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Semantics
Semantics (from Ancient Greek: smantiks) is t e st!"# of meanin$% &t foc!ses on t e re'ation (et)een si$nifiers* 'ike )or"s* + rases* si$ns* an" s#m(o's* an" ) at t e# stan" for* t eir "enotation% ,in$!istic semantics is t e st!"# of meanin$ t at is !se" for !n"erstan"in$ !man e-+ression t ro!$ 'an$!a$e% .t er forms of semantics inc'!"e t e semantics of +ro$rammin$ 'an$!a$es* forma' 'o$ics* an" semiotics% / e )or" semantics itse'f "enotes a ran$e of i"eas* from t e +o+!'ar to t e i$ '# tec nica'% &t is often !se" in or"inar# 'an$!a$e for "enotin$ a +ro('em of !n"erstan"in$ t at comes "o)n to )or" se'ection or connotation% / is +ro('em of !n"erstan"in$ as (een t e s!(0ect of man# forma' en1!iries* o2er a 'on$ +erio" of time* most nota('# in t e fie'" of forma' semantics% &n 'in$!istics* it is t e st!"# of inter+retation of si$ns or s#m(o's !se" in a$ents or comm!nities )it in +artic!'ar circ!mstances an" conte-ts% 3it in t is 2ie)* so!n"s* facia' e-+ressions* (o"# 'an$!a$e* an" +ro-emics a2e semantic (meanin$f!') content* an" eac com+rises se2era' (ranc es of st!"#% &n )ritten 'an$!a$e* t in$s 'ike +ara$ra+ str!ct!re an" +!nct!ation (ear semantic content4 ot er forms of 'an$!a$e (ear ot er semantic content% / e forma' st!"# of semantics intersects )it man# ot er fie'"s of in1!ir#* inc'!"in$

'e-ico'o$#* s#nta-* +ra$matics* et#mo'o$# an" ot ers* a't o!$ semantics is a )e''5"efine" fie'" in its o)n ri$ t* often )it s#nt etic +ro+erties% &n + i'oso+ # of 'an$!a$e* semantics an" reference are c'ose'# connecte"% 6!rt er re'ate" fie'"s inc'!"e + i'o'o$#* comm!nication* an" semiotics% / e forma' st!"# of semantics is t erefore com+'e-% Semantics contrasts )it s#nta-* t e st!"# of t e com(inatorics of !nits of a 'an$!a$e ()it o!t reference to t eir meanin$)* an" +ra$matics* t e st!"# of t e re'ations i+s (et)een t e s#m(o's of a 'an$!a$e* t eir meanin$* an" t e !sers of t e 'an$!a$e% &n internationa' scientific 2oca(!'ar# semantics is a'so ca''e" semasio'o$#%

Linguistics

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&n 'in$!istics* semantics is t e s!(fie'" t at is "e2ote" to t e st!"# of meanin$* as in erent at t e 'e2e's of )or"s* + rases* sentences* an" 'ar$er !nits of "isco!rse (terme" te-ts)% / e (asic area of st!"# is t e meanin$ of si$ns* an" t e st!"# of re'ations (et)een "ifferent 'in$!istic !nits an" com+o!n"s: omon#m#* s#non#m#* anton#m#* #+ern#m#* #+on#m#* meron#m#* meton#m#* o'on#m#* +aron#ms% A ke# concern is o) meanin$ attac es to 'ar$er c !nks of te-t* +ossi('# as a res!'t of t e com+osition from sma''er !nits of meanin$% /ra"itiona''#* semantics as inc'!"e" t e st!"# of sense an" "enotati2e reference* tr!t con"itions* ar$!ment str!ct!re* t ematic ro'es7"isam(i$!ation nee"e"8* "isco!rse ana'#sis* an" t e 'inka$e of a'' of t ese to s#nta-% Montague grammar &n t e 'ate 9:;<s* =ic ar" >onta$!e +ro+ose" a s#stem for "efinin$ semantic entries in t e 'e-icon in terms of t e 'am("a ca'c!'!s% &n t ese terms* t e s#ntactic +arse of t e sentence ?o n ate e2er# (a$e' )o!'" consist of a s!(0ect (?o n) an" a +re"icate (ate e2er# (a$e')4 >onta$!e "emonstrate" t at t e meanin$ of t e sentence a'to$et er co!'" (e "ecom+ose" into t e meanin$s of its +arts an" in re'ati2e'# fe) r!'es of com(ination% / e 'o$ica' +re"icate t !s o(taine" )o!'" (e e'a(orate" f!rt er* e%$% !sin$ tr!t t eor# mo"e's* ) ic !'timate'# re'ate meanin$s to a set of /arskiian !ni2ersa's* ) ic ma# 'ie o!tsi"e t e 'o$ic% / e notion of s!c meanin$ atoms or +rimiti2es is (asic to t e 'an$!a$e of t o!$ t #+ot esis from t e 9:@<s% Aes+ite its e'e$ance* >onta$!e $rammar )as 'imite" (# t e conte-t5"e+en"ent 2aria(i'it# in )or" sense* an" 'e" to se2era' attem+ts at incor+oratin$ conte-t* s!c as: Sit!ation semantics (9:B<s): tr!t 52a'!es are incom+'ete* t e# $et assi$ne" (ase" on conte-t Generati2e 'e-icon (9::<s): cate$ories (t#+es) are incom+'ete* an" $et assi$ne" (ase" on conte-t

Dynamic turn in semantics

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&n C omsk#an 'in$!istics t ere )as no mec anism for t e 'earnin$ of semantic re'ations* an" t e nati2ist 2ie) consi"ere" a'' semantic notions as in(orn% / !s* e2en no2e' conce+ts )ere +ro+ose" to a2e (een "ormant in some sense% / is 2ie) )as a'so t o!$ t !na('e to a""ress man# iss!es s!c as meta+ or or associati2e meanin$s* an" semantic c an$e* ) ere meanin$s )it in a 'in$!istic comm!nit# c an$e o2er time* an" 1!a'ia or s!(0ecti2e e-+erience% Anot er iss!e not a""resse" (# t e nati2ist mo"e' )as o) +erce+t!a' c!es are com(ine" in t o!$ t* e%$% in menta' rotation% / is 2ie) of semantics* as an innate finite meanin$ in erent in a 'e-ica' !nit t at can (e com+ose" to $enerate meanin$s for 'ar$er c !nks of "isco!rse* is no) (ein$ fierce'# "e(ate" in t e emer$in$ "omain of co$niti2e 'in$!istics an" a'so in t e non56o"orian cam+ in + i'oso+ # of 'an$!a$e% / e c a''en$e is moti2ate" (#: factors interna' to 'an$!a$e* s!c as t e +ro('em of reso'2in$ in"e-ica' or ana+ ora (e%$% t is -* im* 'ast )eek)% &n t ese sit!ations conte-t ser2es as t e in+!t* (!t t e inter+rete" !tterance a'so mo"ifies t e conte-t* so it is a'so t e o!t+!t% / !s* t e inter+retation is necessari'# "#namic an" t e meanin$ of sentences is 2ie)e" as conte-t c an$e +otentia's instea" of +ro+ositions% factors e-terna' to 'an$!a$e* i%e% 'an$!a$e is not a set of 'a(e's st!ck on t in$s* (!t Da too'(o-* t e im+ortance of ) ose e'ements 'ie in t e )a# t e# f!nction rat er t an t eir attac ments to t in$s%D / is 2ie) ref'ects t e +osition of t e 'ater 3itt$enstein an" e-am+'e* an" is re'ate" to t e +ositions of E!ine* Aa2i"son* an" ot ers% A concrete e-am+'e of t e 'atter + enomenon is semantic !n"ers+ecification F meanin$s are not com+'ete )it o!t some e'ements of conte-t% /o take an e-am+'e of one )or"* re"* its meanin$ in a + rase s!c as re" (ook is simi'ar to man# ot er !sa$es* an" can (e 2ie)e" as com+ositiona'%7:8 Go)e2er* t e co'o!rs im+'ie" in + rases s!c as re" )ine (2er# "ark)* an" re" air (co++er#)* or re" soi'* or re" skin are 2er# "ifferent% &n"ee"* t ese co'o!rs (# t emse'2es )o!'" not (e ca''e" re" (# nati2e s+eakers% / ese instances are contrasti2e* so re" )ine is so ca''e" on'# in com+arison )it t e ot er kin" of )ine () ic a'so is not ) ite for t e same reasons)% / is 2ie) $oes (ack to "e Sa!ss!re: Hac of a set of s#non#ms 'ike re"o!ter (Ito "rea"I)* crain"re (Ito fearI)* a2oir +e!r (Ito (e afrai"I) as its +artic!'ar 2a'!e on'# (eca!se t e# stan" in contrast )it one anot er% Jo )or" as a 2a'!e t at can (e i"entifie" in"e+en"ent'# of ) at e'se is in its 2icinit#% is famo!s $ame

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an" ma# $o (ack to ear'ier &n"ian 2ie)s on 'an$!a$e* es+ecia''# t e J#a#a 2ie) of )or"s as in"icators an" not carriers of meanin$% An attem+t to "efen" a s#stem (ase" on +ro+ositiona' meanin$ for semantic !n"ers+ecification can (e fo!n" in t e $enerati2e 'e-icon mo"e' of ?ames K!ste0o2sk#* ) o e-ten"s conte-t!a' o+erations ((ase" on t#+e s iftin$) into t e 'e-icon% / !s meanin$s are $enerate" Don t e f'#D (as #o! $o)* (ase" on finite conte-t% Krotot#+e t eor#7e"it8 Anot er set of conce+ts re'ate" to f!LLiness in semantics is (ase" on +rotot#+es% / e )ork of H'eanor =osc in t e 9:@<s 'e" to a 2ie) t at nat!ra' cate$ories are not c aracteriLa('e in terms of necessar# an" s!fficient con"itions* (!t are $ra"e" (f!LL# at t eir (o!n"aries) an" inconsistent as to t e stat!s of t eir constit!ent mem(ers% .ne ma# com+are it )it ?!n$Is arc et#+e* t o!$ t e conce+t of arc et#+e sticks to static conce+t% Some +ost5str!ct!ra'ists are a$ainst t e fi-e" or static meanin$ of t e )or"s% Aerri"a* fo''o)in$ JietLsc e* ta'ke" a(o!t s'i++a$es in fi-e" meanin$s% S#stems of cate$ories are not o(0ecti2e'# o!t t ere in t e )or'" (!t are roote" in +eo+'eIs e-+erience% / ese cate$ories e2o'2e as 'earne" conce+ts of t e )or'" F meanin$ is not an o(0ecti2e tr!t * (!t a s!(0ecti2e constr!ct* 'earne" from e-+erience* an" 'an$!a$e arises o!t of t e D$ro!n"in$ of o!r conce+t!a' s#stems in s are" em(o"iment an" (o"i'# e-+erienceD% 79M8 A coro''ar# of t is is t at t e conce+t!a' cate$ories (i%e% t e 'e-icon) )i'' not (e i"entica' for "ifferent c!'t!res* or in"ee"* for e2er# in"i2i"!a' in t e same c!'t!re% / is 'ea"s to anot er "e(ate (see t e Sa+irF3 orf #+ot esis or Hskimo )or"s for sno))%

Theories in semantics Model theoretic semantics .ri$inates from >onta$!eIs )ork (see a(o2e)% A 'an$!a$e semantics in ) ic i$ '# forma'iLe" t eor# of nat!ra' as e-+ressions are assi$ne" "enotations (meanin$s) s!c

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in"i2i"!a's* tr!t 2a'!es* or f!nctions from one of t ese to anot er% / e tr!t of a sentence* an" more interestin$'#* its 'o$ica' re'ation to ot er sentences* is t en e2a'!ate" re'ati2e to a mo"e'% Formal (or truth-conditional) semantics Kioneere" (# t e + i'oso+ er Aona'" Aa2i"son* anot er forma'iLe" t eor#* ) ic aims to associate eac nat!ra' 'an$!a$e sentence )it a meta5'an$!a$e "escri+tion of t e con"itions !n"er ) ic it is tr!e* for e-am+'e: NSno) is ) iteI is tr!e if an" on'# if sno) is ) ite% / e c a''en$e is to arri2e at t e tr!t con"itions for an# sentences from fi-e" meanin$s assi$ne" to t e in"i2i"!a' )or"s an" fi-e" r!'es for o) to com(ine t em% &n +ractice* tr!t 5 con"itiona' semantics is simi'ar to mo"e'5t eoretic semantics4 conce+t!a''#* o)e2er* t e# "iffer in t at tr!t 5con"itiona' semantics seeks to connect 'an$!a$e )it statements a(o!t t e rea' )or'" (in t e form of meta5'an$!a$e statements)* rat er t an )it a(stract mo"e's% Lexical and conceptual semantics / is t eor# is an effort to e-+'ain +ro+erties of ar$!ment str!ct!re% / e ass!m+tion (e in" t is t eor# is t at s#ntactic +ro+erties of + rases ref'ect t e meanin$s of t e )or"s t at ea" t em%3it t is t eor#* 'in$!ists can (etter "ea' )it t e fact t at s!(t'e "ifferences in )or" meanin$ corre'ate )it ot er "ifferences in t e s#ntactic str!ct!re t at t e )or" a++ears in% / e )a# t is is $one a(o!t is (# 'ookin$ at t e interna' str!ct!re of )or"s% / ese sma'' +arts t at make !+ t e interna' str!ct!re of )or"s are terme" semantic +rimiti2es% Lexical semantics A 'in$!istic t eor# t at in2esti$ates )or" meanin$% / is t eor# !n"erstan"s t at t e meanin$ of a )or" is f!''# ref'ecte" (# its conte-t% Gere* t e meanin$ of a )or" is constit!te" (# its conte-t!a' re'ations% / erefore* a "istinction (et)een "e$rees of +artici+ation as )e'' as mo"es of +artici+ation are ma"e% &n or"er to accom+'is t is "istinction an# +art of a sentence t at (ears a meanin$ an" com(ines )it t e meanin$s of ot er constit!ents is 'a(e'e" as a semantic constit!ent% Semantic constit!ents t at cannot (e (roken "o)n into more e'ementar# constit!ents are 'a(e'e" minima' semantic constit!ents% Computational semantics

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Com+!tationa' semantics is foc!se" on t e +rocessin$ of 'in$!istic meanin$% &n or"er to "o t is concrete a'$orit ms an" arc itect!res are "escri(e"% 3it in t is frame)ork t e a'$orit ms an" arc itect!res are a'so ana'#Le" in terms of "eci"a(i'it#* timeOs+ace com+'e-it#* "ata str!ct!res t e# re1!ire an" comm!nication +rotoco's% Computer science &n com+!ter science* t e term semantics refers to t e meanin$ of 'an$!a$es* as o++ose" to t eir form (s#nta-)% Accor"in$ to H!Lenat* semantics D+ro2i"es t e r!'es for inter+retin$ t e s#nta- ) ic "o not +ro2i"e t e meanin$ "irect'# (!t constrains t e +ossi('e inter+retations of ) at is "ec'are"%D &n ot er )or"s* semantics is a(o!t inter+retation of an e-+ression% A""itiona''#* t e term is a++'ie" to certain t#+es of "ata str!ct!res s+ecifica''# "esi$ne" an" !se" for re+resentin$ information content% Programming languages / e semantics of +ro$rammin$ 'an$!a$es an" ot er 'an$!a$es is an im+ortant iss!e an" area of st!"# in com+!ter science% ,ike t e s#nta- of a 'an$!a$e* its semantics can (e "efine" e-act'#% Pario!s )a#s a2e (een "e2e'o+e" to "escri(e t e semantics of +ro$rammin$ 'an$!a$es forma''#* (!i'"in$ on mat ematica' 'o$ic: .+erationa' semantics: / e meanin$ of a constr!ct is s+ecifie" (# t e com+!tation it in"!ces ) en it is e-ec!te" on a mac ine% &n +artic!'ar* it is of interest com+!tation is +ro"!ce"% Aenotationa' semantics: >eanin$s are mo"e''e" (# mat ematica' o(0ects t at re+resent t e effect of e-ec!tin$ t e constr!cts% / !s on'# t e effect is of interest* not o) it is o(taine"% A-iomatic semantics: S+ecific +ro+erties of t e effect of e-ec!tin$ t e constr!cts are e-+resse" as assertions% / !s t ere ma# (e as+ects of t e e-ec!tions t at are i$nore"% o) t e effect of a

Semantic models /erms s!c as semantic net)ork an" semantic "ata mo"e' are !se" to "escri(e +artic!'ar t#+es of "ata mo"e's c aracteriLe" (# t e !se of "irecte" $ra+ s in ) ic t e 2ertices "enote conce+ts or entities in t e )or'"* an" t e arcs "enote re'ations i+s (et)een t em%

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/ e Semantic 3e( refers to t e e-tension of t e 3or'" 3i"e 3e( 2ia em(e""in$ a""e" semantic meta"ata* !sin$ semantic "ata mo"e''in$ tec ni1!es s!c as =eso!rce Aescri+tion 6rame)ork (=A6) an" 3e( .nto'o$# ,an$!a$e (.3,)% Psychology &n +s#c o'o$#* semantic memor# is memor# for meanin$ F in ot er )or"s* t e as+ect of memor# t at +reser2es on'# t e $ist* t e $enera' si$nificance* of remem(ere" e-+erience F ) i'e e+iso"ic memor# is memor# for t e e+ emera' "etai's F t e in"i2i"!a' feat!res* or t e !ni1!e +artic!'ars of e-+erience% 3or" meanin$ is meas!re" (# t e com+an# t e# kee+* i%e% t e re'ations i+s amon$ )or"s t emse'2es in a semantic net)ork% / e memories ma# (e transferre" inter$enerationa''# or iso'ate" in one $eneration "!e to a c!'t!ra' "isr!+tion% Aifferent $enerations ma# a2e "ifferent e-+eriences at simi'ar +oints in t eir o)n time5'ines% / is ma# t en create a 2ertica''# ot er)ise etero$eneo!s semantic net for certain )or"s in an omo$eneo!s c!'t!re%79:8 &n a net)ork create" (# +eo+'e ana'#Lin$ t eir

!n"erstan"in$ of t e )or" (s!c as 3or"net) t e 'inks an" "ecom+osition str!ct!res of t e net)ork are fe) in n!m(er an" kin"* an" inc'!"e +art of* kin" of* an" simi'ar 'inks% &n a!tomate" onto'o$ies t e 'inks are com+!te" 2ectors )it o!t e-+'icit meanin$% Pario!s a!tomate" tec no'o$ies are (ein$ "e2e'o+e" to com+!te t e meanin$ of )or"s: 'atent semantic in"e-in$ an" s!++ort 2ector mac ines as )e'' as nat!ra' 'an$!a$e +rocessin$* ne!ra' net)orks an" +re"icate ca'c!'!s tec ni1!es% &"east esia is a rare +s#c o'o$ica' + enomenon t at in certain in"i2i"!a's associates semantic an" sensor# re+resentations% Acti2ation of a conce+t (e%$%* t at of t e 'etter A) e2okes sensor#5'ike e-+eriences (e%$%* of re" co'or)%