INTRODUCTION

1.1. Polymer Composites

Polymer composites are considered to an important and indispensable high performance engineering materials and replace many of the light weight and efficient strength characteristics. The major advantages of polymer composites are their ease of fabrication into complex structural shapes, replacement of conventional materials with considerable weight reduction, improved reliability and increased fuel economy in the case of vehicles. The modern technology development needs reliable high performance composites materials having light with excellent thermal and mechanical properties. Epoxy resins based on diglycidylether of bisphenol-A has been used extensively as thermosetting matrices in the development of high performance fibre reinforced composites. A wide spectrum of various composites have emerged with almost tailor made properties to cater to the needs of not only the aircraft and aerospace industry but also other industries li e marine, automobile, electrical, chemical and household applications. !omposite materials technology exploits the high specific moduli and strength of reinforcing fibers to produce low-density high performance structures.

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1.2. COMPOSITE MATERIALS

!omposites are broadly classified into four groups based on the types of matrices employed. They are polymer matrix composites #P$!s%, ceramic matrix composites #!$!s%, metal matrix composites #$$!s% and carbongraphite composites. $aterials within these categories are often called &advanced' if they combine the properties of high strength and high stiffness, low weight, corrosion resistance and in some cases special electrical properties. !ombination of these properties ma e advanced composites very attractive for aircraft and aerospace structural parts. The reinforcement compatible with the matrix system may be in the form of filament, short fibres, platelets, fla es and particulates. $ost preferred reinforcement are fibres and whis ers. $etal composites are made by powder metallurgy, which involves solid state or li(uid state sintering or impregnation of molten metal. )n ceramic composites, oxides of metallic, intermetallic or non-metallics are used because of their inert nature, better hardness and thermal stability.

1.3. POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE RESIN SYSTEMS

)n polymer composites, metals, ceramic or polymeric fibres having high modulus than the matrix are used as reinforcement. Polymeric composites continue to demonstrate a mar ed impact on the materials world as evidenced by many recent advancements and exotic applications due to their light-weight, higher operating temperature, greater stiffness, higher reliability and affordability. *ibre reinforced polymer composites constitute more than +,- of total composites used in advanced applications. .ne of the

major advantages of using polymers in structural composites is the ease of fabrication of complex structural shapes. )n aerospace applications, aerodynamically efficient structural configurations can be easily manufactured
without involving difficult and expensive fabrication processes. The polymeric resin systems used in manufacturing advanced composites are thermoplastic and thermosetting. However, thermosetting resins predominate today, while thermoplastics have a limited role in the manufacture of advanced composites. Some of more common thermoset include epoxies, polyester, vinyl ester, phenolics and amino resins, polyimides and polyamides. Of these, epoxies are the most commonly used in todays polymer matrix composites ( !"# industry. The structural components and devices used for modern technological applications need reliable, high performance composite materials having light weight with excellent thermal and mechanical properties. $poxy resins based on diglycidyl ether of bisphenol%& have been used extensively as thermosetting matrices in the development of high performance light weight fibre reinforced composites.

1. . EPOXY RESINS
Epoxy resin is defined as any molecule containing more than one epoxide group capable of being converted to a useful thermoset form. The epoxide group also termed as, oxirane or ethoxyline group, is shown below,

These resins are thermosetting polymers and are used as adhesives, high performance coatings and potting and encapsulating materials. These resins have excellent electrical properties, low shrin age, good adhesion to many metals and resistance to moisture, thermal and mechanical shoc . 1iscosity, epoxide e(uivalent weight and molecular weight are the important properties of epoxy resins.

1.!.1 CLASSI"ICATION O" EPOXIDE RESINS

There are two main categories of epoxy resins, namely the glycidyl epoxy, and non-glycidyl epoxy resins. The glycidyl epoxies are further classified as glycidyl-ether, glycidyl-ester and glycidyl-amine. The nonglycidyl epoxies are either aliphatic or cycloaliphatic epoxy resins. 2lycidyl epoxies are prepared via a condensation reaction of appropriate dihydroxy compound, dibasic acid or a diamine and epichlorohydrin while, non-glycidyl epoxies are formed by peroxidation of olefinic double bond. 2lycidyl-ether epoxies such as, diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A #32E4A% and novolac epoxy resins are most commonly used epoxies.

".5." 3iglycidy ether of bisphenol-A resin #32E4A%

3iglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A #32E4A% is a typical commercial epoxy resin and is synthesi6ed by reacting bisphenol-A with epichlorohydrin in presence of sodium hydroxide.

*ig "." 8tructure of 32E4A The properties of the 32E4A resins depend on the value of n, which is the number of repeating units commonly nown as degree of polymerisation The number of repeating units depend on the stoichiometry of synthesis reaction. Typically, n ranges from , to /5 in many commercial products. 3iglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A #32E4A% resins are used in filament winding, pultrusion, vacuum impregnating, contact moulding and for manufacture of prepegs from glass and carbon fibres. They can be cured with a wide range of curing agents both at ambient and elevated temperatures.

Epo#y No$%l%& 9ovolac epoxy resins are glycidyl ethers of phenolic novolac resins. Phenols are reacted in excess, with formaldehyde in presence of acidic catalyst to produce phenolic novolac resin. 9ovolac epoxy resins are synthesi6ed by reacting phenolic novolac resin with epichlorohydrin in presence of sodium hydroxide as a catalyst. 9ovolac epoxy resins generally contain multiple epoxide groups. The number of epoxide groups per molecule depends upon the number of phenolic hydroxyl groups in the starting phenolic novolac resin, the extent to which they reacted and the degree of low molecular species being polymerised during synthesis. The

multiple epoxide groups allow these resins to achieve high crosslin density resulting in excellent temperature, chemical and solvent resistance. 9ovolac epoxy resins are widely used to formulate the moulding compounds for microelectronics pac aging because of their superior performance at elevated temperature, excellent mouldability, and mechanical properties, superior electrical properties, and heat and humidity resistance.

2lycidyl esters

The reaction between epichlorohydrin and carboxylic acids leads to the formation of the glycidyl esters, via intermediate chlorohydrins. A number of acids have been made to undergo this reaction, but only the glycidyl esters derived from phthalic, isopthalic and terephalic acids, and tetra-and hexa-hydrophthalic cids have found some significant practical applications in epoxy resin technology #8chrade "+:;%. They posses high resistance to outdoor weathering and trac ing. They are used as high voltage electrical insulators and as heat cured laminates.

2lycidyl amines

2lycidyl amines can be prepared from aliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines. Among the glycidyl amines, aromatic amines based on aniline and diaminodiphenylmethane #33$% are of practical importance. They are mostly cured with anhydrides. The aromatic glycidyl amine-based epoxies are used as sealants for electro optic devices. $ore particularly, an epoxy prepared from an aromatic glycidyl amine resin and an effective amount of a suitable curing agent is applied as a moisture seal to the peripheral edge surface of a laminated electro optic device, such as a laminated electro chromic lens, having a peripheral edge surface prone to moisture gain or loss. 8uch seals are especially useful when moisture loss or gain through the peripheral edge surface of an electro optic device is critical to device performance. )n the case of a laminated electro chromic device containing an ion-conducting polymer #)!P% interlayer, the seal preferably covers and contacts the exposed outer edge of the )!P layer, which enables the water content of the )!P layer to be maintained within a suitable range. This in turn helps to maintain the re(uired ion-mobility and the device<s operability.

!=>)92 A2E9T8

)n epoxy resin technology the term ?curing@ is used to describe the process by which epoxy resins are transformed from low molecular weight molecules into highly cross lin ed networ and achieved by the addition of a

curing agent. The net wor may be composed of segments involving only the epoxies or both epoxy resin and the curing agent #hardner%. The epoxy resin in general react with compounds containing active hydrogen such as phenols, alcohols, thiols, primary and secondary amines, #>iccardi et al "+;7% carboxylic acids and acid anhydrides #$i a "+A0 and Tana a et al "+A0%. The type of curing agent plays a major role in determining the properties of epoxy resin. )t strongly influences the structure of the cross lin ed epoxy mechanical properties and morphology. !ure temperatures also influence the morphology considerably and has a significant effect on morphology and mechanical properties #3ehoff "+:", $i a "+A0, 3asgupta and $ital "+:7, Penn and !hiao "++,%. The most commonly used curing agents are aliphatic, primary and secondary amines, aromatic primary and secondary amines, polyamidoamines and acid unhydrides #Potter "+A, and Ashcroft "++0%.

1.6.1 Aliphatic amine

4oth primary and secondary amines are used for curing the epoxy resins at room temperature, the former being more reactive than the latter #2lover et al "+;;%. )n the curing reactions, hydrogen in the primary and secondary amino groups is reactive and they are bi- and mono-functional respectively. 1arious amines used are diethylenetriamine #3ETA, functionality B 5%, triethylenetetramine #TETA, functionality B :%, hexamethylenediamine #C$3, functionality B 7% etc. #Parthum and Dohari "++/, "++/a and 2reenlee "+7;%. They are highly reactive due to their unhindered polyfunctional nature and give crosslin ed networ s due to short

chain distance between active sites. The cured resins have excellent solvent resistance and mechanical strength but have poor flexibility. C/9-!C/-!C/-9C-!C/-!C/-9C/ - 3iethylenetriamine

C/9-!C/-!C/-9C- !C/-!C/-9C- !C/-!C/-9C/ Triethylenetetramine

C/9-!C/-!C/-!C/-!C/-!C/-!C/-9C/ Cexamethylenediamine

".:./ Aromatic amine

Aromatic amines, which re(uire heat curing and are widely, used for lamination applications to provide excellent mechanical, electrical and chemical resistance. !ommonly #33$% used aromatic and amines Dohari are "++,% 7,7@mdiaminodiphenylmethane also #$argion

phenylenediamine #$P3A% and diaminodiphenylsulphone #338%. 33$ is nown as methylenediamine #$3A%. 33$ is used for wet lay-up lamination, castings ore prepreg preparations. $ajor advantage of 33$ over many other curing agents is the ability to cure li(uid 32E4A resins down to ,o! in solution in presence of an accelerator such as phenol or salicylic acid #Ellis "++0%.

Polyamidoamine

Polyamidoamines #PAAs% are synthetic tert-amino polymers obtained by stepwise polyaddition of primary or secondary aliphatic amines to bisacrylamides. been co-reacted Polyamidoamines are also called aminopolyamides or with aliphatic #3ETA%, amines such as dethylenediamine, #TETA%, amidopolyamines. They are dimerised or polymeri6ed fatty acids that have diethylenetriamine triethylenetetramine

tetraethylenepentamine #TEPA%. The resultant products are very large and contain varying levels of primary and secondary amino hydrogens, reactive amides and carboxyl groups, all of which contribute to epoxy curing. The fatty acid bac bone provides excellent corrosion resistance by its water repelling nature. Their low viscosity and corrosion resistance ma e them suitable for electrical potting and filament winding applications.

=98AT=>ATE3 P.EFE8TE> >E8)9

=nsaturated polyester #=P% resins are one of the most widely used thermosetting materials used for the production of fibre reinforced plastics or non-reinforced filled products. They offer reasonably good tear strength, chemical and heat resistance #Gir -.thmer "+;5% and relatively inexpensive. The shrin age that occurs during the cross lin ing reaction of the unsaturated polyester resins with styrene can be eliminated by the incorporation of low

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shrin age agents #!rosbile and Phillips "+;5, $otawie et al "++;, 1alette and Csu "+++%. !ommon applications unsaturated polyester include marine #gelcoats%, automotive, wind turbine blades and electronic industries.

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REIN"ORCEMENTS
H>einforcements are used with resin systems primarily to improve the

mechanical properties of the cures resins. The reinforcements normally used with matrix resins to fabricate in fibre reinforced are glass, carbon, boron and Gevlar. *ibrous composites consist of fibres in the form of chopped strand, filament and woven roving. The choice of reinforcement depends on many parameters such as strength, stiffness, environmental stability and cost. The fibres primarily govern the structural properties of the composites. 2lass, carbon and aramid fibres are used in aerospace, automotive, construction, biomedical and sports sector. 2lass fibres are most fre(uently and extensively used as reinforcement for polymer composites due to their low cost, better compatibility, easy availability, better tensile strength and heat resistance. Ihere light weight is more important than the cost of materials, such as in aerospace and sports goods application, armid and carbon fibre composites dominate. Cowever, where economic considerations are more important, in industrial applications, glass fibre still have much potential.

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1.(.1 )l%ss *i+er

2lass fibers are made of silicon oxide with addition of small amounts of other oxides. 2lass fibers are characteristic for their high strength, good temperature and corrosion resistance, and low price. There are two main types of glass fibersJ E-glass and 8-glass. E-glass fiber imparts excellent electrical resistively, corrosion and environmental resistance. The second type is very strong #8-glass%, stiff, and temperature resistant. They are used as reinforcing materials in many sectors, e.g. automobile industries, naval industries, sport e(uipment etc. They are produced by a spinning process, in which they are pulled out through a no66le from molten glass #thousands of meterKmin%. 2lass fibers have poor adhesion to matrix resins. The adhesion between the matrix and glass reinforcement is improved by incorporating coupling agents. 1arious forms of glass reinforcements used with thermosetting resins are continuous filament ravings, chopped strands, chopped strand mat, continuous strand mat and woven glass fabrics

1.(.2 Ar%mi, *i+er

Aramid fiber is an aromatic polyamide produced by spinning a solid fiber from a li(uid chemical blend. The bright golden yellow filaments produced can have a range of properties such as high strength, modulus and low density. They have good resistance to water, hydrocarbons and solvents and show excellent flame resistance characteristics. Aramid fiber such as Gevlar are usually preferred where the strength is the main design criteria and are used for manufacture of nose cones, wing root, fairing, coc pit and

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fuselage of helicopters, motor casings, pressure bottles, propellant tan s and other pressured systems, bulletproof vests, bi e tyres, and sport e(uipments.

Although most commonly nown under its 3upont trade name <Gevlar<, there are now a number of suppliers of the fiber, most notably A 6o 9obel with <Twaron<. Each supplier offers several grades of aramid with various combinations of modulus and surface finish to suit various applications. As well as the high strength properties, the fibers also offer good resistance to abrasion, and chemical and thermal degradation. Cowever, the fiber can degrade slowly when exposed to ultraviolet light. Aramid fibers are usually available in the form of rovings, with texes ranging from about /, to ;,,. Typically the price of the high modulus type ranges from L"5-to L/5 per g.

1.(.3 C%r+o- %-, .r%p/ite *i+ers

!arbon fibers are manufactured by the thermal decomposition of organic precursor material such as cellulose, polyacrylonitrile, lignin and pitch. !arbon fibers are produced by controlled exudation and carboni6ation of the precursor fiber at temperatures of up to about /:,, o!. This results in a high strength carbon fiber. 4y subse(uently increasing the temperature to

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about 0,,,o!, the high strength carbon fiber can be converted into a high modulus graphite fiber. The carbon fiber composites offer high specific strength and stiffness up to the highest temperature, which are directly attributable to the highly anisotropic nature of carbon. They also exhibit excellent dimensional stability due to their very low coefficient of thermal expansion. !arbon fiber-reinforced plastics find application in aircrafts, wing s in, front fuselage, control surfaces, fin and rudder, access doors, under carriage doors, engine cooling, main torsion box, fuel tan , rotor blades, antenna disc, solar booms, solar panel substrate etc

1.(. 0oro- *i+er

4oron fibers posses high-modulus and strength and are commonly used in metal matrices such as aluminum and magnesium. as a reinforcement material. Cowever, boron has largely been replaced by carbon because of the high cost of the former. They do not differ greatly from glass fiber in tensile strength, but have up to five times the modulus. 4oron fiber-reinforced composites posses excellent stiffness and compressive strength. They are produced in singlefilament reactors by !hemical 1apor 3eposition #!13% techni(ue.

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Elemental boron is deposited on a fine tungsten wire substrate and produced in diameters of 7.,-mil #",/-micron% and 5.:-mil #"7/-micron%. The resulting fiber is essentially amorphous boron with a fully boridedtungsten core.

1.1 "A0RICATION O" COMPOSITES

1arious techni(ues used to fabricate the composites are filament winding, pultrusion and lamination by wet lay-up or dry lay-up

1.1.1 "il%me-t 2i-,i-.

)n filament winding process, continuous glass filament impregnated in matrix material are wound under tension on to a mandrel and sound structure is subse(uently cured.

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1.1.2 P3ltr3sioEong length reinforcement is combined with a thermosetting resin matrix to provide different sections, configurations continuously. $atrix system used should have low viscosity with moderate pot life and capable of being cured at short time at elevated temperature. Pultruded sections and rods find extensive application as components in circuit brea ers and tie rods in switch gears.

1.1.3 L%mi-%tioEamination techni(ue can be broadly divided into wet lay-up lamination and dry lay-up lamination. Iet lay-up implies the use of li(uid resin to impregnate the fiber matrix either before or after it bee laid in place. 3ry lay-up in the conventional techni(ue in which the reinforcement is impregnated with a solvent solution of the resin and the solvent is flashed off to get a dry impregnated sheet to prepare the laminate.

1.14

N%-ote&/-olo.y
9anotechnology which is sometimes shortened to &9anotech' refers to

a field whose theme is the control of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. 2enerally nanotechnology deals with structures of the si6e ",, nanometers or smaller, and involves developing materials or devices within that si6e. 9anotechnology is extremely diverse, ranging from novel extensions of conventional device physics, to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, to developing new materials with dimensions on the

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nanoscale, even to speculation on whether we can directly control mater on the atomic scale. There has been much debate on the future of implications of nanotechnology, 9anotechnology has the potential to create many new materials and devices with wide ranging applications, such as in medicine, electronics, and energy production. .n the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials M"N, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

Ori.i-s
4uc minsterfullerence !:,, also nown as the buc yball, is the simplest of the carbon structures nown as fullerenes, $embers of the fullerene family are a major subject of research falling under the namotechnology umbrella. The first use of the concept in ?nano-technology #but predating use of that name% was in & There@s plenty of >oom at the 4ottom,' a tal given by physicist >ichard *eynman at an American physical 8ociety meeting at !altech on 3ecember /+, "+5+. *eynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecuses might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale. )n the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of various physical

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phenomena J gravity would become more important, etc. This basic idea appears plausible, and exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful (uantity of end products. The term &nanotechnology' was defined by To yp 8cence =niversity Professor 9orio Taniguchi in a "+A7 paper as follows J &9ano-technology' mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule. &)n the "+;,s the basic idea of this definition was explored in much more depth by 3r.G.Eric 3rexler, who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches and the boo s Engines of !reation J The !oming Era of 9anotechnology #"+;:% and 9anosystems J $olecular $achinery. $anufacturing and !omputation, and so the term ac(uired its current sense. Engines of !reation J The !oming Era of 9anotechnology is considered the first boo on the topic of nanotechnology. 9anotechnology and nanoscience got started in the early "+;,s with two major developmentsO the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscopes #8T$%. This development led to the discovery of fullerenes in "+;: and carbon nanotubes a few years later. )n another development, the synthesis and properties of semiconductor nanoparticles of (uantum dots. The atomic force microscope was invented six years after the 8T$ was invented. )n /,,,, the =nited 8tates 9ational 9anotechnology initiative was founded to coordinate *ederal nanotechnology research and development.

"3-,%me-t%l &o-&epts
.ne nanometer #nm% is one billionth, or ", -+ , of a meter. 4y comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range ,. "/-,."5 nm, and a 39A double-helix

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has a diameter around / nm. .n the other hand, the smallest cellular lifeforms, the bacteria of the genus $ycoplasma, are around /,, nm in length. To put that scale in another context, the comparative si6e of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the si6e of the earth. .r another way of putting it J a nanometer is the amount a man@s beard grows in the time it ta es him to raise the ra6or to his face. Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. )n the &bottom P up' approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition. )n the &top-down' approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic Plevel control.

Tools %-, te&/-i53es.

Typical A*$ setup. A microfabricated cantilever with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a sample surface, much li e in a phonograph but on a much smaller scale. A laser beam reflects off the bac side of the cantilever into a set of photodetectors, allowing the deflection to be measured and assembled into an image of the surface. The first observations and si6e measurements of nano-particles were made during the first decade of the /, th century. They are mostly associated with the name of 6sigmondy who made detailed studies of gold sols and other nonomaterials with si6es down to ", nm and less. Ce published a boo in

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"+"7. Ce used ultramicroscope that employs a dar field method for seeing particles with si6es much less than light wavelength. There are traditional techni(ues developed during /,th century in )nterface and !olloid 8cience for characteri6ing nanomaterials. These are widely used for first generation passive nanomaterials specified in the next section. These methods include several different techni(ues for characteri6ing particle si6e distribution. This characteri6ation is imperative because many materials that are expected to be nano-si6ed are actually aggregated in solutions. 8ome of methods are based on light scattering. .ther apply ultrasound, such as ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy for testing concentrated nano-dispersions and microemulsions. There is also a group of traditional techni(ues for characteri6ing surface charge or 6eta potential of nano-particles in solutions. This information is re(uired for proper system stabili6ation, preventing is aggregation or flocculation. These methods include microelctrophoresis, electophoretic Earger to smallers J a materials perspective )mage of reconstruction on a clean Au #",,% surface, as visuali6ed using scanning tunneling microscopy. The positions of the individual atoms composing the surface are visible. $ain article 9anomaterials A number of physical phenomena become pronounced as the si6e of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as

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(uantum mechanical effects, for example the &(uantum si6e effect' where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle si6e. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. Cowever, it becomes dominant when the nanometer si6e range is reached. Additionally, a number of bhysical #mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.% properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. .ne example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. 3iffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred to nanoionics. 9ovel mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential ris s in their interaction with biomaterials. $aterials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling uni(ue applications. *or instance, opa(ue substances become transparent #copper%O stable materials turn combustible #aluminum%O solids turn into li(uids at room temperature #gold%O insulators become conductors #silicon%. A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as This device transfers energy from nano-thin layers of (uantum wells to nanocrystals above them, causing the nanocrystals to emit visible light.

N%-om%teri%ls
This includes subfields which develop or study materials having uni(ue properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.

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 I-ter*%&e %-, Colloi, S&ie-&e has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods. 9anoscale materials can also be used for bul applicationsO most

present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor. Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applicationsO see 9anomedicine. 9anoscale materials are sometimes used in solar which combats the cost of traditional 8ilicon solar cells.

1.11 NANOCOMPOSITES
>ecently, a new area if composites has emerged in which the reinforcing material has dimensions of one billionth of a meter and the resulting product is called nanocomposites. )n polymer metal nanocomposites the reinforcing phase, in the shape of whis ers, has two dimensions on a nano level. The metal particles reinforcement increases both strength and toughness due to the enormous surface area and the extent of dispersion of metal nanoparticles in the matrix.

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1.12 MATERIALS 1.12.1 Met%l -%-op%rti&les

9anocomposites consisting of metal nanoparticles of " - ",, nm are exhibiting specific characteristics. The metal nanoparticle-based materials have been commonly used for coloring glasses since the $edieval Ages, such as stained glasses in !athedrals. The metal nanoparticle materials show nonlinear electronic transport #single-electron transport of !oulomb bloc ade% and nonlinearKultrafast optical response due to the surface plasmon resonance. The nonlinear optical properties are to be applied for optical switching and optical logic elements, etc. in photonic fields. *erromagnetic materials can be developed by incorporating iron #)))% oxide nanoparticle with polymer resins.

1.12.2 Com+%ti+ilisi-. %.e-ts

Amino acids, al ylamines, adducts, polyetheramines,

dihydroimida6olines and silanes. The first compatibili6ing agent used in the synthesis of nanocomposites was amino acids.

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1.13 SYNT6ESIS O" POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITES 1.13.1 I-7sit3 Polymeri8%tio-

)n-situ polymeri6ation was the first method used to synthesi6e polymer layered silicate nancomposites based on polyamide : #. ada et al "++,. )n this process, the organyclay is swollen in the monomer. Then, the reaction is initiated. Polymer-metal nanocomposites based on epoxy, unsaturated polyester, polyurethanes and polyethylene terephthalate have been synthesi6ed by this method.

1.12.2 Sol3tio- Polymeri8%tio-

8olution polymeri6ation is a method of industrial polymeri6ation. )n this procedure, a monomer is dissolved in a non-reactive solvent that contains a catalyst. The heat released by the reaction is absorbed by the solvent, and so the reaction rate is reduced. This process is one of two used in the production of 8odium polyacrylate, a super absorbent polymer used in disposable nappies. The benefits of such type of polymeri6ation, over the conventional bul polymeri6ation, are that it reduces the viscosity of the reaction not allowing auto-acceleration at high monomer concentrations.

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1.12.3 Melt I-ter&%l%tio-.

The strategy consists of blending a molten thermoplastic with organo functionali6ed metal nanoparticle in order to optimi6e the polymer-metal nanoparticle interactions. The mixture is then annealed at a temperature above the glass transition temperature of the polymer and forms a nanocomposite.

1.13 LITERATURE RE9IE:

$i royannidis and Gourtides #"+;7% studied curing of epoxy resins with 3!EP3 and compare their reactivity with common curing agents such as $P3 and 338. They found that the reactivity of these curing agents towards epoxy resins, in the following order $P3Q3!EP3Q338. The polymers of 3!EP3 showed a relatively lower polymer decomposition temperature and higher yield than the polymers of the common curing agents. $andell et al #"+;5% studied the tensile and fatigue failure in conventional glass fibre composites using epoxy resins. They found that, surface damage to the conventional fibre reinforced composites is due to the cyclic fatigue degradation, whereas composites fabricated using macrofibres exhibit very high resistance to fatigue degradation. Dang et al #"+;A% studied the cryogenic failure mechanism of fibre epoxy composites for energy applications. The results indicate that the impact energy of composite laminates could be increased to ",,- by immersing the specimen in li(uid nitrogen for only about 5 minutes. 8amples impact-tested

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at cryogenic temperatures were found to posses a high degree of delamination behavior due to microcra ing and differential thermal contraction. 9ewa6 #"+;:% studied the interfacial toughness for polyester and epoxy unidirectional glass fibre reinforced composites. )t was found that the fibrematrix interfacial fracture resistance of the epoxy composite is greater than that of polyester composite. Ein et al #"+++% studied simultaneous interpenetrating polymer networ s #)P9s% based on epoxy resin and unsaturated polyester #=P% prepared using m-xylenediamine and ben6oyl peroxide as curing agent and catalyst respectively. The existence of good compatibility between epoxy and unsaturated polyester was confirmed from the single Tg value obtained for the same. Cofflin et al #/,,,% studied the toughening of epoxy resins modified with polyetherester bloc copolymers and influence of modifier molecular architecture on mechanical properties. Experimental data revealed that the segmented polyetherester were suitable for toughening epoxies. 3ina aran et al #/,,/% prepared bismaleimide #n,9-bismaleoimido-7,7diphenyl methane% P unsaturated polyester modified epoxy cross lin ed matrices and studied for their thermo-mechanical properties. The mechanical properties of epoxy system increased with increasing unsaturated polyester content in epoxy matrix at the expense of thermal properties.

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!hinna

annu

Gari al

!ho6han

et

al

#/,,A%

prepared

the

intercrosslin ed networ s of unsaturated polyester #=P% toughened epoxyP clay hybrid nanocomposites. 3ata resulted from mechanical and thermal studies indicated that the introduction of unsaturated polyester into epoxy resin improved the thermal stability and impact strength to an appreciable extent. )ntroduction of both =P and organophilic $$T clay into epoxy resin enhanced the values of mechanical properties and thermal stability according to their percentage content. *rom the R-ray diffraction #R>3% analysis, it was observed that the presence of d,," reflections of the organophilic $$T clay in the cured product indicated the development of intercalated clay structure which in turn confirmed the formation of intercalated nanocomposites. 4aharvand prepared magnetic polymer by encapsulating iron oxide #)))% oxide #maghemite% nanoparticles in unsaturated polyester resin. 8E$ revealed that all maghemite particles were embedded in the polymer phase. The si6e distribution analysis has shown that the mean diameter of the bare iron oxide particles slightly increased with encapsulation. The magnetometry data and shape of the loops evidences the ferromagnetic character of the material.

1.1 SCOPE O" T6E PRESENT IN9ESTI)ATION

Though these studies result more useful information but still it re(uires more modification and systematic approach to evaluate the overall performance of the modified systems. A detailed wor is needed to develop the unsaturated modified epoxy hybrid matrix systems in order to obtain matrix systems with high tensile, flexural and impact properties

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Iith this in view, the objectives of the present investigations are To develop unsaturated polyester modified epoxy hybrid matrix system. To synthesis silane grafted *e0.7 nanoparticles. To study the effect of unsaturated polyester content in epoxy matrix on the mechanical properties li e tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus and impact strength. To study the morphological characteristics of unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrices. To study the effect of *e 0.7 nanoparticles in unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix on the mechanical properties li e tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus and impact strength. To study the effect of silane grafted *e 0.7 nanoparticles in unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix on the mechanical properties li e tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus and impact strength. To study the morphological characteristics of silane grafted *e 0.7 nanoparticles reinforced unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrices To study the effect of glass fibre on unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e 0.7 nanoparticles on the mechanical properties li e tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus and impact strength.

/;

/+

C6APTER 2 EXPERIMENTAL

2.1 MATERIALS
$aterials used for the development of unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 nanocomposite systems areJ #i% !ommercially available diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A #32E4A% based epoxy resin EF55: #!iba-2eigy Etd., )ndia% having epoxy e(uivalent of about ";,-"+,, with viscosity of about ",,,,, cP. #ii% #iii% 7,7-diaminodiphenylmethane #33$%, epoxy curing agent is obtained from !iba-2eigy Etd., )ndia =nsaturated polyester #=P% resin #isophthalic acid based, Polyresins, )ndia, viscosity at /5o! B /0,,-7,,, cP%, .C index B /7.7 e(K g. #iv% S-aminopropyltriethoxysilane agent. #v% #vi% )ron #)))% oxide #*e0.7% nanopowder, T5, nm #8igma Aldrich )nc., =8A, *IJ "5+.:+, m.pJ 5:5o!, densityJ 5."/% 4en6oyl peroxide #$erc )ndia Etd, )ndia% as radical initiator. #S-AP8, Aldrich, =8A, boiling point B /"Ao!, density B ,.+7: g.cm-0, $w B //".0% as silane grafting

0,

2.2 DE9ELOPMENT O" UNSATURATED POLYESTER MODI"IED EPOXY MATRIX

=nsaturated polyester modified epoxy resin was developed by blending calculated amount of unsaturated polyester #", wt-% relative to the epoxy resin #",, wKw%, stiochiometric amount of 7,7@-diaminodiphenylmethane #/A./ g% with respect to epoxy resin and ben6oyl peroxide #/ wt-% using a high speed stirrer at ;, o! for ", minutes with constant stirring. The hybrid product was then degassed to remove the entrapped air and then transferred into a preheated mould and ept at ",, o! for 7 h and post cured at "7, o! for 0 h #8cheme P "%.

'ig (.) 'ormation of unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix

0"

'ig (.( Hot &ir Oven

'ig (.* repared samples

2.3

SYNT6ESIS O" SILANE )RA"TED "E3O ;

0/

" g of *e0.7 nanopowder was suspended in ",, mE of ethanol and then sonicated for 0, minutes. !alculated amount of S-aminopropyltriethoxysilane #,.,/ g relative to *e0.7% was added drop wise to the above suspension in : h and further sonicated for : h continuously. 8ilane grafted *e 0.7 was filtered and dried at :,o! for "/ h.

2.

PREPARATION O" UNSATURATED POLYESTER MODI"IED EPOXY MATRIX "ILLED :IT6 SILANE )RA"TED "e3O NANOCOMPOSITES
A fixed amount of epoxy resin #",, g%, nown amount of unsaturated

polyester resin #", g%, calculated amount of silane grafted *e0.7 #,./5 g%, a stoichiometric amount of 7,7U-diaminodiphenylmethane #/A./ g% with respect to epoxy resin and ben6oyl peroxide #/ wt-% were mixed at ;, V! for ", min. with constant stirring. The hybrid product was then degassed to remove the entrapped air and was then transferred into a preheated mould ept at ",, V! for 7 h and post-cured at "7, V! for 0 h.

2.!

PREPARATION O" )LASS "I0RE < UNSATURATED POLYESTER MODI"IED EPOXY MATRIX "ILLED :IT6 SILANE )RA"TED "e3O =)"RPs>
The silane grafted *e0.7 #,./5 g% nanoparticles were dispersed in the

unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix which was developed by blending calculated amount of unsaturated polyester #", wt-% relative to the epoxy resin #",, wKw%. The unsaturated polyester modified epoxy K silane

00

grafted *e0.7 nanoparticles particle suspension was collected and mixed with the stoichiometric amount of 7,7@-diaminodiphenylmethane #/A./ g% and ben6oyl peroxide #/ wt-% using a high speed stirrer at ;, o! for ", minutes with constant stirring. This mixture was then used to produce the glass-fibrereinforced composites. The glass fibre reinforced polymer #2*>Ps% were produced via wet hand lay-up techni(ue. .ne glass-fibre volume content was chosen for the 2*>Ps, degassed. After lamination, the material remained in the mould was cured for 7 h at ",,o!. *inally, the laminates were post-cured at "7,o! for 0 h. /7 wt.-. 4efore lamination, the resinKparticle suspension was

2.' C6ARACTERISATION
$echanical characteristics of epoxy, unsaturated polyester modified epoxy, unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrices reinforced with silane grafted *e0.7 nanocomposites per A8T$ standards. and unsaturated polyester modified epoxy laminates reinforced with silane grafted *e 0.7 nanocomposites are tested as

2.?

MEC6ANICAL C6ARACTERISTICS

07

$echanical properties such as tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus and harness of matrix samples are studies as per A8T$ standards.

2.?.1 Te-sile Properties

Tensile strength is a measurement of the ability of a material to withstand forces that tend to pull it apart and to determine to what extend the materials stretches before brea ing. Tensile modulus, an indication of the relative stiffness of a material, can be determined from a stress-strain diagram. Tensile properties are studied as per A8T$-30,0+ using universal testing machine #)nstron, $odel :,/5 =G%, at ", mmKminute cross-head speed, using specimen with a width of /5 mm, length of /,, mm, and thic ness of 0 mm. The test specimen is prepared by machining operation. *ive specimens are tested for each sample.

05

ARRAN)EMENT "OR MA@IN) )RAP6

CYLINDER

POINTER

"IXED CROSS 6EAD

OIL LINES LE9ER 6AND :6EEL O" RELEASE 9AL9E 6AND :6EEL "OR "INE CONTROL O" MOTION

MO9A0LE CROSS 6EAD

AA:S 6AND :6EEL

6ANDLE

'ig (.+ ,-./$0S&1 T$ST.-2 !&"H.-$

2.?.2 Te-sile stre-.t/

0:

Tensile strength or tenacity is the stress at the brea ing point. Tensile strength is obtained from the maximum load applied in brea ing a tensile test piece divided by the original cross-sectional area of the test piece. .riginally (uoted as tonsKs(.in. it is now measured as 9ewtonsKs(.mm. Also termed $aximum 8tress and =ltimate Tensile 8tress. Tensile strength B Eoad at brea K orginal cross-sectional area BEKbx3 Ihere, E is the load applied in 9, b is the width in mm and 3 is the thic ness in mm J

'ig (.3 Stress vs. Strain curve typical of structural steel

". =ltimate 8trength

0A

/. Field 8trength 0. >upture 7. 8train hardening region 5. 9ec ing region. AJ Apparent stress #*KA,% 4J Actual stress #*KA%

2.?.3 Te-sile mo,3l3s

Tensile modulus is given by the following e4uation Tensile modulus 5 Tensile stress 6 Tensile strain (mm# 5 difference in load (-# 6 difference in extension 5 7 6 78

2.?. "le#3r%l properties

*lexural properties are studied as per A8T$-3A+, using specimen with dimension 0 mm in depth ", mm in width and +, mm in length using univeral testing machine #)nstron, $odel :,/5, =G%, at ", mmKmin cross-head speed.

2.7.5 Flexural strength

*lexural strength, also nown as modulus of rupture, bend strength, or fracture strength, is measured in terms of stress, and thus is expressed in units of pressure #or stress, the two being e(uivalent%. The value represents the

0;

highest stress experienced within the material at its moment of rupture. )n a bending test, the highest stress is reached on the surface of the sample. *or a rectangular sample under a load in a four-point bending setup where the

loading span is one-third of the support spanJ

F is the load #force% at the fracture point #9% L is the length of the support #outer% span #mm% b is width of the bar #mm% d is thic ness #mm%

2.?.' "le#3r%l mo,3l3s

The flexural modulus is a measure of stiffness. )t is determined by using the following e(uation E B w l0 K7; W) Ihere, E is flexural modulus, w is load #9%, l is the length of the specimen #5, mm%, W is the deflection in mm and ) B bd 0 K "/ #b is width in mm and d is thic ness in mm%

0+

2.?.? 6%r,-ess Cardness of the composite materials are measured using 3urometerType 3 as per A8T$ 3//7,. 8pecimens with 0 mm in thic ness. The surface of the specimen is flat over sufficient area to permit presser foot to contact the specimen over an area having : mm radius for the indentor point. The specimen is placed on a hard hori6ontal surface. The durometer is held in a position in the point of indentor at least "/ mm from any edge of the specimen. The durometer has a pointed indentor projecting below the base of the presser foot. Ihen the indentor is pressed in to the specimen so that the base rests on the plastic surface, the amount of indention registers directly on the dial indicator. Carness is determined at five different positions on the specimen at least : mm apart and arithmetic mean is ta en.

2.( SCANNIN) ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

The fractured surfaces of specimens were coated with gold and examined under a scanning electron microscope #8E$, Eeica !ambridge, 8tereoscan $odel 77,%. *ractured surfaces were obtained from flexural tested specimens using univeral testing machine #)nstron, $odel :,/5, =G%, at a cross-head speed of / mm per minute. Excess material was removed from the other faces of the specimens by ra6or blade.

7,

C6APTER 3
MEC6ANICAL PROPERTIES
This chapter illustrates the mechanical properties of the epoxy, unsaturated polyester modified epoxy, unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrices filled with silane grafted *e 0.7 nanocomposites and glass fibre K unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e 0.7 #2*>Ps%.

3.1 TENSILE PROPERTIES 3.1.1 U-s%t3r%te, polyester mo,i*ie, epo#y m%tri#.

The observed values for tensile strength of epoxy and epoxy modified with unsaturated polyester are presented in the Table 0.". The introduction of ",- #by wt% of unsaturated polyester into epoxy resin decreases the tensile strength by ":./-, when compared with unmodified epoxy. This may be explained due to the formation of chain entanglement in the =PPepoxy matrix system. The values of tensile modulus obtained for the unmodified epoxy and epoxy modified with unsaturated polyester are also presented in Table 0." and they exhibit similar trend as in the case of tensile strength.

7"

3.1.2 U-s%t3r%te, polyester mo,i*ie, epo#y m%tri# *ille, 2it/ "e3O -%-o&ompoites
The tensile strength values of unsaturated polyester modified epoxy and unsaturated polyester modified epoxy filled with *e 0.7 nanoparticles are presented in the Table 0.". )n the case of *e0.7 nanoparticles filled unsaturated polyester modified epoxy system, the introduction of ,./5- #by wt% of *e0.7 nanoparticle decreases the value of tensile strength by 7.5-. This may be explained due to the physical blend formation without crosslin age. The values of tensile modulus obtained for the *e0.7 nanoparticles filled unsaturated polyester modified epoxy system is also presented in Table 0." and it exhibit similar trend as in the case of tensile strength.

3.1.3 U-s%t3r%te, polyester mo,i*ie, epo#y m%tri# *ille, 2it/ sil%-e .r%*te, "e3O -%-o&ompoites
The observed values of tensile strength due to introduction of silane grafted *e0.7 nanoparticles into unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix are presented in Table 0.". The value of tensile strength decreases by +."by the addition ,./5- #by wt% of siliane grafted *e0.7 nanoparticle. This is due to the formation of a physical blend, simply by dispersing silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanospheres in the unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix. The values of tensile modulus obtained for the silane grafted *e 0.7 core-shell nanospheres filled unsaturated polyester modified epoxy system is also presented in Table 0." and it exhibit similar trend as in the case of tensile strength.

7/

3.1.

)l%ss *i+re < U-s%t3r%te, polyester mo,i*ie, epo#y m%tri# *ille, 2it/ sil%-e .r%*te, "e3O =)"RPs>
The observed values for tensile strength of glass mate laminate by

unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e 0.7 core-shell nanosphere are presented in the Table 0.". The introduction of /7#by wt% of continuous strand mat glass fibre into unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanosphere increases the tensile strength by "0,.;-, when compared with unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanosphere. This may be explained, due to inclusion of continuous strand mat glass fibres along the length of specimen will compensate the effect of fibre misalignment and do not decrease the tensile strength. The values of tensile modulus obtained for the unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanosphere and glass fibre K unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanosphere are also presented in Table 0." and they exhibit similar trend as in the case of tensile strength

3.2 "LEXURAL PROPERTIES

70

3.2.1 U-s%t3r%te, polyester mo,i*ie, epo#y m%tri#.

*lexural behaviour of unmodified epoxy and epoxy modified with unsaturated polyester are presented in the Table 0.". )ntroduction of ",- #by wt% of unsaturated polyester into epoxy resin decreases the flexural strength by "."-, when compared with unmodified epoxy. This may be attributed to the between chain entanglement in the =PPepoxy matrix system. The values of flexural modulus obtained for the unmodified epoxy and epoxy modified with unsaturated polyester are also presented in Table 0." and they exhibit similar trend as in the case of flexural strength.

3.2.2 U-s%t3r%te, polyester mo,i*ie, epo#y m%tri# *ille, 2it/ "e3O -%-o&ompoites
The flexural strength values of unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix and unsaturated polyester modified epoxy filled with *e 0.7 nanoparticles are presented in the Table 0.". )n the case of *e 0.7 nanoparticles filled unsaturated polyester modified epoxy system, the introduction of ,./5#by wt% of *e0.7 nanoparticle decreases the value of flexural strength by 5.7-. This may be explained due to the physical blend formation. The values of flexural modulus obtained for the *e0.7 nanoparticles filled unsaturated polyester modified epoxy system is also presented in Table 0." and it exhibit similar trend as in the case of flexural strength.

3.2.3 U-s%t3r%te, polyester mo,i*ie, epo#y m%tri# *ille, 2it/ sil%-e .r%*te, "e3O -%-o&ompoites

77

The observed values of flexural strength due to the introduction of silane grafted *e0.7 nanoparticles into unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix are presented in Table 0.". The value of flexural strength decreases by ",."- by the addition ,./5- #by wt% of siliane grafted *e0.7 nanoparticle. This is due to the formation of a physical blend, simply by dispersing silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanospheres in the unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix. The values of flexural modulus obtained for the silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanospheres filled unsaturated polyester modified epoxy system is also presented in Table 0." and it exhibit similar trend as in the case of flexural strength.

3.2. )l%ss *i+re < U-s%t3r%te, polyester mo,i*ie, epo#y m%tri# *ille, 2it/ sil%-e .r%*te, "e3O =)"RPs>
The observed values for flexural strength of glass mate laminate by unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e 0.7 core-shell nanosphere are presented in the Table 0.". The introduction of /7#by wt% of continuous strand mat glass fibre into unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanosphere increases the flexural strength by "7A-, when compared with unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanosphere. This may be explained, due to inclusion of continuous strand mat glass fibres along the length of specimen will compensate the effect of fibre misalignment and do not decrease the flexural strength. The values of flexural modulus obtained for the unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanosphere and glass fibre K unsaturated

75

polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanosphere are also presented in Table 0." and they exhibit similar trend as in the case of flexural strength

T%+le 3.1 Me&/%-i&%l Properties o* /y+ri, UP B Epo#y N%-o&omposites EpoxyK=PK9PK89PK2* Tensile 8trength ",,K,,K,,K,,K,, ,,K",,K,,K,, ",,K",K,,K,,K,, ",,K",K,./5K,,K,, ",,K",K,,K,./5K,, ",,K",K,,K,./5K/7 =P 9P 89P 2* #$Pa% :+.A5 75.A 5;.5 55.;A 50./ "//.; Tensile $odulus #$Pa% /,:/A.5 /,707 /,/AA /,/0, /,0;/ :,"+; *lexural 8trength #$Pa% ",:.5 ",5.7 ++.A +7.; /07./ *lexural $odulus #$Pa% ";:7./ ",A:, ":;,.7 "5,/.: 0+,7.:

- =nsaturated Polyester - *e0.7 nanoparticles - 8ilane grafted *e0.7 core-shell nanospheres - 2lass *ibre

C6APTER
MORP6OLO)Y

7:

This chapter discusses the morphology of the epoxy, unsaturated polyester modified epoxy, unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrices filled with silane grafted *e0.7 nanocomposites and glass fibre K unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e0.7 #2*>Ps%.

.1 MICROSCOPIC IN9ESTI)ATION
8canning electron microscope is used to investigate the morphology of matrix systems #*igures 7." to 7./%. 8E$ micrograph of fractured surfaces of the epoxy and unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix systems #*igure 7."a to 7."b% reveals smooth, glassy and homogeneous microstructure without any plastic deformation. The fractured surfaces of the unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix systems #*igures 7."b% reveal the presence of homogeneous morphology due to the efficient interaction between the unsaturated polyester and epoxy resin. 8E$ micrographs of fractured surfaces of unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrices filled with *e0.7 nanoparticles #*igures 7."c to 7."d% indicate that the iron oxide particles have irregular shape but after encapsulation it exhibited spherical forms. The 8E$ micrograph of the fractured surface of glass fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester modified epoxy matrix filled with silane grafted *e 0.7 #*igure 7./% indicates homogeneous dispersion of the *e0.7 nanoparticles can be observed, with a certain number of small agglomerates distributed in the matrix area between the glass-fibers. The *e0.7 nanoparticles seem to be repelled by the glass-fibers.#*igure. 7./a%. The silane grafted *e0.7 nanospheres are generally well dispersed, but agglomerates of about " Xm

7A

diameter can be observed fre(uently. The networ -li e structure formed by the silane grafted *e0.7 nanospheres can be recogni6ed as small bright spots #*igure 7./b% between the glass-fibres. 8E$-micrographs of nanocomposite indicates a mixture of aggregated and dispersed primary particles can be observed #*igure 7./c%. The silane grafted *e0.7 nanoparticles are attracted by the glass fibers.

7;

7+

'igure +.( S$! photographs of (a# glass6 unsaturated polyester modified epoxy filled with 'e*O+ nanoparticles

5,

'ig +.( S$! photographs of (b# glass6 unsaturated polyester modified epoxy filled with silane grafted 'e*O+

5"

'ig +.( S$! photographs of ("# glass6 unsaturated polyester modified epoxy filled with silane grafted 'e*O+

5/

RE"ERENCES
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50

"0.$angion $.4.$ and Dohari 2.P. #"++,%, &>elaxation of thermosets P )))J 8ub Tg dielectric relaxation of bisphenol-A based epoxide cured with different curing agents', $acromolecules, 1ol. /0, pp. 0/;A-0/+5. "7.Ellis 4. #"++0%, &!hemistry and technology of epoxy resins', Academic Press, Eondon. "5.Gir -.thmer #"+;5%, &Encyclopedia of !hemical Technology', Dphn Iiley Y 8ons, 9ew For , pp. 7,,-7,5. ":.!rosbie 2.A and Phillips $.2. #"+;5%, &!uring reactions of epoxy resins with diamines', D. $ater. 8ci., 1ol. /,, pp. ";/-";A. "A.$otawie A.$., 8ade E.$. and Awad $.$.4. #"++;%, &!oatings from epoxidised #polyurethane-polyester% resin systems', D. Appl. Polym. 8ci., 1ol. :A, pp. 5AA-5;". ";.. ada A., Gawasumi $., =su i A., Gojima F., Gurauchi T. and Gamigatio .. #"++,%, &9ylon : clay hybrid', $ater. >es. 8oc. Proc., 1ol. "A", pp. 75-5,. "+.$i royannidis D.A. and Gourtides 3.A. #"+;7%, &8tudy on curing of epoxy resins with "-M3i#/-chloroethoxyphosphinyl%methylN-/,7- and /,:-diaminoben6ene', D.Appl. Poly. 8ci., 1ol. /+, pp. "+A-/,+. /,.$andell D.*., $c2arry *.D., Csieh D.F. and Ei !.2. #"+;5%, &Tensile fatigue of glass fibres and composites with conventional and surface compressed fibres', Poly. !omp., 1ol. :, pp. ":;-"A7. /".Dang 4.Z., Eieu F.G. !hang F.8. and Cwang E.>. #"+;A%, &!ryogenic failure mechanisms of fibre-epoxy composites for energy applications', Poly. !omp., 1ol. ;, pp. ";;-"+;. //.9ewa6 2.$. #"+;:%, &Evaluation of fibre-matrix interfacital toughness in unidirectional composite', Poly. !omp., 1ol. A, pp. 7/"-7/5.

57

/0.Ein $.8., Eiu !.!. and Eee !.T. #"+++%, &Toughened interpendetrating polymer networ materials based on unsaturated polyester and epoxy', D. Appl. Poym. 8ci., 1ol. A/, pp 5;5-5+/. /7.Cofflin P. #/,,,%, &Tougheneing of epoxy resins modified with polyetherester bloc copolymersJ The influence of modifier molecular architecture on mechanical properties', D. Appl. Poly. 8ci., 1ol. A:, pp. :/0-:07. /5.3ina aran G. and Alagar $. #/,,/%, &Preparation and characteri6ation bismaleimide #n,9-bismaleoimido-7,7-diphenyl methane% P unsaturated polyester modified epoxy intercrosslin ed matrices', D. Appl. Polym. 8ci., 1ol. ;:, pp /5,/-/5",. /:.!hinna annu Gari al !ho6han, $uthu aruppan Alagar, >aj umar Dosephine 8harmila and Periyannan 2nanasundaram #/,,A%, &Thermo mechanical behaviour of unsaturated polyester toughened epoxyPclay hybrid nanocomposites', D. Polym. >es., 1ol "7, pp. 0"+P0/;. /A.4aharvand C. #/,,;%, &Encapsulation of ferromagnetic iron oxide particles by polyester resin', e-Polymers, 9o. ",/, pp. "-+.

55