant future: ofa newruling theappearance elite (or"monied interest") ofstockholders and officeholders, whose relations with thegovernment werethoseofmutual was countered dependence, bya renewed oftheidealofthecitizen, (or"neo-Harrington") assertion virtuous inhisdevotion tothepublic good andhisengagement inrelations ofequality andruling-and-being-ruled, butvirtuous also inhisinwhichmight himcorrupt. For dependenceofanyrelation render ofrealproperty, this, thecitizen required theautonomy andmany rights (including theright tokeep andbeararms) werenecessary inorder toassureittohim; butthefunction ofproperty remained ofvirtue.22 theassurance ofrealproperty assuresvirtue. Sincewomenare effecOnlyownership from suchownership, excluded areexcludedfrom active civic tively they virtue. Yetthis mostmasculine ofdiscourses contains a seldomrecognized ofthis ofeighteenth-century British andtheimplications tradition thought, Thistradition for womenshouldbe addressed. tradition connects English womenwith andvirtuous womenofhonor, Roman imagesofstrong loyItrecognizes to duty. eventhough their access to and devotion alty, that, be mediated and sons, virtue must through fathers, husbands, brothers, womencanbe honest, andcomnonetheless sincere, frugal, courageous, retreats from mitted tocivic abovepersonal desire. duty Fielding eventually an important this hereffort effort toclaima claim; nonetheless, represents ofactive for womeninspite civicvirtue position mid-eighteenth-century toown realproperty ortobeararms. oftheir inability An exampleofthistradition Addison's appearsinJoseph playCato incivic virwomenas wellas menas participants which (1713), represents tue.Marciaand Lucia,noble Romanwomen,are devotedto thepublic

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Portius willdestroy hisfamily, good. Lucia, recognizing that herlove for renounces him: hereI swear, toheav'nI swear Never tomixmyplighted thine, handswith While sucha cloudofmischief hangsaboutus.23 Luciareminds him Although Portius pleadswith hertochangehermind, notions of oftheimportance ofkeeping ofconventional vows,a reversal fickle women: Has notthevow already pass'dmylips? TheGods havehearditand 'tisseal'dinheav'n. that was everpoured Mayallthevengeance On perjur'd headso'erwhelm me,ifI breakit!24 and although she Marcia, daughter to Cato,also knowsherRomanduty, ifherfather tomarry theboisterous Sempronius lovesJuba, sheiswilling ofRoman women ofstate.25 isrequired requires itfor reasons Suchsacrifice is notthine life as Catoreminds Marcia's as wellas men, brother, "Thy for, it."26 own,whenRomedemands Addison's playshowswomenas strong, totheir civicduty, is eventhough that duty loyal, and actively committed andfathers. mediated through husbands, brothers, ofwomenas Romanmilitary virheroesofpositive Representations in eighteenth-century ofthisera Painters visualart.27 tuefigure actively ofVirtue inorder ofmanliness tothefigure attribute commonly qualities with tocontrast her the GoddessofPleasure, asJoseph Spence voluptuous hisdiscussion ofsuchpaintings: isgenerally "Virtue represented explains in a coat ofmail,or a short as a military succinct lady.She is sometimes herlegsand armsbare,as theRomansoldiers used to be. She vest;with inher a sword orspear, hand. hasa manly faceandair;andgenerally grasps orreadiness for action; andherlook,a firmHerdress showshercharacter, or dangers, ness and resolution, notto be conqueredbyanydifficulties ofthephrase "amilitary that meet herintheway."28 Theawkwardness may and yetitis a good delady"demonstrates thedifficulty ofthis concept, ofOctavia, whotakes inthemanner toAnthony scription up hermarriage I saw ofmybeing ofa soldiercalledto battle, because of"thenecessity ofBlood,whichmust toprevent be thecermadea Sacrifice theEffusion tain Result ofan intestine War" (p. 133). Inthesametradition, account ofthepaintAnthony, Lord Shaftesbury's

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ing TheChoiceofHercules by Paolo Matthaeis to the assignsmanliness ofVirtue inorder female itwith figure tocontrast theeffeminate andindoofPleasure: lentfigure "Asfor theShape,Countenance or Person ofVIRTUE,that whichis usually givento PALLAS mayfitly serveas a modelfor this which isgiven Dame;as on theother toVENUSmayservein side,that thesamemanner for Inyetanother herRival."29 thefrontispiece example, in1774 to TheLady'sMagazine showsa stalwart, bare-armedwomanwearinga military helmet andvestovera longgown;shegestures with a spear toward theTemple ofVirtue, inviting another womantoenter andreceive a laurel crown.30 Octaviaisjustsucha figure ofstrength inherdedication andvirtue to theStoic ofreason principles andduty. Herfirmness andresolution, as well as herself-control, andprudence, frugality, locateherinthebestcivictra"From dition: that theTimeI becamecapable ofRemyInfancy, is,from I wastaught, flection, that tocontract tocommand my desires, my Passions, andtoshare with myPleasures was theonlyConduct others, which could promise meHappiness; andbyRuleslikeThesewas allmy future Life governed.Mychief Carewas to keep myMindcomposedand undisturbed; in every that Accident whichbefell have Powerto exert me,I might my Reason,and givemyjudgement itsdue Scope"(p. 126).Training in reason,self-discipline, and prudent is as necessary judgment for womenas for men, to Cleopatra according and Octavia. After thedeathofherfirst husband, duty compelsOctaviato marry Anthony. hisdeath, But,after she is rewarded byimperial permission to "inSolitude lead a life andRetirement; whereBooksandPhilosophy were bothmySupport andAmusement"-the ofa retired life Roman statesman (p. 143).Fielding emphasizes Octavia's intelligence andlearning, herrole as an astute who workshardto prevent politician a bloodycivil warbetweenherbrother and herhusband. Octaviais a prudent ofher manager estates as wellas a courageous woman whoprotects from Caesar's refugees malice andintercedes him with ontheir behalf. Intelligence, and prudence, ofthesentimental courage-thesearenotthetraits butofthecivic heroine, hero. In herwillingness to sacrifice personal for happiness thegood ofthe Octavia fulfills thedemands ofcivic state, virtue that refuses. Her Anthony to obeyherhusband is no different duty from to obeyCaesar, Anthony's for obedienceisthefirst ofa Roman. Before duty hermarriage toMarcellus, isprepared Octavia tomarry "hadmyUncleJulius CaesarcontinPompey inorder ued intheOpinion, to prevent thespilling ofmuchRoman that, Blood, itwas necessaryto make me a Sacrifice" (p. 127). When,after Marcellus' Caesarorders hertomarry death, as a pledgeofpeace Anthony

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itas hercivic for itandaccepts thereasons sheunderstands them, between shemeets andCaesarseemsimminent, Anthony When warbetween duty. to returns Anthony to negotiatea peace. Even after withherbrother for "hisUnkindness, him from Caesar'sanger, protects Octavia Cleopatra, of metobe careless it, couldnottempt how muchsoeverI suffered from infor all hischildren, hisdeath, she provides hisHonour" (p. 141).After hisduty, butthat mayneglect thosethat Cleopatra bore.Anthony cluding hers. toneglect matron, a Roman Octavia, is no excusefor devoted tothe ofwomenas actively representation positive Fielding's to Mary in a sense citizensof it,looks forward state,and therefore Rights ofa century later inAVindication ofthe Wollstonecraft, who,a third willsometime orother be so constisociety (1792),hopes"that ofWoman ofa citizen, orbedespised, fulfill theduties necessarily that manmust tuted, his life, inanyofthedepartments ofcivil whilehe was employed andthat tomanageherfamily, intent shouldbe equally citizen, also an active wife, Wollstonecraft However, herneighbors."'31 herchildren, andassist educate sucha womanexcepttocallher"mascuis no wordfor there recognizes, intheEnglish satiric womanis an objectofderision anda masculine line," tradition: haveI quarter every I am awareoftheobviousinference-from where arethey but women; masculine against heard exclamations Ifbythisappellation against menmeanto inveigh to be found? I shallmostcorin hunting, and gaming, shooting, their Ardour virofmanly theimitation butifitbe against dially joininthecry; of those talents the attainment more speaking, properly tues,or, thehuman ofwhichennobles character, theexercise andvirtues, whenthey inthescale ofanimal raises females being, andwhich whoviewthem those mankind;-all arecomprehensively termed I shouldthink, wishwithme,that witha philosophic eye must, daygrowmoreand moremasculine.32 they mayevery a manwho possesses worddescribes Just as no nonpejorative English worddeno nonpejorative that theculture callswomanly, thosevirtues has that a patriarchal society whopossessesthose virtues a woman scribes a men. Wollstonecraft and contend, Fielding to as both Yet, assigned life. ifsheistodevelopa moral womanmust haveaccesstothesevirtues does notsucceedas an availlady" the"military In theend,however, discursive a sufficient forFielding, and she does notfind able category virtue. female heroofcivic Although toconstruct a credible spaceinwhich

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itprofesses to admire them, English tradition firmly locatesthesestrong, womeninaninaccessible admirable inthedisandtherefore safemoment tant past.Octaviais thevictim ofAnthony's mistreatment and Cleopatra's andultimately machinations, theimage ofthe victimized womanoverpowersthat oftheheroiccitizen. Octaviais an abandonedwoman,a standard inWestern figure literaand muchofherstory ture, is a familiar recital offemale Ansuffering.33 refuses to acknowledge thony that Octaviais exactly thesortofreasonable and affectionate woman thathe could truly love, forthe cultural conventions that womento please menbycounterfeit require and guile makehonest andloving relationships impossible. Beguiled byCleopatra's artful he cannotrecognizeOctavia'strueaffection: manipulations, "So mucha Stranger was hetothevery ofanunfeigned Marks that not Passion, ofRage he had been accustomed seeingthoseStorms to withthoseto whomhe had been thegreatest that Affection Dupe, he couldnotfancy real,whichwantedsuchmarks" (p. 135).Neither can he appreciate her "Ihadalways sinceitseemstothreaten hissuperiority: intellect, theRepuofhaving tation anUnderstanding uncommon for a Woman; Andthis RepuI valuedmyself tation madeAnthony that on it, imagine and presumed to Evenherlast-minute be hisequal"(pp. 134-5). efforts tosaveAnthony from brutal from him:"Your destruction rebuffs attendance orCompany bring willatpresent be neither oragreeable... your Letters are proper repeated troublesome andimpertinent" He publicly andbrutally (pp. 140-1). rejects her. Likeanyother suchabandoned womaninliterary history, Octavia can ofrealSorrow onlyweep and wait:"Tears droppedunheededfrom my from thedoubleSourceofhiscruelScorn, Eyes.Tearswhichflowed and hisapproaching Ruin. no harsh Wordagainst himbrokefrom However, nordidI intermix I wrote intheLetters him" my Lips; anybitter Reproaches (p. 140).HowevermuchOctaviarisesabove hersuffering or heroically adheres toherduty as a Romancitizen, intheendtheimagethat remains ofheris that ofa silenced andsuffering victim. Octavia's for ofpainistheknowledge reward herlife that only shehas doneherduty: "the Pleasure ofconsidering that not themany withstanding I had endured, unavoidable Misfortunes as I had acteduprightly and yet, I without could not for condemn Guile, myself beingtheCause ofanyof theseMisfortunes" how many ofwrong(p. 143).No matter professions herelaborately doinganddeathbed repentances Cleopatra makes, staged death far more makes than Octavia's compelling reading quietresignation. Fielding's to makea virtuous inability womanas interesting as her

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fears ofmid-eighteenth-century thevalidity heroine demonstrates wicked discourse. thecivic toovercome ofthecommercial culture thepower about a proper awayfrom seducesthereader Cleopatra andluxurious Theerotic in deOctaviato wallowinstead and virtuous oftheaustere admiration who would alluring temptress The erotic, ofopulent splendor. scriptions Roman thecourageousand prudent consumetheworldovershadows disthanfrugal is moreinteresting because lavishconsumption matron, thenovel men, byeffeminate may be threatened Though England cretion. women. itwillbe redeemed bymanly does notoffer hope that by Anthony as thewomanwho effeminizes The imageofCleopatra howwomenremains, for on hisculturally approvedcontempt playing theEnthreaten expectations that conventional gender as a warning ever, insubsequent novelsabandons Fielding nation. although Moreover, glish inthediscourse women andvirtuous tomakea placefor strong theattempt in some of Octavia'squalitiesremain nonetheless of civichumanism, forexofDellwyn, Mrs. Bilsonin the Countess later heroines. Fielding's and responsibly, householdfrugally ample,managesherimpoverished sherescues her for husband isimprisoned debt, andwhenherextravagant In 7heHistoryofOpheli(1760), although herownefforts. family through from heridyllic Welshhomeand takento by force Opheliais abducted and,byherownefforts, bothhervirtue protects shesuccessfully London, cometomanage women increasingly These marriage. achieves a brilliant constrained ownchoicesfor good orevil, ownlives andtomaketheir their RoThe figure ofOctavia, thevirtuous butnotlimited to,domesticity. by, competto challenge to civicduty, also remains committed manmatron womanwho that oftheextravagant whether ingmodelsofwomanhood, of victim ofthepassivesuffering artifice anddeceit, menthrough controls Within these domestic paragon. orofthesubmissive masculine aggression, find womenwriters likeFielding openingsthrough images, competing interpreoffemininity andfind fresh explorenewdefinitions which they ofmasculinity. tations
NOTES
SarahFielding, The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia, ed. ChristopherD. Johnson be citedparenthis textwill Press,1994),p. 55.Hereafter Univ. PA:Bucknell (Lewisburg thetically. 2 ElizabethRobinson Montaguto Sarah Robinson Scott(Montagu Collection, Library). M0984, Huntington Press,1997),p. 75. (New York:St.Martin's don, 1758),p. 51.
3Gerald Newman, The Rise ofEnglishNationalism. A CulturalHistory, 1 740-1830

4JohnBrown, Estimate on theManners and Principles ofthe Times, 7thedn. (Lon-

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5Brown, p. 92.

p. 91 6Brown, 7Ibid.
8Brown, p.41

p. 68 9Brown, p. 63. 10Brown, 11 ofthe Vindication A ShortandModest Man: Or, WomanNotInferiorto "Sophia," with and Esteem, EqualityofPower, toa Perfect oftheFAIR-SEX NaturalRight Dignity, theMen (London,1739),p. 51 Men,Manly Women:Genderand Nation 12 Nussbaum'spaper,"Effeminate Felicity 1 December Library, attheHuntington delivered England," inMidEighteenth-Century in themid-eighof"effeminate" 1995,includesan extendeddiscussionofthemeaning this essay. I am grateful for toquote from permission century. teenth 13 Travels ContaininganAccountofHis TheAdventuresofDavidSimple, Fielding, in theSearch ofa Real Friend,ed. theCitiesofLondon and Westminister through willbe rethistext MalcolmKensall(New York:OxfordUniv.Press,1987).Hereafter to as David Simple. ferred 14DavidSimple, pp. 304-5. 15 1974). ofDellwyn(New York:Garland, oftheCountess TheHistory Fielding, 16 in From ThreeSexes toFourGenders "London'sSapphists: Trumbach, Randolph Politics inBodyGuards:TheCultural ofGenderAmbiofModernCulture," theMaking 1991), Straub (New Yorkand London:Routledge, ed. JuliaEpsteinand Kristina guity, pp. 112-41,112-3. 17 A History oftheLifeand Vast Mistress, or, Daniel Defoe,Roxana: TheFortunate Called theCountessde ofFortunesofMademoisellede Beleau, afterwards Variety LadyRoxana in Germany Wintshelsheim BeingthePersonKnownbytheName ofthe World's Classics(Oxford and NewYork:Oxford in theTimeofCharlesII,ed.Jane Jack, Univ. Press,1988),p. 148. Advice TheLady'sNew YearsGift, 18 or, ofHalifax, "[F]rom GeorgeSavile,marquis in the Constructions ofFemininCentury: Eighteenth toa Daughter(1688),"in Women 1990),pp. 17-22,18.Savile's ed. VivianJones(London and New York:Routledge, ity, its women until is England'smostpopularconductmanualfor advice to his daughter to hisdaughter. in 1774byJohn letters Gregory's replacement 19 A Philosophical EnquiryintotheOriginofOurIdeas oftheSubEdmundBurke, Oxford and New York: World's Classics(Oxford limeandBeautiful,ed. AdamPhillips, Univ. Press,1990),p. 100. and theAesthetic Prestige, "'TheDangerousGoddess':Masculinity, 20John Barrell, inTheBirth ofPandoraandtheDivisionofKnowlinEarly Britain," Eighteenth-Century and London:Macmillan, 1992),pp. 63-87, Hampshire Basingstoke, edge (Houndmills, 64. 21Ibid. and and History: Essayson PoliticalThought G. A.Pocock,Virtue, Commerce, 22J. Univ. in theEighteenth Press,1985), Cambridge (Cambridge: Century Chiefly History, and Florentine PoliticalThought p. 48. See also Pocock, TheMachiavellianMoment: Princeton Univ. Tradition Press,1975). the (Princeton: AtlanticRepublican Plays,ed. RicardoQuinata(New Addison,Cato,in Eighteenth-Century 23Joseph callingmy 1952),pp. 3-56,34. I am indebtedto David Weed for York:ModernLibrary, to this text. attention
24Ibid.

p. 42. 25Addison,

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26Addison, p. 48. 27Barrell, P. 73. theAgreement between 28Joseph Spence,Polymetis; or,An Enquiryconnecting theWorks oftheRoman Poets, andtheRemainsoftheAntientArtists (London,1755),p. 140. Times, 29Anthony, LordShaftesbury, Characteristicks ofMen, Manners,Opinions, 4thedn. (London,1727),pp. 363-4. 30Frontispiece, orEntertainingCompanionfortheFairSex, TheLady'sMagazine, 4 (1773). Appropriated Solely to TheirUseandAmusement 31MaryWollstonecraft,A Vindication ofthe Rights ofWoman, 2d edn.,ed. CarolH. Poston(London:Norton, 1975),p. 146. p. 8. 32Wollstonecraft, and PoeticTradition 33Lawrence Abandoned Women (Chicagoand LonLipking, ofChicagoPress,1988)providesan accountofthis don: Univ. and pervasive powerful figure.

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