Lab Textbook (Partial)

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics
Measurement and Instrumentation Fourth Edition

[Rev K]
Claude Setzer, Ph.D. PE

Indiana University-Purdue University, Fort Wayne 2013 by Claude Setzer, including text, photos, illustrations, screen shots. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be duplicated except for inclusion in lab notebook assignments.
Photos and screen shots of Tektronix oscillosopes reproduced with permission of Tektronix, Inc. Photos and screen shots of MyDAQ, LabView, and Multisim reproduced by permission of National Instruments. Other photos and illustratons used by permisssion of Agilent, Fluke, and others as noted.
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List of Lab Topics:

1. LabVIEW, Statistics of Resistors, and Uncertainty Analysis [DMM and LabVIEW] 2. System Loading [Analog and Digital multimeters] 3. Oscilloscope Calibration [Digital Scope, Freq. counter, Signal Generator] 4. Low Pass Filter, Forced Response/Natural Response,[manual measurement] 5. Natural Frequency, RLC Frequency Response. [Scope, Signal Generator] 6. Natural Response (RLC Step Response) [Scope, Signal Generator] 7. Bode Plots [series RLC automated measurements using MyDAQ] 8. RC Bode Diagram [automated measurements using MyDAQ] 9. Active Filters One: First Order Low Pass Filter. [Multisim Simulation] 10. Factory simulation, 2nd and 3rd Order Low Pass Filter, [Multisim] 11. OpAMP Applications: LED Traffic Light [Multisim] 12. ELVIS Pressure Measurement/Calibration [Piezoelectric Sensor, MyDAQ DMM] 13. Signal Conditioning Amplifier [OpAmp, MyDAQ Automated Measurements] 14. Pressure Sensor [LabVIEW with DAQ simulation] 15. Factory Protection: Pressure Sensor Measurements [MyDAQ A/D input] 16. Thermocouple Simulation and Measurement [LabVIEW and My DAQ] 17. Thermocouple Calibration [use Lab 16 setup, calibrate to freezing water +] 18. Lean Manufacturing [CNC design, fabrication, and measurements] 19. Lab Standards + Quiz 20. Motor Speed [Square wave generator in LabVIEW to simulate LED pulses] 21. Motor Speed Measurements [Amplified LED pulses into MyDAQ/LabVIEW] 22. Lab Safety + Quiz 23. Strain Gauge Simulation [Signal Simulation VI in LabVIEW] 24. Strain Gauge Calibration [Wheatstone Bridge output to MyDAQ DMM, cal. block] 25. Vacuum Systems + Quiz 26. Vacuum Gauge [LabVIEW Thermocouple gauge measurement simulation] 27. Measurement of Mechanical Vibration [Laser Position Sensor + LabVIEW] Index
You will be given needed help on how to do many specific activities, but you are expected to basically Design (your own) Experiment to demonstrate each topic, and then to describe details of your design, including formal Uncertaitny Analysis.
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Course Overview
Design of Experiments
Design is widely considered to be the essence of effective engineering. In its most general and deepest aspect, as described by ABET, the design process is creative and openended, with consideration for the holistic nature of the project in question, and with no single or uniquely best outcome. It does, however, require careful and clearly defined process and often includes a variety of pre specified requirements. The process, and to some extent the methodology for creativity, can be taught, but these are largely developed by experience. This is the overall goal of this course, to help you learn the DESIGN process, both through methodology and through experience. If learned well, this skill will become the foundation for all of your future work as an engineering professional. Being successful is NOT something the teacher can do for you => you must be personally engaged in the process. You should not expect every detail to be given to you, but you need to THINK about how to do things in order to get the required result in the best possible way. This is NOT a circuit design course and you will not be expected to independently design and/or build circuits. You will be expected to understand how the circuit design process/procedure was used to implement some of the circuits you will use. Design of Experiments, at least as used in this course, refers to planning the lab experiment so that the required outcome can be accomplished. Among other things, this means considering specifications (including numbers !) and needed measure ments BEFORE starting the lab/experiment.
Structure of this Course

A typical 1- unit engineering lab course at most universities in the US would include either 3 or 4 hours of lab time once per week, along with 1 or 2 hours outside of lab time for each hour in lab. There would be 15 to 16 labs per semester. This course is an integrated combination of two courses that would normally have 30 or more associated lab sessions and sometimes also a final exam. Integration of the two courses has allowed substantial savings in time and efficiency, while enhancing your learning experience: 1. The number of lab sessions has been reduced from over 30 down to about 27, giving you several days of extra time with not lab or class. 2. There is no final exam. 3. The emphasis is on experience. 4. Course is tightly focused on most important skills and topics, with inclusion of many topics directly linked to realistic industrial use of the skills taught.
Technical material in the course:

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For more than a hundred years, engineering education has recognized and emphasized the interdependence of mechanical and electrical design (including computer engineering). An engineering professional in any of these 3 areas is much weaker and less effective without some background in the other two. Today, this interdependence has become even more critical, especially in the area of measurement and instrumentation. From the viewpoint of a mechanical engineer, the purely mechanical measuring instrument is not only less effective and less accurate, but there are literally not many left in use. From the viewpoint of electrical and computer engineers, the same type of need exists. For example, the major limit for performance of many electronic systems is not the electronic portion, but the mechanical parts, such as the physical endurance of a product or the ability to remove sufficient heat for the product to continue operation. Virtually all universities require mechanical engineers to a take a basic Circuits course and lab, while all require electrical and computer engineers are generally required to take basic mechanical engineering courses and labs. Some universities, like IPFW, enhance the experience of both by integrating them into one lab course.
Lab Notebook: [NOT a Lab REPORT]

The initial reaction of many engineers is that the amount of writing required for an effective lab notebook is somewhat of a bother, as Pooh would say. Successful engineers soon discover, however, that the lab notebook is one of the most important foundations of their success. Taking notes in real time and recording all details, no matter how unimportant or unforgettable they may seem at the time, is virtually the only way to insure 2 critical things: 1) that the data is not lost due to incorrect or inadequate memory, and 2) that the person who did the work has legal basis for getting proper recognition, such as a patent. A major goal of this course is to help you develop skills in keeping an effective/complete engineering lab notebook.
Basic Circuits:
Filter circuits are the most widely used and important of all circuits, as they allow a system to discriminate between desirable and undesirable results. The traditional lecture and lab course in basic circuits is typically a required background for all engineers. That course would include basic material of building and testing the properties of basic passive circuits, typically using a few resistors, capacitors, and inductors, with values and configuration to support the needed Design of Experiments. The next higher level of circuits would be active circuits or electronics, in which many varieties of amplifiers and other processing circuits would be designed, built, and tested. In the more modern version of the traditional Circuits course, the basic coverage of passive filters has been expanded to include Active Filters, reflecting the fact that Active Filters have become part of almost every electronic system today. This course will introduce this modern implementation of including Active Filters, but will do it in a simple straight forward way that is equally accessible to all engineers without need for a background in electronics. The amplifying element that will be used in the Active Filter is the Operational Amplifier [OpAmp], an integrated circuit that allows high performance while using only a simple cookbook method for specifying details of its implementation.
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Instrumentation:
You will learn how to use all of the basic instruments, both analog and digital, that are traditionally used for measuring the properties of basic circuit elements and basic circuits, including Active Filters.=> Signal Generator, Voltage and Current meters, Oscilloscope, Frequency counter, digital data acquisition. In addition, you will learn to use some of the newest, most powerful, and perhaps most convenient, digital processing instruments built into the MyDAQ system. All of these, plus an automated Bode Plotting system, are part of the digital capabilities of the LabView Automated Measurement System, one of the most common and most powerful tools available for automated measurements and signal processing. Mechanical Engineering Measurements: The vast majority of modern measurements are automated, which requires, by its nature, that they be in electronic format, usually digital. Even in the purely mechanical system, the purely mechanical measurement instrument has almost disappeared. The process of design and analysis of any system requires the use of ideal models that are translated back and forth with real physical systems. All computers and all mathematical equations use only ideal models and relate these models to a nonideal physical system. In doing this, all systems, whether electrical, mechanical, chemical, or others, can be described and modeled by the same mathematical equations and analyzed by the same computer programs. This entire course is structured around mechanical engineering measurements, and the circuit material is all developed with this focus. [Almost everything could be taught in a similar way with electronic focus, physics focus, chemical focus computer focus and so on] the starting point for a measurement is basically a sensor or transducer a device that translates some type of mechanical activity into electrical activity, so that it can be captured and analyzed by a computer. The most important aspect of this measurement is the filtering component that can be either a physical Active Filter used before the computer takes over, or a Digital Filter that is used after the computer takes over. Both have their advantages and both will be used in this course. Some of the mechanical sensors to be used are: thermocouple, piezoelectric transducer, strain gauge, LED transmitter/receiver, and Laser Position Sensor. There will also be experience of the fundamentals of Computer controlled manufacturing process and the associated measurements.
Statistics
Every measurement has a statistical uncertainty component, and in many cases this component is extremely important for determining the true significance of the measurement. You will start the course by taking a representative statistical measurement and compare one reading to 10 and 40 or 50 measurements. However, to actually have statistically significant measurements it can sometimes require 10s of thousands of such measurements and become impractical. Thus, a good substitute has been developed to achieve much of the quality of statistical measurements while not having to do them every time. Effectively, the manufacturer of each part does the thousands of required measurements and then adds a statistical component to the
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value of each part. While doing lab measurements, these statistical tolerances are combined by statistical methods to arrive at the representative value for the measurements. The formal process of doing this is called Uncertainty Analysis and includes developing and Uncertainty Budget., a critically important part of the modern manufacturing process.
LabVIEW and MyDAQ:

LabVIEW is one of the most widely used and powerful data acquisition and processing systems available, but is so easy to use that it can be up and running in only a few minutes. The ELVIS software package allows a simple interface like MyDAQ to perform the simplest of measurements, like reading voltage or resistance, displaying oscilloscope images and dozens of others. The direct use of LabVIEW allows the control of an extremely complex test station that can simultaneously gather/analyze data on thousands of detectors. You will learn how to use LabVIEW and the MyDAQ hardware to make a wide variety of different types of manual and automated measurements, do different types of data analysis and filtering, and simulate the control of factory automation, including analysis of factory system performance.
Types of Lab Sessions: Experience, Simulation, and Background

After a discussion of ~ 30-60 minutes, most labs will focus on physical measurements and analysis of results. Lab notebooks will be due on the day of the next class. Two notebooks will be required so that one can be graded while the other one is being used. A few lab sessions will use simulated experiments in preparation for the physical experiment to follow. Three sessions will cover important background material in lecture format, followed by a quiz on that material. To ensure that your quiz score reflects your abilities, study text material before coming to those 3 classes.
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Figure 1: Overview of Engineering Design
Figure 2: Total Cost of Product

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Lab #1: Important concepts Everything in nature has a stochastic/random component which must be taken into account for accurate design and prediction of performance.
A specific engineering Design/simulation will use an ideal deterministic value for each component. The statistical part of the performance is usually taken into account by multiple simulations, using a statistically chosen group of values for each iteration. Alternatively, we can add a statistical variation to the resultant deterministic answer. (such as % uncertainty, % error, mean value, standard deviation, etc.)
Engineering Models:
Every Natural System can be modeled as a combination of 3 ideal principals + energy sources. System design and simulation are based on these models. In Electrical Engineering, the 3 ideal models are called Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance Resistance represents real use of energy, transferring it out of the system through Radiation. Capacitance represents imaginary use of energy, storing it in the silent aspect of the Electric Field, Potential Energy. Inductance represents imaginary use of energy, storing it in the active aspect of the Electric Field, Kinetic Energy. Design and analysis always use (ideal) MODELS. The best models accurately represent a physical system.
Two Types of Processes:

1) A Deterministic Process has discrete predictable results. 2) A Stochastic Process has a random factor so the result is a little different every time the experiment is performed (Applies to almost all physical measurements).
Some ways to express Stochastic processes:

Average Value (Mean)=> add all values and divide by number of samples Middle Value (Median) => half way between maximum and minimum values Spread of sample values (Standard Deviation) Normal, Gaussian, Rayleigh, Rician distributions
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For a Normal random distribution: about 68% of samples lie within 1 standard deviation 95% within 2 99% within 3 Standard Deviations
Figure 3: The Normal Distribution
Design of Experiments:
Basically everything done in the physical world is done by Design of Experiment. An effective design can dramatically improve performance and lower cost of a product, perhaps saving millions of dollars per year. Example: A poorly performing system has been built using 40 components. If the quality of all components were to be upgraded, the cost of improvement would be prohibitively high. However, measurements based on an effective Design of Experiments have determined that only 2 out of the 40 components significantly influence the problem and need to be replaced. Other components can use less expensive components without degrading performance. Thus, quality of the product can be substantially improved while actually reducing the cost of production.
Goals /Emphasis of this course:

1) To have maximum portion of your time spent on experience of experimental design and measurement. This will use standard analog and digital measuring techniques and sensors, with MyDAQ and LabVIEW for analysis and automation. A major emphasis will be on filtering and calibration. 2) To give enough theory for the experience to be useful 3) Help you learn professional practice, especially with respect to Lab Notebook and technical writing 4) Give solid (and pleasant) taste of LabVIEW 5) Give an introductory taste of Statistical/Stochastic processes 6) Help you learn how to Design an Experiment
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LabVIEW Tutorial:
The following tutorial will introduce some of the most basic functions of using the LabVIEW interface to Digital Signal Processing. After this, the first lab session will be a combination of physical measurements using a traditional digital multimeter and LabVIEW to analyze the statistical nature of that data. After getting a taste of this direct statistical analysis, we will use a much more widespread type of statistical analysis that makes use of a shorthand method.
LabView Tutorial
1) 2) 3) 4) Log in to Windows 7 Go to Start/Globe Menu (bottom Left corner of Screen) Click on LabVIEW icon if it is present OR Click on Open All Programs and navigate until you see National Instruments
5) Click on LabVIEW 2011 (32-Bit), then LabVIEW (32-Bit) and Opening screen will appear after some time
6) Click on VI from Template
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7) Highlight Tutorial => Generate and Display, then click on OK.
Basic Operations:
LabVIEW normally opens with two windows, Front Panel and Block Diagram 1) If only one window is open, click on Window menu at top of screen and then click on name of other window. Here Front Panel is present so click on Show Block Diagram
2) It is very useful to also have the Tools menu open=> Click on View menu at top of screen, then select Tools Palette. Move mouse over Tools icon and click to change cursor function.
3) Both Front Panel and Block Diagram have an associated palette of models or functions that can be added to that window. If these pallets are not on the screen when a panel is selected, then add it in the same way: For Front Panel, click on View menu at top, then on Controls Palette. For Block Diagram, click on View menu and select Functions Palette, the only one available. The icons may only be used when a given widow is active. When Front Panel is active you can use the Controls Palette.
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There are many groups and sub groups of icons, so until you learn where they are, you can find the palette icon you need by clicking on the Search button and typing the name of icon or category.
After a simulation has been set up, you can start it by clicking on the Run arrow at top of screen when the Front Panel Screen is active. Here we see a Sine waveform displayed. The Sine Wave is the most basic waveform in nature and (through Fourier transforms) all waveforms can be made from combinations of Sine waves. In a Linear System, if a single Sine wave exists anywhere, then the same frequency and only that frequency is everywhere in the system. A Nonlinear System is defined as one that adds sine waves to the system at multiples of the input sine wave.
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4) Click on the Block Diagram to make it active and see the functional blocks of the simulation. Double click on the Simulate Signal icon to view its settings and edit them.
5) Select Triangle waveform. Change frequency and number of cycles per second to see the effect on waveform. Click on Add noise box and try different types and amplitudes. Click on Cancel to close window and return to original waveform.
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6) Add a control: With Block Diagram Active, click on the icon in the Tools menu that looks like a spool of wire. 7) Very carefully position the spool over Simulate Signal icon until the Amplitude label appears as shown, then right click. 8) When menu appears, select Create and then Control to get new icon shown. 9) View your simulated signal: a) Click on Front Panel to make it active and click on Run arrow. b) While running, click inside the Amplitude box and change number to 5. c) Click in the gray area and note the vertical scale on graph has changed.
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Lab #1: Resistor Statistics

The most important part of taking good data in an experiment is planning what you will be doing and how you will do it. If you go into an experiment thinking that you will take all the data first and then figure out what you did later, there is a statistically high probability that you will not take complete data and have to redo part of it => Effective planning and understanding what you do FIRST saves time later. This lab has 4 parts, to be done in this order: 1) LabVIEW Tutorial and statement in your notebook. 2) Prepare your lab notebook, including all of Section II: i. Overview (General foundations => specific methods) ii. Philosophy of Design iii. Design your experimental setup and procedure iv. Notes on needs for good data 3) Take lab data, including sketch in notebook and 2 data files 4) Analyze data in LabVIEW and complete Uncertainty Analysis Photos below show typical equipment and parts that you will be using. The actual equipment and parts at your work station may be a little bit different, but similar to what is shown here. Note that each individual person will have a different set of 10 resistors to measure, but each group of resistors will be used later by multiple people. So please be careful and try to keep resistors stuck the masking tape as you received them. In Section II of lab (prelab) notebook, be sure to write down what you expect to find for results, but do not be surprised if that result is different than what was expected, and be ready to explain the potential reasons for the difference.
Lab #1: Statistics of Resistor Values, Procedure:
Ground Notch on connector Figure 4: Fluke Multimeter Measuring a 1500 Resistor, 2 K Scale
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Figure 5: Clips Attached to Resistor

Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Color Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White Gold Silver 2 digits for 4band code 3 digits for 5 band code Multiplier # of 0s after digits Tolerance 1% 2%
0.5 % 0.25 0.1 % 0.05 % 5% 10%
Figure 6: Color code for Resistors
Carbon composition resistor, 270 K, 5%
Film resistor, 270K, 5%
Figure 7: Types of Resistors If resistor uses 4 bands for value, then tolerance can be 2, 5, or 10% If resistor uses 5 bands for value, then tolerance can be 0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, or 1 %
Notes on collecting resistor data:

1) Record brand, model, serial #, tolerance spec. of your Ohm-meter 2) Each person (not group) will measure 10 resistors and record values in a Windows Notepad file, separated by commas. Give it file extension .LVM [set windows to show file extensions. Windows Explorer=>Organize=> Folder and search=>View=> un-tick Hide File Extensions]
3) Do NOT remove resistors from tape that holds them together.

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4) Each person in each group will individually take 10 measurements. Then combine data for a group of at least 4 => the second data file will have 40 or more values. 5) Resistor value may be labeled 1,500 ohms and 5% tolerance. Standard tolerances are 1%, 5%, 10 %, so the values you read could more than 1% off and less than 10% over full temperature range, but may be more accurate than this. Remember that meter has a tolerance also. 6) Plug dual banana plug into meter as shown. Side with plastic notch goes on the negative/ground/common/black hole. Alternatively, the side with red mark on it goes in the positive/red/ hole, also labeled V/k/S. 7) Verify that two buttons are depressed: K/S and 2 (2K [thousand] ohms full scale=> maximum reading 1.999). 8) Each person must measure and record (in lab notebook) the values of each of the 10 resistors on the string given. Different string for each person. 9) Within Windows, open All Programs=> Accessories=>Notepad 10) Type in values measured and save file as: 293_<your last name>_10resistors.txt Separate data by commas. No return key ! 11) After each person in your group has recorded 10 resistors, then one person should combine all of the values so that you have a total of 40 or 50 values. Save the combined file as: 293_<your group name>_CombinedResistors.txt [Edit both files in Windows File Manager to change file extension from .txt to .lvm [.LVM] so that LabVIEW can read them properly.]
Use LabView for Analysis; Build File, Display Virtual Instrument (VI):
1) Start LabVIEW [Start => National Instruments => LabVIEW] 2) Open a new Blank VI [Virtual Instrument ] 3) Click in the Block Diagram window to make it active 4) View menu => Functions Palette => Click double arrow at bottom of window to expand it => click on Express group=> click on Input group within Express 5) Click Read Meas File and drag it onto your Block Diagram Window
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6) When you drag Read Meas icon onto Block Diagram, this setup menu will open. Browse Filename menu and select the file with your resistor value data. [Click Read File Now to see if it is correct.] Select Text (LVM) File Format, Read generic text files, Retrieve segments of original size, and Comma Delimiter. Click on OK. 7) Select Front Panel window and open Controls palette and expand as before 8) Select Express menu again, then Graph Indica 9) Select Graph (middle option) and drag icon onto Front Panel work space
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6) Make Block Diagram is Active and open Functions menu 7) Select Programming group 8) Select Waveform group 9) Select Analog Wfm 6) Build Wavef and drag icon onto work space. 7) On Tools palette, select wire spool cursor and place a wire from Signals on Read icon to Y on Build Waveform icon. Extra icon shown will be automatically generated. 6) Do the same from Output Waveform on Build Waveform icon and connect to input of Waveform Graph.
Add Statistical Analysis to your VI [Virtual Instrument]

1) Select Arrow style cursor (tools palette) 2) From Functions palette, Select Mathematics group 3) Click on Prob & Stat, then Statistics and drag icon onto Block Diagram 4) In the Configure Statistic menu that comes up, put a tick in the boxes for Arithmetic Mean, Median, and Standard Deviation.
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5) Click OK button 6) Select bottom of icon with mouse and drag icon size to full length so all connections are visible.
7) To get the final Block Diagram shown, make cursor an arrow, then a) Right click on Arithmetic Mean, then Create, then Numeric Indicator b) Repeat for Standard Deviation c) Repeat for Median
8) Return to Front Panel view and click on Run Arrow 9) A graph similar to the one on the right will be part of analysis of almost every lab in this course
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Notes on Procedure for this lab:

1) Do the Labview Tutorial. When you have completed creating all screens shown in the above notes, write a statement in your notebook to that effect. Then print out your final sine wave display and attach it also to your notebook. 2) Create Section II, Design:[Introduction] 3) Each person needs to fill in all standard sections of lab 4) Each person needs to individually measure and record values for 10 resistors, then create a notepad file with these values. 5) In a new Notepad file, add resistor values for at least 3 other people (40 values or more) and re-plot statistics in LabView. Lab notebook needs to include a block diagram printout and two charts of R value Statistics, one for 10 values and one for 40 or more values. 6) Be sure to do error analysis and Uncertainty Budget (see separate document for instructions on Uncertainty Budget.)
Lab Notebook:
All sections must be included, even if empty, or you will receive zero points for that section.
Example of Uncertainty Budget for Resistor Measurements

Source of Uncertainty Value () 3.988 0.5 8.71 Distribution Type Divisor Standard uncertainty (1 Standard Deviation) 1.994 0.289 2.75 10 values, assume different resistors is similar to different reading of same resistor Notes
Meter (95%) Calibration Meter Resolution Resistor Tolerance of 10 resistors Combined uncertainty Expanded uncertainty
Normal Rectangular Normal
Referenced to k = 2
Normal
10
1 k=2 (x 2)
3.41 6.82 Approx. 95 % certainty
Example of required Report:

The measured value of (10) resistors was 1500 6.82 , based on standard uncertainty multiplied by coverage factor of k = 2, providing approximately 95% coverage probability. This assumes that resistor values have not been truncated by manufacturer and that the manufactured distribution function was Normal/Gaussian. The uncertainty evaluation has been carried out in accordance with UKAS requirements.
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #2: System Loading
Always remember that this lab is about SYSTEM loading, not METER VOUT VIN R2 Equivalent loading. The analog meter is only a Load Resistance convenient way to represent all types of system loading, and to illustrate the point that the measurement instrument must be included in analysis of the system. In a mechanical system, friction or drag, will have the same effect as resistive loading of an electrical system, and will be modeled using the same equations. Ideal models are the basis of all analysis and design of systems. These models can be isolated or broken down into 3 basic principles that are represented by the names Resistance, Inductance, and Capacitance. All are ideal elements and can rarely, if ever, be found alone in nature. But everything in nature contains the qualities of all three. In order to use mathematical equations to design or analyze a physical system, we need to translate, or model the system using combinations of these 3 elements, plus energy sources. The 3 components combined vectorially are called Impedance. In 1883, Lon Charles Thvenin published a paper at the Academy of Science in Paris, France. This became known as Thvenins Theorem, and is one of the most important foundations of all mathematical science, even though it was originally applied to electrical circuits. The holistic expression of this Thvenin Theorem says that the model of any system, no matter how complex, can be broken down into two elements for analysis. One element is known as the Thvenin equivalent voltage source combined with its Thvenin equivalent series impedance (vectorial combination of 3 elements: Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance). The other is the load impedance on that system. A perhaps simpler and more intuitive way to express the same situation is to say that
Thvenin Equivalent Series Resistance
Lab #2: System Loading
Every Circuit is a Voltage Divider.

This simple expression, when well understood, will be the foundation for accurate and effective analysis and design, not only in in the Electrical Engineering, but also in other branches of engineering, with appropriate translation of terms. This lab will be the beginning of your physical and concrete understanding of this concept. We will start with one voltage divider and create a second one by adding a voltage measurement device to the original circuit. When considering which instrument will give a more accurate measurement, the holistic system, with all of its voltage dividers, must be considered. Knowing only the properties of the measurement instrument, it is not possible to say how it will change the system in the process of measurement. An instrument that is much less inherently accurate may give a much better result for a particular system.
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Figure 8: Simpson 260 (analog) Multimeter Face Carbon Composition, 270 K , 5 % Carbon Film, 270 K , 5 % Figure 9: Resistors
Figure 10: Resistors Connected to Heath Power Supply with Cable, Use 5 volt output
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Set to 6 volt output to 5 volts and measure with Digital meter
Figure 11: Resistors Connected to HP Power Supply with Cable, note position of notch 1. Connect one side of each resistor to one clip from power supply cable 2. Connect black clip from meter to black clip from power supply 3. Use red clip from meter to hold resistors together (cross leads).
Figure 12: Connect Resistors

Press up and down buttons to select display scale as shown Hold (reading) button
Notch on common/bottom Figure13: Fluke 45 Digital Multimeter
Power Button
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DC button out/up V button in/down Figure 14: Fluke 8010A Digital Multimeter
2 button in/down for uncertainty, 20 for voltages above 2 volts
The methodology for achieving an accurate answer is intimately related to the environment in which a measurement is taken. For example, if you are using a service manual to troubleshoot a broken piece of equipment, the manual may ask you to take certain measurements and compare your answer to a standard. For a mechanical system the manual may ask you to take speed measurement using a standard type of mechanical sensor. If you want a direct reference to correct operation of the system, you must use the specified sensor, even if it changes the speed and if it is not inherently accurate. The more accurate and less intrusive optical method of measuring speed would not give the correct answer in this case, unless that answer was correctly translated. In the same way, for an electrical circuit, the multimeter on a specific scale (20,000 ohms per volt) is often the standard for measurement. You could use the inherently more accurate and less intrusive digital meter, but that could give the wrong answer for a given measurement. => Context is critically important!
Important Concepts to remember for every measurement: Every System is an Energy Divider: the measurement instrument is part of the system and the measurement process changes the systems operation.
Accuracy depends on the context, not just the instrument. Electrical Circuit viewpoint: 1) Every circuit is a Voltage Divider (even a current divider can be modeled as a voltage divider) 2) Every energy source can be modeled as a Thvenin Equivalent Ideal Source and a Thvenin Equivalent Series Resistance 3) The entire circuit, no matter how complex, can be broken down into a simple voltage divider for analysis.
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VIN
Equivalent Load Resistance
R2
VOUT
Figure 15: Voltage Source Equivalent Circuit with Load This applies generally to all types of sources and loads, but for simplicity we will start with simple ideal resistances. [Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance added vectorially make impedance] Method: 1) Separate the component to be analyzed from the rest of the circuit 2) Consolidate the entire remaining circuit into a single source and series resistance
R1
VIN
R2
VOUT
Thvenin Equivalent Figure 16: Thvenin Equivalent Voltage Divider Voltage Source Example of Voltage Divider method for the above figure (not your lab):
VOUT = VIN
R2 R 1 + R2
VR 2 = VIN
(390 K ) = 10V R2 = 20 V 390 K + 390 K R 1 + R2
The value used for R2 MUST include internal impedance of the measurement instrument or there can be large error ! Some examples of typical internal resistances: 1) Ideal power supply has zero series resistance. 2) A typical regulated power supply has close to zero resistance within its specified operating range
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3) A Digital Multimeter typically has about 10 million ohms effective loading resistance on a circuit 4) An Analog Multimeter is much more similar to adding another part, such as an amplifier, to a circuit. 5) The traditional standard for an analog voltmeter is 20,000 ohms per volt. That means that, if you set the meter to the 10 volts full scale, making a measurement adds 10 x 20k = 200k in parallel with your circuit. Generally: If a meter (or other circuit element) has internal resistance much greater than system, it will not load the system or substantially change its nature. If meter resistance is similar to, or smaller than, the component being measured, the system can change substantially. For example, you may add a standard amplifier with a gain of 100 to your circuit, expecting voltage to be amplified by 100. If impedances have not been accounted for, the real gain may only be only 50.
How to Measure DC Voltage:

1) Set small knob on left to + DC 2) Set large scale switch to 10 V 3) Insert black wire into Common hole 4) Insert Red wire into + hole 5) Note that 10 volt scale multiplied by 20,000 /volt gives an internal meter resistance of 200 k. Inside the multimeter, there is literally a resistor of about 200 k placed in series with a low impedance current meter.
Figure 17: Simpson 260 Series Analog Multimeter
How to calculate the value of series and parallel resistors

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Series Resistors
Parallel Resistors
= 1 + 2
= (
(3 )(4 ) 3 +4 )
If we want to measure the voltage across a resistor, R2, in our series circuit, then the meter effectively adds a new resistor in parallel with R2 . The resistor, R2, of our original series circuit now becomes R3 in parallel with R4 of the parallel circuit. We now have to calculate the equivalent value of the two parallel resistors and use that value to determine what value of voltage we expect to measure across the new R2.
Notes for Lab #2: System Loading:

You determine what you want the focus of lab to be and describe that in your Overview part of Section II. It can focus directly on todays measurements or you can extend it to the implications of todays measurements. To develop your Philosophy of Design [narrative text, not a list of numbers], describe how you will go about doing the experiment and what features of your method will be important. For the Voltage Divider, Calculate the value of total resistance to give 1 mA of current and choose two standard resistors that will give approximately that value if connected in series. (2.7K ) Connect these in series to a 5 Volt supply. (If using a 6 volt supply, set it to 5 volts.) Measure output of supply with a Digital Meter and use that value for VIN. Complete your introduction section with a general description of your lab procedure. Sketch [or take photo and print out] details measurement setup, including both the analog and digital multimeters, both used as volt meters. Be sure to clearly label all components and connections. Use Analog Multimeter on 10 Volt scale to measure voltage across one resistor. [What is its internal resistance??] Do the same with Digital Meter. Repeat the above using resistor values 100 times larger. (270k each)
Notes on your Lab notebook sections:

Design Section: Establish your philosophical foundation for the lab, and then describe exactly what you will do and how you will do it. Note that you will use a current of approximately 1 mA to determine what resistors to use for your measurements. The goal here is not a creative circuit design, but rather to
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understand how that design would be implemented. You need to explain how you came up with the circuit element values that have already been chosen and given to you, but do NOT say that in your notebook. Write the notebook as if you are designing the circuit. What you are actually assigned to do is to Design the Experiment, or the method of experiencing the measurement, not the details of circuit design, which you will do in a later course. The emphasis of this course is to experience the nature of a circuit and measurement of the system properties, including a circuit. Part of that includes understanding the basics of how you could have arrived at specific circuit values for your experiment. Procedure Section: 1) Draw every circuit diagram associated with your design section and label all components. 2) List equations with descriptions of what they are for, substitute in labels and numbers consistent with design section and with circuit diagram (schematic). 3) List values for each component next to circuit diagram. 4) Be sure to calculate the expected voltages that you will measure. 5) Create a clearly labeled table with spaces for all of your data. Be sure to label which meter is taking data (part of table). AFTER creating the circuit diagram and data table, then take data and record it in your table. Table should have a space for calculated data and for measured data of each type. Also leave space for uncertainty and percentage error. 6) Be sure to include statistical analysis graph from LabVIEW, uncertainty analysis, and discussion of all analysis and results. [simplified] Uncertainty Analysis Do statistical analysis of your 4 measurements in LabVIEW and print a chart similar to this one:
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1) Take single measurement of all items listed and calculate /analyze ERRORS for all measurements. [be sure to measure 5 volt supply with digital meter FIRST, then meter calibration is accuracy of power supply.] 2) Do uncertainty analysis only for measurement of voltage across output resistor, R2, for 270 k case, attach analog meter and take 4 measurements with Fluke 45 digital meter. [If you must use 8010 meter, turn off power supply between measurements, then turn back on to take each measurement.] 3) Convert tolerance of R into voltage: [use your data, similar to below] a) If tolerance is of one R is 5% =>13.5k for 270k b) If parallel combination of 270 and 200 was 114 k, then add 13.5K to 270 k and recalculate => 117k c) Now calculate voltage divider with 270/114 and with 270/117 d) This gives 1.49V and 1.514 V e) Thus 5% tolerance of one 270 R gives ~ 3.36 % tolerance in output voltage 4) Now add all uncertainties as before to get total [square, add, take square root]
Example of Uncertainty Budget:

Source of Uncertainty Value () Distribution Type Divisor Standard uncertainty (1 Standard Deviation) 0.0004875 0.000025 .003225 0.0251 1.4926 calculated output voltage x 0.0336 with 1 resistor off by 5%= Notes
Meter (95%) Calibration Meter Resolution Voltage readings R Tolerance converted to voltage Combined uncertainty Expanded uncertainty
0.000975 0.00005 .00645 0.05017
Normal Rectangular Normal Normal
Referenced to k = 2
3 4 2
1 k=2 (x 2)
Normal
Approx. 95 % certainty
These are EXAMPLE values. You MUST SHOW CALCULATIONS to get credit for your work. Must give formal Report statement in format shown by guidelines.
Result:..
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration
Lab # 3: Atomic Structure and Calibration

Calibration is the foundation for all effective measurements, and all instruments are calibrated with respect to something, even it that something is not obvious. More critical measurements may have industrial policy requirements or even laws that govern their calibration requirements. In the United States, the organization chartered by Congress to be the keeper of calibration standards is NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology). Most laboratory equipment is required to be calibrated in such a way that the measurements they take are traceable back to NIST. In some cases, this traceability needs to be renewed every 6 months or every 12 months. Some things are less critical, or more stable, and have longer time periods between calibrations. A common example of this calibration is the very high power radio transmitter placed on a mountain top in Colorado. By using this, NIST is able to transmit standard time and frequency signals over the entire United States and anyone with the correct equipment can take advantage of this. On the simple level, even a $10 clock can tune itself daily to the NIST standard and always be synchronized with every other clock in the United States. Very accurate frequency sources use the same radio transmission, but may take 20 or 30 hours in order to attain the required precision. Within most labs the common assumed instrument of standardized measurement is the oscilloscope. Until a few years ago, these used the CRT [Cathode Ray Tube] technology as a display screen for measurements, but have now mostly been replaced by LEDs or similar technology, based on Light Emitting Diodes. The inner atomic structure of atoms is the basis for the CRT, LEDs, and many other technologies for measurement and instrumentation. We will begin to understand atomic structure and some of its applications in this lab. More details of atomic structure and its role in instrumentation will come in later labs.
Important Concept: Calibration is the foundation for all effective measurements. Atomic Structure (See Fig. 19):
Atomic core: Almost all of the atomic mass Equal and opposite charge to total # of electrons Made up of protons (charge) and neutrons (mass)
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration Electrons effectively rotate around the nucleus and have a stochastic location and size Each orbital has a distinctly defined energy level. Electrons virtually never exist outside their defined (quantized) energy level.
Niels Bohr (Danish): 1922 Nobel Prize for understanding the structure of atoms: Neils Bohr => Bohr Atom 1) Classical charge radiates energy whenever it accelerates 2) The electron has a wavelike nature 3) If the wave property of the electron bound to an atom is self-coherent, then it can live forever without radiating any energy 4) Bound electrons can only exist at discrete energy levels 5) Electrons only change states by gaining or losing the energy difference between bands/levels
Properties of the Cathode Ray Tube Oscilloscope:
1) A beam of electrons is scanned horizontally across the front face of a glass tube. During the scan, applied Voltage (signal to be measured) deflects the beam vertically. When electrons hit phosphor coating on the surface of the tube, other electrons are excited to a higher energy level within the atom. When the excited electrons decay back to their original energy level, they radiate light, which is observed as an image on the surface of the tube. 2) For some 70 years, the CRT was our main method of visualizing electronic waveforms and signals. 3) Electrons in the beam have been accelerated by a potential of 10,000 to 20,000 volts 4) A similar structure is used for the electron microscope, our major method of seeing the microscopic world. (Electrons accelerated from 30,000 to millions of volts) 5) Similar structure to TV tube (10 to 30 thousand volts) 6) Similar to modern microwave vacuum tubes
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration
Figure 18: Cathode Ray Tube used in Oscilloscope Modern Oscilloscopes: (Tektronix TDS 2004B, See Fig. 21) Often Digital: each location of front face has memory associated with it and an LED or similar device lights to show that position Vertical scale shows voltage at that location. Scopes you will use have 8 bit resolution for all but 2 mV scale. This means 256 voltage levels, (25 pixels/div x 10 divisions) Bandwidth = 60 MHz (5 mV to 5 volts /division) 1 Gs/s (gigasamples [109] per second) Input impedance with 1x probe or with cable is 1 M 2% with C of 20pF 3 pF in parallel; with 10x probe is 10 M 1.5%, 10:1 ratio 3.2 %, C in parallel 12 pF 2500 point record in memory
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration Figure 19: Model of Atomic Structure
[ATOM Alinoubigh | Dreamstime.com, used by permission]
Although it may be misleading in terms of physical reality, this simple model gives the concept of the Atomic Nucleus with electrons orbiting in elliptical paths. It is the basis of accurate predictions of molecular properties.
Figure 20: Tektronix CMC250 Frequency Counter Multipurpose Knob Power Button on Top
Utility Button
SAVE
Figure 21: Tektronix Digital Oscilloscope, Reproduced with permission of Tektronix, Inc.
Figure 22: Fluke 1910A Frequency Counter

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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration Important Laboratory concepts: Design of experiments, at the most basic level, is merely the organization of a project. This organization should include careful planning so that the specific needed data can be effectively and accurately obtained. At a higher level, Design of Experiments represents the ultimate goal of allowing a manufacturing operation to achieve near ideal results on the first implementation, a somewhat rare event. This would usually include a substantial statistical set of measurements and analysis that would indicate the sensitivity of overall product performance to each individual component. This sensitivity analysis allows the designer to put the highest quality parts where they will do the most good. Universes (Domains) of Design and Measurement For the universe we seem to live in, we virtually always experience ourselves as part of the Time Domain. That means that everything is viewed as being a serial group of events that take place as time progresses, one after another. The true universe that we live in, however, has many different levels and Domains. The Time Domain is only one of these. In order to effectively design a complex system, the engineer has to understand how to take into account many different domains. Only through this holistic understanding, can a laboratory measurement, a Design of Experiments, be completely effective and accurate. In the Frequency Domain, a signal or activity is viewed and measured with respect to its frequency components, rather than its progression in time. The Time and Frequency domains can be translated back and forth, but each gives different information about the signal and can have very different measurement characteristics. The success of modern communications systems is based very heavily on the understanding of Frequency Domain characteristics of signals. Within both of these domains, signals or events can be analyzed as either Deterministic or as Stochastic. In our normal activity, we experience things as Deterministic => they have a specific and more or less constant value. For example, if you have 5 pennies in your pocket now, something specific has to happen in order for that number to change; you know its value. A Stochastic Process, however, has no fixed value, only probabilities of what has or will happen. It would normally be necessary to take hundreds, or thousands of trials in order to produce an accurate Statistical model for a Stochastic process. In nature, everything has both Deterministic and Stochastic properties that coexist at the same time. Quantum Mechanics, some hundred years ago, came up with mathematical equations to represent both Deterministic (particle like) and Stochastic (wavelike) properties. Today, however, humans still cannot conceptually grasp this process and cannot create experiments to measure both of these properties at the same time, so we have to combine different experiments to measure the full nature of a process. Within atoms, the result of Quantum Mechanics is that we have a model that includes both particle like nature as the size and mass of an electron, while at the same time, quantized energy levels that reflect the wavelike nature of an electron and allow us to justify the existence of the physical universe. We could call this description of the atom the Energy Level Domain, and by using it, we can make
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration many types of precise measurements and effectively design essential products, like oscilloscopes, semiconductors, LEDs, Lasers. At an even deeper level of atomic structure, is what could be called the Momentum Domain, that can be used to describe other essential qualities of nature, such as negative resistance, a concept that defies explanation within the realm of Classical Physics.
Lab Notes:
Think of yourself as an engineering professional being paid a high salary for your service and write your lab notebook from that viewpoint. Do NOT Refer to yourself as a student Say or imply that you are learning => you are being paid as an expert, so references to things learned need to be stated as if significant, not something you do not know how to do Complain about your assignment or your inability to understand. In the professional environment, this type of attitude could lead to you losing your job. You are given guidelines that are to be basis of your Design of Experiment and you are expected to design the lab so that you are able to get the data needed for the desired analysis. Guidelines are flexible, but if you do nothing at all for a required section, or do not include needed sub sections, you will get no credit for that part. This is standard professional practice. For Overview section, start with a general point, and then describe your Design of Experiments in terms of how you will demonstrate that point. State things as a professional proving a point, not as a student trying to learn something. Procedural Guidelines for this lab: NEED USB Drive, 2 GB or smaller 1) First thing to do in lab is to turn on Oscilloscope and let it warm up. Press power button on top of instrument, left side, and make sure lights come on. Startup will take about one minute. 2) While waiting, turn on power for both Function Generator and Frequency Counter 3) Come back to scope and press button labeled, Utility. 4) The screen will change and show a menu along right side of screen. Press button next to label, Do Self Calibration. 5) It will ask you to disconnect all cables from scope. Do this and then press button next to OK. 6) There are 16 steps to self-calibration and it will take several minutes. While this is going on, first set up the Function Generator and then the Frequency Counter. After these have been calibrated, be very careful not to change any settings. Recheck calibration at end of the lab to verify accuracy. In a real situation, you
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration may need 30 minutes or even several hours of warm-up time for equipment stabilization. Set up function Generator: 1) Turn on function Generator and allow to warm up, push LINE ON (IN) button at top left corner of front panel. 2) Press 1K button 3) Adjust large Knob to 1 4) Set amplitude similar to that shown and connect cable as shown, carefully note position of small black notch on connector (ground side).
Power
Notch
Figure 23: Hewlett Packard 3311A Signal Generator A Frequency counter will serve as our NIST (National Institute of Standards) reference. If using Tektronix Model CMC250, Fig. 20: 1) Turn on power and allow to warm up 2) Turn on Low Pass Filter and 3 V scale. Use Channel 1, lower connector. 3) Connect coaxial cable to Function generator 4) Press FUNC button until you get the reading shown, 4 digits. 5) Adjust Function Generator to get as close as possible to frequency display shown (1.000 KHz). This will be your reference. Be careful not to change Function Generator while making other measurements. 6) Use uncertainty spec. = 1 digit of reading ( 1 Hz here) stability spec. of 0.1 ppm of 10 MHz= 1 Hz If using Fluke Model 1910A, Fig. 22: 1) Turn on power and allow meter to warm up. 2) Set function to FREQ (press button)
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration Set Resolution to 1 Hz (press button) Connect coaxial cable to Function Generator Adjust trigger level to get stable reading of frequency, may be slow/sensitive. Adjust Function Generator to get as close as possible to display shown. This will be your reference. Be careful not to change Function Generator. 7) Use uncertainty spec. = 1 digit of reading (1 Hz ) 0.1 ppm of 10 MHz= 1 Hz Set up Oscilloscope save function: Fig. 19 1) Insert a 1 MB or smaller Flash Drive and wait for verification; Up to 2 GB may be used, but may also require formatting by the scope 2) Press Utility button => Options => Print setup 3) Set Ink saver on (white background) 4) Select Print button and set to Saves Images to File 5) Press Utility button again 6) File Utilities [you can create new folder here, but much easier to use windows file manager, then only select here] => Change folder 7) Turn large knob at top of front panel just next to right side of screen=> select your folder by pressing Change Folder 3) 4) 5) 6)
Figure 24: Tektronix TDS 2004B, Reproduced with permission of Tektronix, Inc. Take a measurement: 1) Connect Function generator to Scope (Ch1), Confirm that Function Generator Sine Wave button is depressed.
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration 2) Press CH 1 MENU on scope until waveform shows yellow (May need to turn off other channels) 3) Press Trigger Menu button and set source to CH1, set Slope to Rising, set Type to Edge, set Mode to Normal 4) Adjust SEC/DIV knob to give M 250 s at bottom of screen, as shown 5) Press PRINT button and clock will appear at bottom right side of screen until screen has been saved 6) Press Utility => File Utilities to see if file was recorded NOTE: Your vertical scale reading and time base will probably be different than the ones shown, depending on Function Generator setting. Your saved file should look something like this (without pointers and labels):
CH1 measured Frequency, 1.011 KHz Vertical axis scale, 500mV per div.
Time Scale 250 s/div.
Trigger on CH1, Rising edge, 340 mV trigger
Trigger Frequency, 1.01040
Figure 25: Oscilloscope Screen, Reproduced with permission of Tektronix, Inc.
Uncertainty considerations:
1) Uncertainty of your standard comes from its calibration specifications 1) For Tektronix CMC 250 time base uncertainty use stability specification ( 0.1 ppm of 10 MHz = 1 Hz) and assume very recent calibration. Then uncertainty is 1 digit [of your reading] time base error, a total of 2Hz for this reading of 1 kHz. 2) Fluke 1910A, use same specification, 2 Hz 3) For both, assume Normal distribution with 95% certainty, then divide by 2 for standard uncertainty 2) For uncertainty of Oscilloscope, use 3 different readouts: 1) Trigger frequency displayed at bottom of screen 2) Frequency indicated by MEAS button on CH1
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #3: Atomic Structure/ Calibration 3) Frequency found by taking one over the period of screen display. [measure at least 2 cycles and use zero crossing position of waveform] 4) Treat these as 3 sequential readings and divide by 3 for standard uncertainty.
3) All uncertainty values must be in terms of Hz
Your uncertainty Budget should look similar to this. Add summary statement and show calculations. Use LabVIEW VI from lab 1 to calculate data for measurements.
Uncertainty Budget [based on 1 KHz]:

Source of Uncertainty F Counter (95%) Cal. Counter Resolution Scope indication of measured frequency=> 3 values Combined uncertainty Expanded uncertainty Value () Hz Normal 2 Distribution Type Divisor Standard uncertainty (1 S Dev) Notes
Referenced to k = 2
Rectangular
Normal
3 4
3 values, assume different types are similar to different readings of same type
Normal
k=2 (x 2)
Approx. 95 % certainty
Report:
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #4: Low Pass Filter
Lab # 4: Low Pass Filter: Forced and Natural Responses

Discrimination is the basis for effective operation of virtually every system in nature, whether it is an electrical circuit, a mechanical system, or computer logic. Within an electrical circuit, discrimination is described
by the term, Filter.
When we design the part of a circuit that discriminates, it is referred to as Filter Design. Keep in mind, however, that every circuit has the filtering effect as part of its nature, whether it is explicit or not. There are many different categories and properties of Filters. One of the main descriptions requires us to enter the Frequency Domain, and describe the Filter in terms of how it discriminates with respect to Frequency. In this domain, there are 3 fundamental types of Filters a Low Pass Filter allows lower frequencies to proceed with minimal reduction in amplitude; a High Pass Filter does the opposite, allowing higher frequencies to proceed with little reduction in amplitude. Band Pass Filters, sometimes loosely called Resonant Filters, allow a range of frequencies to pass with minimal attenuation, while reducing the amplitude of both higher and lower frequencies. The same filters also have district characteristics in the Time Domain. One way to describe the response of a filter in the time domain is to stimulate it with a Step waveform and then observe the Step Response. The Low Pass Filter has the characteristic of slowing down the rise and fall rates of a step waveform, as shown in Fig. 27. This experiment gives you the opportunity to understand the Concept of Frequency Discrimination through the design of a simple Low Pass Filter. In the process, you will duplicate the design, build the filter, and characterize its response. Technically, the description of the Filter that you will use is called a First Order, Single Pole, Low Pass Filter and all filters of this type have the same shape of Frequency Response, only with respect to different frequencies. This experiment uses physical circuit elements to build a Low Pass Filter and a physical (digital) oscilloscope to take measurements with manually set frequencies coming from an analog signal generator.
Important concept: Discrimination is the basis for effective operation of virtually every system in nature.
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Figure 26: Sine Wave Response Figure 27: Step Response Reproduced with permission of Tektronix, Inc.
Figure 28: Set Up Function Generator and Build Circuit
Figure 29: Connect Low Pass Filter, Rubicon C, 3.3 F, 50V

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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #4: Low Pass Filter Response of a low pass filter depends on source and load impedances.
Generally, the frequency response and time constant of the filter are dependent on R and C [resistance and capacitance properties of circuits elements]. However, remember that every circuit is a voltage divider. Reactive components, C and L, are added differently than Rs and phase is important. For the component, R, to dominate the response of this circuit, Rsource should be much smaller than R and Rload must be much larger than both R and the impedance of C. If uncertain about the influence any component, then include it in calculations. In this circuit, Rsource is the internal impedance of the function generator and is 600 ohms. The reason for this impedance comes from the time when function Generators were used mainly to generate signals for testing telephone lines which had a 600 characteristic impedance. The MyDAQ Function generator that you will use later has a very low internal impedance, and microwave generators generally use 50 for internal impedance. The load impedance, Rload in this circuit is that of an oscilloscope. If the scope uses a direct connect probe with multiplier of 1x, then its impedance is1 M. If a 10x probe is used the impedance is 10 M. A Digital Multimeter [DMM] usually has an internal impedance of 10 M
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The Voltage Divider, with and without reactive components:

R1
VIN
R2
VOUT
Thvenin Equivalent Voltage Source
Sample Calculation (not yours)
VR 2 = VIN
(390 ) = 10V R2 = 20V 390 + 390 R1 + R2
The above illustration is the basis for all Circuits when drawn as a voltage Divider. The equations are simple when only resistors are used for the circuit elements. When a reactive component is used, such as the Capacitor that is in the Low Pass Filter, then the phase change caused by the capacitor requires that its impedance be added vectorially, as shown below. [Due to the time it takes for voltage to build up a charge and store energy in the Electric Field, the voltage across a capacitor lags behind the current by 90.] This is what enlivens Frequency Discrimination in the circuit and causes it to respond differently to differently frequencies.
VR = RI
VTotal - j XC Z VC = [ - j I ] [ 1/(2 f C)]
= 2 + 2
The resultant cutoff frequency, fco, from these equations is:
2 + ( )2
1 2
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Note that R is partially inside the generator, so Vin of the voltage divider is not directly measurable. When plotting the frequency response of a circuit we generally use what is called a Bode Diagram, named after engineer Hendrik Wade Bode who fist used if while working at Bell Labs in the United States in the 1930s. The Bode Diagram is a plot that uses the logarithm of frequency on the horizontal axis and generally uses the logarithm of gain on the vertical axis. The logarithm of gain is used by calculation of the ratio of output voltage over input voltage in dB, or decibels (tenths of the unit, Bell). For voltage, the dB is defined as:
= 20 or, for power, = 10
1 1 = 2 2
To be technically correct when using voltage, the input and output must have the same impedance level. The power equation does this automatically.
Bode Diagram for a First Order Low Pass Filter

Well below cutoff frequency, the response is flat At cutoff frequency, the response is down by 3.01 dB (half power or 0.707 volts) Beyond cutoff frequency, response decays at 6 dB per octave which is the same as 20 dB per decade
Note vertical scale in gain/
attenuation in dB/-dB A real circuit will have parasitic elements and may be off a little bit from ideal numbers => e.g. more than 3 dB decay at 45 phase shift.
Figure 30: Bode Plot
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If frequency response is plotted with a linear vertical scale, then the right side of the graph is not a straight line, but curves as shown below. Either way you need to use ratio of Vout/Vin. For linear plot 0 to 1 and for dB the scale is negative. = 2010

Log uses base 10 and number is negative because Vout is smaller than Vin
When the total impedance of the circuit is dominantly R, real, there is no phase difference between input and output voltages (f << fCO) When the total impedance of the circuit is dominantly C, reactive or imaginary, there is 90 phase shift for each independent reactive component or pole in the circuit (f >> fCO). Here we have one component so phase shift is a maximum of 90. The cutoff frequency of a single pole circuit is defined as the point at which magnitude has dropped by 3 dB. This MUST correspond to a phase shift of 45.
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #4: Low Pass Filter It is not possible for voltage to change as a function of frequency unless there are reactive/imaginary components in the model. For the single pole Low Pass filter, ignoring extra resistors, the cutoff frequency is given by:
At cutoff frequency the resistance of R is exactly the same as the resistance of C. Thus, the phase shift is 45 . If we choose R to be 33,000, then C comes out to be 2.4 F for cutoff frequency of 2 Hz. (Your lab will use 1.6 Hz) To justify ignoring other resistors, look at their comparative values at cutoff frequency. Rsource is 600 , much less than 33K. Rload is 1 M and much greater than 33 K of C. If we excite the circuit with a square wave, then we get a different set of information, the time constant of the Filter. (=RC) For this example, the time constant is 33K x 2.4 x 10-6 = 0.0792 S.
1 1 = 2 2
Figure 31: Rise and Fall time constants If the circuit is excited with a square wave of suitable period, then the leading edge will show charging time constant and falling edge will show the discharge time constant. NOTE: One time constant is at a position where voltage is 63.2 % of maximum for rising edge. You need to use this in lab. If pk-pk voltage is different on CH1 and CH2 with a square wave, either your probe is bad or scope is set incorrectly. Illustration of how to wire your circuit: See Fig. 28 and 29. Connect a cable to function generator. If using alligator clips instead of cable, connect Red one to Hi terminal as shown. Connect negative side of Capacitor to Lo side of Function Generator output (Black alligator clip) and also to ground of oscilloscope channels. (connector side
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #4: Low Pass Filter with notch) Do NOT twist wires together cross one wire of C and one of R in an X pattern as shown and hold in place with Red alligator clip going to RC Filter output channel of scope, Ch2. Input (of RC filter) channel of scope, CH1, and Hi side of function generator connect Red wires to the remaining wire of R, as shown. Note that tab on coaxial banana plug is on common side that also serves as ground reference. Lab Guidelines: You will have available 30k resistors and 3.3F Capacitors Design an experiment to validate material of the above notes. As part of Experimental Design, verify the circuit design. Do this by starting with the given 30k resistor and the desired frequency for cutoff (1.6 Hz). Calculate the capacitor needed. Then choose to use a standard value of capacitor, 3.3 F. Using the new value for capacitor, recalculate expected cutoff frequency. Support theoretically and by measurements that you are justified in being able to leave the source and load Rs out of your calculations. Since you have different values than used in notes above, you need to redo all calculations. Take measurements to validate both Frequency Domain and Time Domain types of response. You will need to choose several decades of frequencies for the low pass filter and you will need to use a long enough period (low enough frequency setting on Function Generator) of square wave to see rise and fall times. Calculate desired frequency for square wave before doing measurement. (To see full response, let half period of square wave be larger than rise time of filter => use 6 times rise time and set Function Generator Frequency to one over this, period is one over frequency => Explain this in introduction.) Plot/sketch frequency response on a Bode Diagram [ratio of output to input in dB on vertical axis, log frequency on horizontal axis]=> set generator to sine wave. Take measurements across output of function generator on CH1, across C on CH2 of scope. Make sure BOTH black wires are connected to ground/common terminal. Scope has to be set to trigger in normal mode for MEASURE to work. IF you set everything as described and waveform does not update as expected, then press the button, Force Trig. Print the screen shot for rise and fall as a time based graph=> set generator to square wave. Make it LARGE ! Sketch lines on graph for time constant. For both plots, print out oscilloscope screen and attach to your notebook. For Frequency Domain, you only need to print screen shot of one frequency and then make a table for other frequencies. Time domain needs to be large enough to clearly show data and hand-marked for measurement points.
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #4: Low Pass Filter Comment on the results of your previous calibration data and relate it to todays measurements => how far off is scope frequency counter?? Charts in Fig. 26 and 27 show what yours should look like, with different numbers: Press Measurement button then set up each of the options on right side of screen. In this diagram, you can set 2 types of measurements for CH2 and 3 types for Ch1. These will be set differently for sine wave source and square wave source. Here, set measurements to read pk-pk on both channels and freq on Ch1 Adjust freq on function generator until pk-pk ratio is ~0.707 and that is cutoff frequency. Plug these numbers into your formula and check results. For low frequencies, both channels must read same pk-pk voltage. If they dont, then probe is either bad or not set correctly. For Frequency response graph you also need a ratio at every frequency, calculate in dB (negative) Here amplitude ratio is 116/162 = .716 (close to .707 but it will change a bit each time you measure due to jitter in sine wave generator.) Step Response (Fig. 27): Here scope has been set to measure rise and fall times, but that is not the same as time constant, (see above =>63.2 % or intersection of initial slope of line with axis). Get a better reading by expanding time and amplitude scales. Be sure to add lines for both amplitude and time positions for time constants. Note that amplitudes are not the same in this graph. This measurement was taken with a 10x probe and scope was not set correctly. Trouble Shooting Tips: When taking data for your Bode diagram, you need to set Function Generator for Sine Wave and set measurements to give frequency on CH1 and pk-pk amplitude on both channels. For time constant, you must set Function generator to Square Wave. It is useful to also measure pk-pk amplitude which should be same for both channels. Note that scope rise time is NOT the same as time constant. Most common problem is either a probe with a broken wire inside or you have scope set to the incorrect type of probe. Best thing to do is use coaxial cable for both measurements. Use a coax cable with alligator clips on one end on channel 2 instead of probe and make sure channel menu for that channel is set to 1x. If you cannot get scope to behave properly, the computer inside of it may have partially crashed. Try turning off power for one minute and then turn it back on. Run self-calibration.
How to make Bode Plot:

It needs to look exactly like the plot in Fig. 30. You can either plot in Excel or other software, or copy the one in text, or hand draw, but you need to have accurate placement of data points and numbers. If you copy, but sure to change scale numbers to match your data
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #4: Low Pass Filter Data Points: First adjust frequency to get ratio of about 0.707 for cutoff frequency. Take at least 4 measurements for uncertainty analysis. Press SINGLE SEQ button on scope to get new reading. Move Frequency dial on Sig Gen to get slightly different f. Ideally each different value of f would have same ratio of Vout /Vin =0.707 For Bode Plot now take one measurement at 3 or 4 frequencies widely spaced above cutoff and below cutoff. Remember Bode frequency scale is logarithmic or powers of 10. Convert linear ratio from scope measurement to dB, then plot. Example of Uncertainty Results: (You MUST show all calculations !) Frequency
Uncertainty for Lab 04, all added except for intermediate values of R and C. Units are Hz.
Uncertainty Budget for cutoff frequency (1.545 Hz):

Source of Uncertainty Osc. combined uncertainty,95% Osc. Resolution @1.6 Hz, CH1 4 cutoff frequencies R and C Do NOT use this Convert above to Hz at 1.5 Hz Combined uncertainty Expanded uncertainty Value () Distribution Divisor @ 1 Standard Hz Type Deviation Normal Rectangular 2 3 4 2 2 1 Notes Referenced to k = 2, units of Hz frequency readout you are using. half of digit beyond last one Use LabVIEW graph in notebook R / C tolerance combined as ratios Use this one square each value and add, take square root of sum Approx. 95 % certainty
Normal Normal Normal Normal
k=2 (x 2)
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #5: Natural Frequency
Lab #5: Natural Frequency (Forced Response)

Resonance is a special property of systems that have both sharp Discrimination [low dissipation/loss of energy] and 2 different types of energy storage. At a special frequency [the Resonant Frequency or Natural Frequency] for these systems, the two energy storage elements exactly balance each other and allow energy to flow back and forth between each other. When the system is stimulated (forced) at this Resonant Frequency, the system can exhibit an extreme response, in proportion to its Quality Factor. In some cases the external response can appear to be quite small, while the internal response can be hundreds or thousands of times larger. For example, a series resonant circuit could be stimulated at its resonant frequency with only 100 volts, but inside the circuit the voltage could reach 10,000 volts. The circuit to be used in todays experiment will have a low Quality Factor, or relatively high dissipation of energy, and will not display this extreme internal energy level, but will be quite adequate to demonstrate the principle and will be realistically representative of many practical applications. Resonant circuits are the foundation of almost all electronic circuits used today, including computers and communication systems. They not only allow us to generate signals used directly in countless applications, but also allow us to generate reference signals that calibrate and control a wide variety of other circuits and systems. Forced Response describes the reaction of a circuit to a steady state [constant] stimulation. Resonant behavior is a subset of Forced Response.
Important Concepts for this (and the next) Experiment: Storage of energy is the basis of frequency discrimination and two independent energy storage elements form the basis for sharp discrimination => resonance.
Response of a system depends on how it is stimulated => different types of stimulation reveal different properties of the system. Forced Stimulation at the resonant frequency of a high Q system can result in internal response that is much greater than the stimulation. For a linear system, the frequency(ies) present in one part of the system is exactly the same as the frequency present in other parts, although amplitude and phase may be different. There are 3 models for linear elements: R, C, and L. A system, in general, can have both dissipative (real) elements, Rs, and reactive (imaginary) components, Cs and Ls. A First Order System (modeled by R and C or by R and L circuit) will have one energy storage element and be described by a First Order Differential Equation.
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #5: Natural Frequency A Second Order System has 2 independent energy storage elements, usually L and C, but may have 2 Ls or 2 Cs. It will be described by a Second Order Differential Equation. Forced Response of R, L, or C ZR(s) = General DC Sinusoid R R R ZL(s) = sL 0 j L = > L 90 ZC(s) = 1/(sC) 1/(j C) = - j /( C) =1/( C) - 90
= 2f
Voltage Divider
Vout = Vin
Z out 1 R + j L C
All circuits are voltage dividers, now we add 2 types of imaginary components The impedance of C goes down with increasing frequency. The impedance of L goes up with increasing frequency All Ls inherently have an embedded series R
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #5: Natural Frequency For a high Q circuit/system, with comparatively small R/damping there is the Phenomenon of Resonance If a circuit is stimulated at its resonant frequency, then XL=Xc => the two are shifted 180 in phase, so the voltage across them cancels and there is zero voltage across the combination.
For an RLC circuit at resonance, the response is maximum/minimum and phase shift is zero. As the frequency changes and goes away from the resonant frequency, then phase shift increases. For the shown second order circuit, maximum phase shift is 90 in either direction, a total of 180.
For a series RLC circuit, the impedance is minimum at the resonant frequency OUTSIDE the circuit, so it acts as a notch filter (removes that frequency).
For a parallel RLC circuit, the impedance is maximum at resonance, so it acts as a Bandpass filter (removes other frequencies).
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Ref: Ralph J. Smith, Circuits, Devices, and Systems
For a series RLC circuit at resonance, the impedance at the input is minimum, so maximum current flows inside the circuit. With a very small external voltage the voltage inside, across L or C, can be very large, even thousands of volts. Smaller R means higher Q and higher potential for internal [output] voltage. For the dual-pole RLC Bandpass filter, with AC or Forced Response, the resonant frequency is:
At resonant frequency the impedance of L is exactly the same as the impedance of C. Thus 0 phase shift. If we choose L to be 5 mH, and want a resonant frequency about 7.12 KHz, then C comes out to be 0.128 F. Remember that we cannot measure the voltage across L directly, and we also cannot see the signal source directly, with its 600 ohm internal resistance.
0 1 = 2 2
Lab Guidelines:
You will have available a 3.9 mH inductor with about 14 ohms internal resistance Design an experiment to create a resonant series RLC filter with maximum output at about 8 KHz => Calculate C and choose a standard value, then recalculate resonant frequency. Support theoretically and by measurements, that you are justified in being able to leave the source and load R out of your calculations. [Hint: what is XC at resonance?] Since you have different values than used in notes above, you need to redo all calculations. Take measurements to validate : Value of inductance Series R of inductance [measure open circuit and loaded voltage across Inductor with low voltage, then use voltage divider concept]. Plot/sketch frequency response of your RLC output=> set generator to sine wave. Comment on the results of your previous calibration data and relate it to todays measurements=> how far off is scope frequency counter?? Comment on all of todays results.
Hints:
When taking data to plot frequency response of RLC circuit: Measure voltage across C (one side of C must be ground) Take readings at frequencies above and below expected resonant frequency, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 KHz
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #5: Natural Frequency Then take a few closely spaced readings to further isolate freq. Set scope to measure pk-pk voltage on both input and output, measure frequency on Capacitor channel, trigger on capacitor channel. Adjust Function Generator and measure frequency on scope. Press and release the RUN/STOP button on scope to freeze frame for measurement (wait few seconds for scan), capture one screen and put in your lab notebook.
Quick Approximation of L:
1. Assume RL is much less than XL and R 2. Set f to 10 KHz so that VL is much greater than voltage across RL, then measure f and VIN on oscilloscope with generator open circuit. (Vpk-pk) 3. Attach inductor (RL + L) and measure V across inductor, L and R 4. VL 2 + VR 2 = VIN 2 (magnitudes) 5. Solve for VR 2 and then VR (600) 7. Solve for L (your answer should be very close to 3.9 x 10-3 H; at 10 kHz, RL is about 5% of XL, so reduce L calculation by about 5% and it gets closer to 3.9 mH and is well within tolerance. To verify approximation, use 20 kHz and answer 2 2 2 2 = + () = + ( 1/ ) should come closer to correct one.) Voltage and impedance have similar triangles Adjust f to give VL half of VIN, then XL is about 600 . Measure on scope. Discuss accuracy. Alternate method: 6. VL / VR x 600 = XL (assuming XL >> R)
= 2 + ()2
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Frequency Uncertainty for Lab 05 [and 6], all added except for intermediate values of L and C. Units are Hz and related to 8 KHz.
As part of your uncertainty analysis, you must include printout of graph similar to this in, but with your data. Data must also be listed. Each individual person must have their own graph with their own name on it. Be sure to save all tables and graphs electronically for reuse in other labs.
Uncertainty Budget for resonant frequency (8000Hz):

Source of Uncertainty Osc. combined uncertainty,95% Osc. Resolution @8KHz, CH1 4 cutoff frequencies L and C Convert above to Hz @ 8000Hz Combined uncertainty Expanded uncertainty Value () Distribution Divisor [Hz] Type Normal Rectangular 2 3 4 2 2 1 k=2 (x 2) @ 1 Standard Deviation Notes Referenced to k = 2, units of Hz Freq. readout you used, half of digit beyond last one Use LabVIEW L / C tolerance combined as ratios Use this one sum of squares=> square root Approx. 95 % certainty
Normal Normal Normal Normal
Example Report: The measured average value of frequency was 8082.25 Hz
897.5 Hz,..Hint: Important Note: Scope calibration uncertainty has been transferred to unknown/unmeasured frequencies with assumed conditions that may be
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #6: Natural Response
Lab # 6: Natural Response:

Natural Frequency and Resonant Response investigated in the previous experiment are closely related to Natural Response to be investigated in this experiment. Correct understanding of these concepts is critical to effective design and operation of almost every circuit or system. The Energy Source is the major difference between Forced Response and Natural Response. For Forced Response of the precious lab, the energy source was external to the circuit, was continuously applied or Steady State, and was viewed in the Frequency Domain. For this lab, the energy source will be internal, will be present already in the circuit at the beginning of the observation period, will be decaying in magnitude during the experiment, and it will be observed in Time Domain. Discrimination is the key for understanding both types of response and the relative influence of the dissipative aspect of the system is what determines the shape of the systems response. It is also important to understand that this phenomenon occurs in all natural systems and is governed by the same mathematical formulae in all systems electrical circuits, mechanical systems, other systems. For this experiment will use the same reactive components (C and L) investigated in the previous experiment, but will use different values of loss (resistance). This is a still a second order system. For the Natural Frequency of the previous investigation, the shape of response is basically always the same because it is determined largely by the external source. However, the position (frequency) and the sharpness of the response changed in direct proportion to Quality Factor, which is the relationship between the contribution of loss (resistance) and reactive energy storage. The Resonant Frequency remains the same for every value of resistance and is determined only by the reactive components of the system. The reason for this is that all losses due to dissipation of the resistor are added back into the system by the external energy source. Natural Response is characteristically different than Forced Response, including resonance of a high quality second order system. The Natural Frequency of a system is its own internal pure nature, uninfluenced by loss and imperfection. The Natural Response includes the Natural Frequency of the system as a subset, but also includes the effects of loss and imperfection in the system. There are 3 characteristically different types of response, as seen in the Time Domain, for the second order system Over Damped, Critically Damped, and Under Damped. These 3 types of damping have distinctly recognizable shapes and are determined by a mathematical relationship between energy storage and energy dissipation, called the Discriminant [D ]. When the system has an underdamped condition, then it show an oscillatory response similar to resonance, but the frequency of operation is the Natural Response Frequency, and is a little different than the Natural Frequency. The difference is caused by energy loss in the system that is not recovered, because there is no external stimulation. The frequency changes with the amount of energy loss (size of resistor).
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Figure 32: Underdamped Response
Figure 33: Measure one Period
Reproduced with permission of Tektronix, Inc.

These graphs show voltage across C as it is being charged by current through L, resulting in ringing. One cycle of sine wave gives data to determine frequency of Natural Response.
Figure 34: Underdamped Response in LabView/ ELVIS (not this lab)
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Natural (Step) Response, of an RLC Second Order Circuit:

Critical Damping is based on balance between energy storage and dissipation within an analog system. [There is no such thing as a purely digital system.] Among other properties, these analog properties allow or prevent a digital system to transmit at maximum data rate with minimum probability of errors. Nature of the Discriminant, D, determines the response of a 2nd order system. All systems contain R, L, and C, even if not explicitly included as components. The holistic combination of R, L, and C in a system must be accounted for in order to have a stable and effective design. Otherwise, the result can be: Wasted power Unstable operation and system damage Unwanted signals added to desired signals (e.g. ringing in music or voice) Loss of optimum data speed Data errors To evaluate performance, for an RLC Series Circuit Write the Governing Equation => Kirchhoff's Voltage Law with initial energy stored in C 1 () 0 () () =0 0
Reduce to Homogeneous equation: 2 () () 1 + + () = 0 2
Assume exponential solution and do la Place Transform to get Characteristic Equation: 1 2 + + = 0 Second order system has two roots: 1 = 2 + 2
2 1
2 = 2 2
General Solution:
Determine s1 and s2 from circuit constants Determine A1 and A2 by initial conditions
() = 1 1 + 2 2
The value of discriminant (quantity inside square root ) determines nature of response:
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D D D
positive: roots real, negative, distinct => over damped negative: roots complex => under damped zero: roots real and equal => critically damped
Energy added to the system by stimulating it with a pulse (square wave, ideally containing infinite number of harmonics). Complete response is found by adding the Natural Response onto the top of the Forcing Function (square wave). [Natural Response of Series RLC with all initial energy in C]:
S E R I E S
(A) D (+): overdamped, roots real, distinct, negative

V 1 A1 A 2 = 0 L (s1 s2 )
i (t ) = A e s 1t e s 2t
)
= R/(2L)
T=1/f
R L C
(B) D (-): underdamped, roots complex n2 =1/(LC) s1 = + j 2 = n2 - 2
= damping factor
s 2= j i(t) = Ae-t sin(t+) Ae -t = envelope response
= frequency of oscillation
C I R C U I T
for this example, =0, A=(V0/L), i = (V0/L)e-t sin(t) (C) D (0): critical damping, roots real, negative, equal; limiting condition for ocillation: i(t) = A1 e s1t + A2 te s2t for this example: A1 =0, i(t) = A2test = (V0/L)t e-Rt/2L
i(t) Aes1t t T=2L/R
T =>
Figure 35: Critical Damping, Reproduced with permission of Tektronix, Inc. .

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Underdamped Response across C, shown in Fig. 32 and Fig. 33. Square wave generator is set just slow enough to show entire decay of oscillation (left graph). Cursor settings on scope are set to measure period of ringing and convert it into frequency. Note that left cursor is a little off and real time period is longer/frequency slower.
Lab Guidelines:
Part One: Given an inductor of 3.9 mH, calculate needed C to give resonant [Natural] frequency of 8 KHz, then use standard value. Assuming your circuit of L and C is underdamped, calculate the frequency of oscillation [Natural Response Frequency] and the time constant of decay envelope [1/ period of sine wave]. Before building your circuit and taking measurements, use the above data to predict your response. [as shown in diagram above] Determine the maximum frequency of square wave needed to display circuit response (half period must show 3 cycles of sine wave, set generator to 6 x period and explain why) Take measurements and record your screen shots showing ringing Part two: Determine value of resistance that needs to be added to circuit to get critical damping. Choose a resistor close to needed value and measure response Record screen shot showing close to critical damping Discuss your results, include how close your measured data is to expected and also implications to a general circuit or system.
42 2
(remember the internal R of L)
Lab Hints:
MyDAQ graph, Fig. 34, give desired result directly because output impedance of signal generator within MyDAQ is buffered to give one output impedance. Generators in lab have 600 output impedance, so they will not show ringing effect if used directly. Before taking measurements, add 100 resistor in parallel with generator. Calculate Thevenin equivalent new resistance for generator find R looking into generator. [600 in parallel with 100 ] When you calculate series R of RLC circuit, you must include both R of inductor and Thevenin (new R) of signal generator. This will give you a new frequency of ringing oscillation of about 7.7 KHz. With component tolerances, this is well within accuracy of displayed graph.
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #6: Natural Response Note that Discriminant graphs shown in table plot current, not voltage. You must either measure voltage across C alone, or add another series R to circuit and measure across that to match the graph shape. Otherwise there will be a phase shift in starting point of graph. You will need to press cursor button on scope and adjust both cursor 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 33, but more accurately.
The following ELVIS function generator setting was used to get Step Response diagram of Fig. 34
Figure 36: ELVIS Function Generator
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #7: Bode Plots with MyDAQ
LAB # 7: Bode Diagrams

The [frequency domain] Bode Diagram visually allows holistic, intuitive, analysis of system behavior, including resonant effect(s) and other frequency sensitive characteristics. Within its frequency and power range of operation, the combination of MyDAQ hardware and ELVIS software allow fast and automatic generation of the Bode Diagram for a circuit. Data cannot only be more accurate in some cases, but can also can be collected some 10 to 100 times faster than manually generated data, as was done in the previous experiments. For a wider range of signals and frequencies, a similar process can be done with a user-generated Virtual Instrument within LabVIEW. [All ELVIS and other applications have been written in LabVIEW and can be edited.] External hardware can be controlled by LabVIEW to further expand capabilities for higher power, other frequencies and so on. This first experiment using the MyDAQ Bode Application will investigate the response of the series RLC circuit, both in amplitude and phase.
Important Concept Effective balance between energy storage and energy use in a system can substantially improve performance by enhancing desired activity and reducing undesired activity.
The Bode Diagram Application Module:

The Bode Module of MyDAQ ELVIS system is a stand-alone application that includes a swept signal generator and an analyzer. It does all of the calculations for you and plots a Bode Diagram with either linear or logarithmic vertical axis. [Clicking tick box for linear/logarithmic, changes display only and does not require data to be retaken.] Horizontal axis is frequency and always logarithmic (powers of 10). The Bode Module uses a 32-bit version of LabVIEW that must be installed on the computer, but it is not loaded by the user. It also uses the function generator module, but that is also done automatically for you. In order the system to work, the correct inputs and outputs of the MyDAQ hardware must be physically wired as indicated below. Three default locations for Function Generator and Bode Module are automatically configured when the hardware is sensed by the system. Start Bode Diagram Module within MyDAQ: 1) Windows Start Menu => All Programs => National Instruments => ELVIS
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2) Click on NI ELVIS Instrument Launcher
3) When instrument panel comes up, Click on Bode Icon
Wire circuit as shown below, being very careful to make sure that all wires are making good contact and not touching anything else. Layout is important.
Examples of Bode Plots:

Note differences in linear and dB plots. Also note that signal level is critical. Setting Peak Amplitude too low will result in noisy plots, too high will overload system. Both give incorrect data.
Figure 37: Linear Mapping (Gain) and 0.20 Volts Peak Amplitude Input
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Figure 38: Linear Gain and 0.80 Amplitude Input
Figure 39: Logarithmic Gain and 0.80 Amplitude Input

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Figure 40: Linear Gain and 3.50 Amplitude Input (overload)
Figure 41: Wiring of MyDAQ 1) Function Generator AO 0+ to AI 0+ 2) AI 0 - to AGND 3) Signal analyzer: AI 1 + to circuit output; AI 1- to AGND 4) Circuit input to AO 0+ Circuit GRND to AGND Position of wires is important, Do NOT twist Wires !
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Internal Control
Independent Function Generator
AO 0
AI 0 +
Bode Diagram System

AI 1 + AI 0 AI 1 AGND (2 places)
Figure 42: Bode Plotter Block Diagram and Component Schematic
Lab Guidelines:
Decide what your Overview paragraph of design section is and most of your method paragraph before starting lab. Skip a page in your notebook (reserve for Design section) and then you can use next page for your working notes. This page should be labeled Working notes and it will not be graded. You need at least two sketches in you lab, one for physical layout of MyDAQ and your circuit components and another circuit diagram, including internal resistance of L and signal source. Your components will be the same as the ones used in previous lab but different series R of signal source, so calculations may be slightly different. You are expected to do calculations correctly: Start with verbal description of what your equations are what they mean Show schematic with all components and measurement locations matching equations with units for all numbers Give basic equations, substitute numbers, give results, including units, and evaluate what results mean, show on graphs as in previous lab. Take measurements and relate to calculations, expectations. Be sure that stepby-step instructions are adequate for you to repeat experiments. Note that even very small movement of parts or wires may cause glitches in response graphs or unreasonable results. The Bode Module will give some type of result even if nothing is connected (loose wire).
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Example of Resonant Frequency Uncertainty for Lab 07, all added except for intermediate values of L and C. Units are Hz and related to 8 KHz. Uncertainty Budget for Resonant Frequency ( 8000Hz):
Source of Uncertainty Value () Distribution Divisor Hz Type Normal 2 @ 1 Standard Deviation 10 Notes Referenced to k = 2, units of Hz Will be based on chosen number of points per decade and will not be an integer as before Use LabVIEW L / C tolerance combined as ratios Use this one sum of squares=> square root Approx. 95 % certainty
20 Bode F Accuracy of analyzer (95%) Analyzer resolution, based on separation of points 4 measured frequencies L and C combined as ratios Convert above to Hz @ 8000Hz Combined uncertainty Expanded uncertainty
Rectangular
Normal Normal
4 2
Normal Normal
2 1 k=2 (x 2)
Report: Measured average value of resonant frequency was 8089.51 Hz xxx Hz. Hints:
1) MyDAQ ADC resolution 16 bits with 10 Volts full scale => 2) Absolute accuracy at 23 C, 22.8 mV [10 V scale] , 4.9 mV [2 V scale] 3) Assume 200 kHz/s sample rate, and accuracy of time base 100 ppm of sample rate, thus 20 Hz uncertainty in accuracy. 4) Move from point to point for different number of sample points near your peak amplitude and record frequency step size of data to get resolution error. 5) Determine/Design/Explain how you will choose a method to get statistical data [4 different readings] for your uncertainty analysis 6) Note that sometimes noise will dramatically change the scale for vertical axis. You can correct this by highlighting the min or max label on left side of graph vertical axis and typing in a new value. When you press ENTER key, the axis scale will change.
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Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Measurement and Instrumentation Fourth Edition

Claude Setzer, Ph.D. PE

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

List of Lab Topics:

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Structure of this Course

Technical material in the course:

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Lab Notebook: [NOT a Lab REPORT]

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

LabVIEW and MyDAQ:

Types of Lab Sessions: Experience, Simulation, and Background

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Figure 1: Overview of Engineering Design

Figure 2: Total Cost of Product

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Two Types of Processes:

Some ways to express Stochastic processes:

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Figure 3: The Normal Distribution

Goals /Emphasis of this course:

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

6) Click on VI from Template

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

7) Highlight Tutorial => Generate and Display, then click on OK.

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Lab #1: Resistor Statistics

Lab #1: Statistics of Resistor Values, Procedure:

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Figure 5: Clips Attached to Resistor

0.5 % 0.25 0.1 % 0.05 % 5% 10%

Figure 6: Color code for Resistors

Carbon composition resistor, 270 K, 5%

Film resistor, 270K, 5%

Notes on collecting resistor data:

3) Do NOT remove resistors from tape that holds them together.

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Add Statistical Analysis to your VI [Virtual Instrument]

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #1: Intro and Resistor Statistics

Notes on Procedure for this lab:

Example of Uncertainty Budget for Resistor Measurements

Normal Rectangular Normal

3.41 6.82 Approx. 95 % certainty

Example of required Report:

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #2: System Loading

Thvenin Equivalent Series Resistance

Lab #2: System Loading

Every Circuit is a Voltage Divider.

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #2: System Loading

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #2: System Loading

Set to 6 volt output to 5 volts and measure with Digital meter

Figure 12: Connect Resistors

Notch on common/bottom Figure13: Fluke 45 Digital Multimeter

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #2: System Loading

2 button in/down for uncertainty, 20 for voltages above 2 volts

Measurement and Instrumentation Lab #2: System Loading