Capacitive level meters for cryogenic liquids with continuous read-out

I. V. V e l i c h k o v and V. M . D r o b i n *
Department of Solid State Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Sofia, 5 A. Ivanov Boulevard, Sofia, BG-1126, Bulgaria

Received 19 September 1989; revised 21 November 1989

The operation of a variety of liquid level meters is briefly considered. Currently used continuous read-out level meters, whose operation is based on the difference between the dielectric constants of the gas and the liquid measured, are compared. The requirements for cryogenic application of these level meters are discussed. An electronic circuit for capacitance measurements with high stability and resolution better than 20 ppm is described along with construction details of capacitance transducers both for liquid nitrogen and liquid helium. The parameters of two particular level meters are reported as follows. For liquid nitrogen: measuring length 50 cm; overall error < 1% at full scale deviation (FSD); short time instabilities < 0.01% FSD; resolution better than 0.05 mm. For liquid helium: measuring length 60 cm; overall error < 5% FSD; short time instabilities < 0.2% FSD; resolution better than 1 mm.

Keywords: liquid level meters; measuring techniques; nitrogen; helium; capacitance measurements

Most modern cryostats are made entirely from metals and optically non-transparent plastics. To measure, observe, record or automatically control the level of cryogenic coolant in such cryostats, level meters are needed. In the present work the electronic measuring scheme and design of transducers for two different cryogenic level meters are described.

Cryogenic liquid level meters: an overview

At present many types of cryogenic liquid level meters exist. In general, these devices can be split into three groups, as follows: 1 Level meters made in the form of dip sticks with a point sensor at the bottom end. With such a device one can locate the position of the liquid surface and by so doing, measure the level of the liquid in the cryostat. These level meters cannot be used to observe, record or automatically control the level of the coolant. Level meters with a discrete output signal. These consist of a finite number of point sensors built into the cryostat. Each of the sensors gives out a signal when the surface of the liquid passes over it. Devices of this kind can be used to automatically control 1 or to observe 2 the liquid level in the cryostat.

Continuous read-out level meters which can be of the following types. Mechanical - different kinds of float level meters. Manometric - with differential manometers which measure the pressure of the cryogenic liquid column. Capacitive - based on the difference in the dielectric constants of the liquid and the gas a-l. These give out a continuous signal when the capacitance of the sensor is changing on filling or emptying with liquid. Superconducting - level meters used to measure the level of the liquid helium only 11. The newly discovered high temperature superconductors, however, present the possibility of constructing such devices for other cryogenic liquids. Other types ultrasonic, optical, etc. 12-14.

* Present address: Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Laboratory of High Energies, Dubna, 10100 Moscow, PO Box 79, USSR O011-2275/90/060538-07 1990 Butterworth - Heinemann Ltd

The continuous read-out level meters may be divided into two subgroups, with and without electrical output. Absence of an electrical output signal limits the application of the devices to measuring and observation of the liquid level. However, the manometric level meters, with the aid of pneumoautomatics, can be used to build up level controllers. On the other hand, level meters with electrical output signal may be separated into those with analog output and those with digital output. The presence of a digital output signal is convenient when the level meter is included in an automatic system based on a computer. However, the digital signal cannot be registered directly by chart recorders and is not suitable for driving simple analog level controllers. In the authors' opinion, level meters with an analog output signal are more universal. They can be used to measure and observe, as well as to record and automatically control the level of the liquid.

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Capacitive continuous read-out level meters for cryogenic applications

The performance of capacitive level meters is determined by both the construction of the transducer and the design of the electronic measuring circuit. Using a meter in cryogenics sets some specific requirements as discussed below.

requirements arise not only from the cryogenic application of the level meters, but also because they are natural requirements for this kind of device. It should be noted that several level meters may be necessary in a single physical experiment. It should also be noted that the procedure of measuring the liquid level is usually o f secondary importance. This is why it is hard to believe that the experimenter would spare a precise phase sensitive voltmeter for this purpose.

Requirements for design of capacitance transducer

Stability with respect to temperature gradients and thermocycling must be provided. Inside the cryostat the capacitance transducer always works under large temperature gradients and considerable longitudinal temperature differences. All this must not affect the required accuracy of level-to-capacitance transformation. The influence of moisture should be eliminated. Atmospheric moisture always condenses on the cold parts of a cryostat. The design of the capacitance transducer must prevent access of the moisture between the measuring electrodes. If not, because of the large dielectric constant of the water, even a small amount of condensate can severely disturb operation of the transducer. The influence of stray capacitances must be eliminated. The capacitance of the sensor is usually ,~ 100 pF. The stray capacitances (between the measuring electrodes and the cryostat, the cables and the surroundings) can be even greater than the sensor capacitance and their uncontrolled changes can cause strong disturbances if precautions are not taken. Small axial thermal conductivity of the transducer is required. Otherwise heat transfer will occur from the warm parts of the cryostat to the cryogenic liquid. This requirement is of special importance for liquid helium level meters, in connection with the extremely small heat of evaporation of liquid helium. Small cross-section and simple construction are preferable where possible. When measuring the level of cryogenic coolant is of secondary importance, and especially if the level meters are used in minicryostat inserts, these demands are essential.

Currently used circuits for measuring small capacitances: a brief review and comparison of the characteristics
Measuring small capacitances is a well developed area of applied electronics. Many measuring schemes exist but, unfortunately, almost all of them do not meet all the requirements for cryogenic applications described above. The first main group of schemes for measuring small capacitances is based on a.c. bridges, with one of the arms including the capacitance to be measured. The main and essential disadvantage of all schemes using bridges is the non-linearity of the output signal in cases of a large imbalance. Wheatson-type bridges 3' 4 are quite sensitive to the stray capacitances. Blumleim-type bridges (with tightly coupled inductive ratio arms) 15' 16 can offer remarkable sensitivity of 10-7 pF and outstanding stability of I ppm. Furthermore, they are not so sensitive to stray capacitances. But they require the use of three-terminal capacitance transducers. The measuring scheme is complex and requires a lock-in voltmeter for detection of the out-of-balance signal. These features make Blumleintype bridges the most suitable for carrying out precise physical investigations. But as level meters they are not very suitable. The second major group of devices suitable for measuring small capacitances is based on high frequency oscillators. In these, the capacitance to be measured determines the generated frequency5' 6. If this principle is applied to level meters, difficulties arise with eliminating the signal caused by the initial capacitance of the sensor. Also, there is no straightforward way to obtain an analog output signal. Another group of measuring schemes is based on creating pulses with a duration proportional to the measured capacitance. In Reference 7 an integrated monostable vibrator 74121 is used for this purpose. In Reference 8 the measuring capacitance is periodically charged with a constant current for the same purpose. From the point of view of cryogenic applications, the electronic circuit described in Reference 7 suffers from insufficient thermal stability. In addition, it does not eliminate the signal due to the initial capacitance and requires an additional frequency meter to measure the duration of the pulses. The circuit from Reference 8 requires a capacitance transducer with a complex design. Its analog output signal is obtained with the aid of a cumbersome electronic scheme and suffers from nonlinear distortions. Other types of measuring schemes exist, such as those using an integrated frequency-to-voltage converter9 or with a special capacitance-to-frequency converter 1. One interesting proposal is a scheme based on the diode pump method 1~. All these devices offer some advantages

Requirements for measuring circuit

The signal obtained from the initial capacitance (in the case of an empty sensor) must be subtracted. The information about the level of the liquid is contained in the change of capacitance. That is why the output signal of the level meter should be proportional to this change and not to the entire capacitance of the sensor. High sensitivity and stability must be achieved. The difference in the dielectric constants of the liquid and the vapour for cryogenic coolants may be very small. Accordingly, this leads to very small changes in the capacitance of the sensor to be measured. For example, these changes for liquid helium are within 3 %. This sets very high requirements for both the sensitivity and stability of the measuring scheme. Analog output is required. This is essential if the level meter is to be connected to a chart recorder or to an analog level controller. Good linearity, insensitivity to noise, small dimensions, simplicity, low cost, etc. are also desired. All these

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Capacitive level meters: I.V. Velichkov and V.M. Drobin

,R3P~iRq '
CI

- )- -

~
~3
Figure

"' cIIIcx
l ] _

R2 - /5v

R1

1 Principal electronic scheme of capacitance level meter. M 1, 7413; M 2, M 3, 74121

but also suffer from some shortcomings. For example, the scheme in Reference 9 cannot provide sufficient temperature stability for some cryogenic applications; a frequency meter is required as an output device in Reference 10; and in Reference 17, ~he sensitivity of the scheme is poor. This short review shows that, in spite of the wide variety of methods available, the problem of finding the optimum measuring scheme for capacitive cryogenic fiquid level meters has, in some respects, not yet been solved.

S u g g e s t e d c a p a c i t i v e level m e t e r f o r c r y o g e n i c liquids A level meter which in the authors" opinion satisfies the cryogenic application requirements is described below.
Electronic measuring scheme The suggested electronic scheme is shown in Figure 1. It belongs to the group of pulsed schemes. To form the pulses an integrated monostable vibrator 74121 is used. This integrated circuit provides a linear dependance of duration of generated pulses of the form t ,~ RC. The capacitance, C, may range from 10 pF to 1000 #F, and the resistance, R, between 2 and 40 kQ. Excellent stability is guaranteed (6tit <~0.5 %) in the temperature range - 10 to 70 C, with a supply voltage between 4.75 and 5.25 V. In Reference 7 the 74121 is used in a fuel level meter set-up. The conventional method of connection for the 74121 is, however, not very suitable for cryogenic level meters. The problems arise mainly from the small deviation of transducer capacitance which must be measured. For liquid helium, for example, this deviation is ~ 3 %, and even 0.5 % instabilityis too large for a level meter ifit is to have acceptable accuracy. Furthermore, as already pointed out, the conventional connection of the 74121, as in the scheme described in Reference 7, leads to a signal which is proportional to the overall capacity of the sensor, and not to the capacity deviation. Also, in Reference 7, no analog output signal is provided. Figure 2 shows the time dependence of the signals at

different points of the suggested scheme, visualizing its functioning. The trigger M 1-1 (see Figure 1) serves as a cycle generator with a duration between pulses, T (signal 1). M 2 and M a are the measuring and the compensating monovibrators, producing pulses with durations t~ (signal 2) and to (signal 3), respectively. Circuit M I _ 2 subtracts these two pulses and gives out the pulse At = tx - to (signal 4). The chain R a, R 4 and C4 integrates the sequence of the pulses, At (signal 5). If a mircoampmeter is connected as a detector, the resistors R a and R 4 also determine the output current and, in this way, the sensitivity of the level meter. In the suggested scheme, the values of the period T and the resistor Rx may be varied. How to choose these values is explained below and at the same time the measuring principle is substantiated and an estimation is made of the parameters in the scheme. The duration of the pulses, generated by the 74121, is t~ = 0.7 R~C~ (hereafter the time intervals are given in

ulF,
utJ=
U

_1 II

tx

Jl,
It

(~)

At

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ui

I:u

'

F i g u r e 2 Voltage-time diagram at different points of scheme shown in Figure I. For details see text

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Capacitive level meters: I.V. Velichkov and V.M. Drobin seconds, the resistance in ohms and the capacitances in farads). For correct functioning of the 74121, a restoration time, t , must be provided at the end of each generated pulse. This time is required for recharging of the capacitance, C I, and can be expressed in the form t r ,~ 0.7 (6 x 103)CI. It is clear that the expression T~> tl man+ tr = 0.7 (Rx + 6000)Cx maxmust be satisfied. Also, At = 0.7RIACI. The integration of the pulses with a period T and width At gives a voltage, AU = Uo (At~T) <~ Uo[Rx/(Rx + 6000)] ACx/Cxn~x). It is obvious that to achieve a maximum output signal, AU, the maximum value of RI and the minimum value of T allowed must be taken. Thus, R I is taken to be 39 kQ in Figure 1. The period is chosen to be T = 3.2 x 104 C1m,~. In this case, we have (if Uo = 5.0 V), A U = 4.3 x (AC,JCI'*,I) V. It can be seen that a voltage proportional to the deviation of the sensor capacity at the output of the scheme is produced in linear dependence on the level of the liquid being measured. The main advantages of this scheme are listed below. The scheme gives increased stability when measuring small time intervals in comparison with the scheme in Reference 7. If At is measured by the direct method (as in Reference 7) the related error will be 6(At)/At <~ (rt/t) x (t ,,,flAt). For a liquid helium level meter the corresponding term, (t~,JAt), is ~ 30 and an error of the order of 15% in measuring At would arise. This unacceptably high error directly limits the accuracy of measuring the liquid level. In the scheme shown in Figure 1, the two monovibrators form a kind of differential circuit. In this way, because the characteristics of the two 74121s are similar, the influence of external disturbing factors (e.g. ambient temperature) is significantly reduced. If the pair of monovibrators are specially selected, these influences can be largely overcome. In this case measurement of small At values can be carried out independently, with the back-up of a large t value, and the error in determination of At can be close to that for the whole pulse, i.e. 0.5 %. This allows the presented measuring scheme to be used successfully in cryogenic level meters, even for liquid helium. In the scheme presented an analog signal is achieved directly without any additional electronic circuitry. Also there are significantly lower demands for the construction of the capacitance transducer. Indeed, the output signal is proportional to the ratio AC,JCI'*al. This removes the requirement for large absolute values of ACx. That is why (in contrast to Reference 8) the sensor may be constructed with only two coaxial tubes with a capacity of the order of several tens of picofarads. The circuit gives an output signal linearly dependent on ACI, no matter how large the variations of capacity are. This is in strong contrast to the conventional bridge circuits. With the scheme described, the signal caused by the initial capacity of the sensor is directly subtracted. Furthermore, the possibility of compensation for temperature induced changes in the connecting coaxial cable exists if an identical cable is connected to the compensating monovibrator. In this case, R 1 + R 2 must be set equal to 39 kfl and a variable capacitor should be added to C2 for setting the null of the level meter. The scheme presents the possibility of setting the null and the maximum of the output detector to any couple of points along the active length of the capacitance transducer. Moreover, setting of the null does not affect the sensitivity of the scheme and setting the sensitivity does not shift the null. The measuring scheme has very good insensitivity to noise because it utilizes the pulse width method. It should be noted, that to lower the influence of stray capacitances the transducer must be connected exactly as shown in Figure 1, and not as in Reference 7. This is important because the pin (C) of the 74121 has low output resistance and the outer electrode connected to it serves as a shield for the more sensitive inner one. The small dimensions allow the scheme to be mouted close to the capacitance transducer if necessary. In this way the unwanted additional capacity of the connecting cable can be lowered. The scheme is simple, reliable and low in cost. These features are very advantageous for serial manufacturing of level meters on the basis of this scheme. The measuring scheme described does, however, suffer from two disadvantages. First, the measuring capacitance must not include any ohmic conductance because this will disturb the functioning of the 74121. For the nonconducting cryogenic liquids this demand is always satisfied. For conducting liquids (e.g. water), the construction of the capacitance transducer must provide electrical insulation between the two electrodes and the liquid. This may complicate the manufacturing of the sensor. Second, neither of the two electrodes of the capacitance transducer must be grounded (e.g. connected to the case of the cryostat). This disadvantage slightly complicates the mounting of the sensor in the cryostat. Construction of capacitance transducer The demands on the capacitance transducer for cryogenic applications have been outlined above. Below, the construction of the transducers used for measuring the level of liquid nitrogen and liquid helium are described. A construction with two coaxial tubes is taken as a base. A fishing line with suitable diameter, spirally wound between the tubes, serves as a separator. This method for spacing the tubes effectively cushions the liquid between the measuring electrodes. In addition, small bends in the sensors which may occur during its treatment do not change its axial homogeneity and do not cause any short circuits. The capacity of two coaxial electrodes with thin walls is given by the expression

C = [2rteoeJln(D/d)]n
where: eo = absolute value of the dielectric constant of the vacuum; er = dielectric constant of the medium between the electrodes; D and d = diameters of the outer and inner electrodes, respectively; and H = height of the sensor. If the transducer is filled up to height h by the liquid, the corresponding change of capacity is

AC = [2rreo/ln(D/ d) ] x (erl - er~)h

Here e~ and e,g are the dielectric constants of the liquid and the vapour of the measured cryogenic coolant. It is seen that AC is proportional to h. It is also seen that radial changes caused by the temperature differences along the sensor do not disturb its functioning (the expression for AC contains the ratio Did only). The

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coaxial construction also allows the outer electrode to be used as a guard against the influence of stray capacitances. Figure 3 shows the construction of the capacitance transducer used by the authors for measuring the level of liquid nitrogen. The sensor is formed from two thin wall stainless steel tubes which have small axial thermal conductivity. Because most nitrogen reservoirs are not hermetic, the transducer is made in unsealed variant. But the coaxial cable is hermetically separated from the active volume of the sensor to prevent penetration of moisture. To avoid access of moisture inside the sensor itself the following precautions are taken. The orifices (4) are made narrow and are placed at a sufficient distance above the top of the cryostat (typically at 20 cm). In this way, the upper end of the transducer is always kept at room temperature. The axial heat transfer into the liquid nitrogen, even though very small, causes a steady flow of dry gas out through the orifices (4). The sensor itself is fixed tightly into the measuring hole of the liquid nitrogen tank and when the latter is filled the cold vapours cannot reach the top of the transducer. Thus constructed and positioned, the capacitance transducer is capable of working for months without developing any faults. If, in spite of all this, moisture penetrates into the sensor (e.g. if the sensor is taken out of the liquid nitrogen and immediately exposed, unprotected, to the air), treatment for a few minutes with warm air or dry nitrogen gas restores its operational capabilities. Helium cryostats always work in a dosed cycle of evaporation of the helium. That is why penetration of moisture into the sensor during operation of the level meter is excluded. For helium, ( e r l - ~rg)/~rl = 3.9~o, which is quite a small value. On the other hand, the change in linear dimensions caused by cooling from room temperatures down to helium temperatures is All~ H = 0.3 %. This change corresponds to variations in the capacitance of the sensor and can be equal to up to 10 % of the change caused by filling with liquid helium. Furthermore, if the transducer is built from stainless steel tubes, because of its small axial thermal conductivity, the temperature at any point along the transducer will be determined by the temperatures inside the cryostat. However, the temperature gradients into the cryostat depend on the level of helium and this will lead to nonlinearities of the level meter. The construction for overcoming these problems is shown in Figure 4. The active bottom part of the sensor is made from copper, a material with good thermal conductivity. (Such an approach is used in Reference 8 where the sensor is made from brass.) The suspending upper part of the transducer is made from stainless steel tubes in order to keep the heat transfer through it held at a reasonably small value. To achieve low additional capacitance, the inner electrode is a capillary tube. If the level of the liquid helium is in contact with the copper, the temperature of the active part of the sensor is homogeneous and does not change when the level of liquid helium changes. In this way, the non-linearity of the sensor is overcome.

Level meters for liquid nitrogen and liquid helium

Liquid nitrogen level meter According to the construction shown in Figure 3, a capacitance transducer with a length of 70 cm and capacitance ,~ 100 pF was made. With the aid of a coaxial cable of length 2 m and capacitance ~ 150 pF the sensor was connected to the measuring circuit. The output signal from this level meter is ,~ 0.6 V if 50 cm of the sensor is filled. Figure 5 demonstrates the drop in level within a liquid nitrogen tank with a poor insulating vacuum between the walls. The small oscillations at the lower right-hand end of the record are caused by automatic start-up of a big compressor, and are the result of consequent vibration of the building. The electrical disturbances at the moments when the compressor starts and stops are not observed on the record. This indicates the good insensitivity to noise of the level meter. Figure 6 shows a record of the liquid level in a good nitrogen dewar. It can be seen that the level meter offers a short-time stability better than 0.01 ~ FSD and a resolution of 0.05 mm. The non-linearities of the capacitance transducer (caused by thermal expansions and contrac-

Figure 3 Construction of capacitance transducer for liquid nitrogen. 1,2, Thin wall stainless steel tubes; 3, dielectric spacer (fishing line); 4, orifices for flowing out of evaporated nitrogen; 5, coaxial cable

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1 mm

5 min
, ,

F i g u r e 5 Record of output signal from liquid nitrogen level meter, inserted into nitrogen tank with poor insulating vacuum. Calibration of sensitivity is made in situ

0.1 mm

i
5 rain

t
q

Figure 6 Record of output signal from liquid nitrogen level meter, inserted into good nitrogen dewar. Calibration of sensitivity is made
in situ

35 cm

Figure 4 Construction of capacitance transducer for liquid helium. 1,2, Copper tubes; 3, dielectric spacer (fishing line); 4, orifices; 5, thin wall stainless steel tube; 6, Teflon spacer; 7, capillary stainless steel tube

tions of the construction when the level changes) and the variations of atmospheric pressure limit the error of the level meter to 1% FSD. However, this error is quite acceptable for almost all practical uses. Liquid hefium level meter According to the construction show in Figure 4, a capacitance transducer with active length of 60 cm and overall capacitance ~ 100 pF was made. The measuring circuit was mounted directly on the top of the transducer. A connecting cable of minimal length was used. The measuring circuit itself was placed into a polystyrene box to limit the influence of ambient temperature variations. The output signal with the sensor filled is, in this case, ~0.15 V. Figure 7 shows a record of the output signal when the sensor was moved quickly up and down in the dewar. After taking the sensor out above the liquid (point 1) the effect of warming the electrodes is dearly seen. While the lower copper part is touching the liquid, after dipping the sensor into the liquid (point 2) and its

1 min
i i

Figure 7 Record of output signal from liquid helium level meter, while sensor is moved quickly up and down in the dewar. Calibration of sensitivity is made in situ. For details see text

subsequent cooling (point 3), thermal relaxation effects do not exist (points 4, 5 and 6). Figure 8 shows a short-time stability for this level meter better than 0.2 ~o FSD and a resolution of 1 mm. The accuracy of the level meter is affected by changes in atmospheric pressure and by thermal relaxation effects in the upper, stainless steel part of the transducer. An overall error less than 5 ~ FSD is estimated for operation under normal laboratory conditions. The level meter works even if the vapour above the liquid helium is pumped. But in this case its calibration changes within +__15 ~ FSD down to the 2 point of helium. It is possible to measure the level of liquid helium even below the 2

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2 film

5 rain

Figure 8 Record of output signal from liquid helium level meter, inserted into helium storage dewar. Calibration of sansitiviW is made
in situ

point. The film of superfluid helium which moves up into the sensor does not affect its functioning because the thickness of the film is negligible with respect to the distance between the electrodes.

esting in its own right as a highly sensitive circuit for measuring small changes of capacitance. For the case of a nitrogen level meter, the electronic scheme described offered resolution better than 20 ppm of the overall capacitance connected to it. Improvements in the characteristics of the electronic scheme can be made if a special selection of identical pairs of monovibrators is made and if the whole scheme is thermostatically controlled. With appropriately constructed capacitance transducers the suggested measuring circuit also allows one to build up other level meters, for water, fuel, etc. It is also possible to use the electronic circuit in combination with capacitance transducers for measuring other physical quantities such as pressure and mechanical movement.

References
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Srinivasan, K. and Alfin, J. Rev Sci Instrum (1983) 54 759 Sviridov, V.A. Izv VUZ Radioelektr (1983) 26 (5) 91 (in Russian) Vrba, J. Cryooenics (1971) 11 313 Mus'kin, Yu.N. Sapsai, Yu.H., Smekhnov, A.A. and Zharkov, Ya, V. lzmer Tekh (USSR) (1982) 25 (5) 49 and Meas Tech (USA) (1982) 25 418 Jones, B.K. Cryooenics (1969) 9 214 Bobrakov, V.F. and Vasilev, B.V. Commun JINR (1980) R13-80-544 (in Russian) AIIsebrook, J. Wireless World (1984) 90 73 Kiigler, K.-J., Lindenberg, W. and Niehues, N. Cryogenics (1984) 24 63 Collocott, S.J. Cryogenics (1983) 23 327 Ross, P. J. J Phys E Sci Instrum (1983) 16 827 Jfmgst, K.P. and Sfiss, E. Cryogenics (1984) 24 429 Zuekerwar, A.J., Mazel, D.S. end Hedges, D.Y. Rev Sci Instrum (1986) 57 2318 Tsirlin, O.V. and Yushkin, A.A. Izmer Tekh (USSR) (1985) 28 (6) 30 and Meas Tech (USA) (1985) 28 512 Cole, J.B. and Chin, J.K.L. J Phys E Sci Instrum (1983) 16 710 Hngil, A.L. J Phys E Sci lnstrum (1982) 15 597 Heerens, W.C. J Phys E Sci lnstrum (1986) 19 897 Rutt, H.N. and Bonilla, I.R. J Phys E Sci Instrum (1975) 8 239

Conclusions
Capacitance level meters are widely used in cryogenics. They can be used successfully to measure the level of all cryogenic liquids and they do not dissipate any power as they function. The limiting factor for their wider application is the strict demands for the measuring circuit. In the authors' opinion, the electronic scheme suggested in this work satisfies all these requirements and is, at the same time, simple and reliable. Liquid nitrogen level meters based on this circuit have worked successfully for more than two years in the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, USSR. The capacitance level meters can be used as a base for building a vapour content meter for use in a flow of all cryogenic liquids. The authors successfully tested such a device for liquid helium flow. In the authors' opinion, the electronic scheme is inter-

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