Cognitive Set - Switching and Nervous System Properties (NSPS)

IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
Online ISSN 2250 - 1959
Cognitive Set- switching and Nervous System properties (NSPs)
Sandeep Kumar* Bindu Kumari** & Rajbir Singh*** * & ** Research Scholar, Dept. of Psychology, M.D. University, Rohtak, Haryana sandeepkumarmdu@gmail.com & binduahlawatmdu@gmail.com *** Professor, Dept. of Psychology, M.D. University, Rohtak, Haryana rajbirsinghmdu@gmail.com
Abstract Executive functions/mechanisms are of essential importance for goal directed and efficient behavior. They guarantee cognitive flexibility in our daily activities by planning, initiating, configuring and monitoring many perceptual-motor processes. An interesting approach for examining the functional characteristics of executive mental processes is the task/set switching. An individuals both, internal and external; body functions are controlled and regulated by nervous processes. Properties of nervous system (such as Mobility, Lability, Equilibrium / balance etc.) are the basic characteristics of the functional system ensuring integrative activity of the brain and the whole nervous system. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), a good measure of set-switching was used and Plasticity and Tempo scales of Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (STQ) were used for measuring Mobility and Lability. A sample of N=80 students, age ranges between 15 to 18 years were studied and it was found that significant intermeasure correlation was found between WCST dimensions and a little correlation was found between lability and set-switching. Keywords: Executive function, Set-switching, Switch cost, Nervous system property
International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 49
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
One of the earliest Eastern pioneers in the area of nervous system activity level, and the one who first proposed the concept of endurable ranges for simulations was Ivan Pavlov. The well-known Reflex Theory was described first in Setchenovs book Reflexi golovnogo mozga [Reflexes of the brain] (1863) and later expanded by I.P. Pavlov as an experimental physiology of the higher nervous system. I.M. Setchenov proposed involuntary and voluntary reflex mechanisms of brain activity and concluded that psychology in isolation from physiology is not science. Later, Pavlov developed the reflex theory that was based on 3 principles: 1. Causality there are no processes without cause; 2. Structure there are no processes without brain structure, all brain processes are confined to structure; and 3. Analysis and Synthesis all processes involve the analysis and synthesis of the stimulus. In fact, Pavlovs ingenious discovery starts with a pure physiological experiment about regulation of the digestive system and concludes by bringing about an absolutely new branch of physiology of the higher nervous system. He proved Setchenovs idea experimentally by showing the potential to study the psyche by physiological methods. The perspicacious observation of the individual differences in conditioning reflex was explained by the distinction between excitatory and inhibitory processes, their strength, balance, and mobility. Two ideas of Pavlov have become very popular. First is, the theory of three basic properties of the nervous system i.e. strength of the nervous system, equilibrium of the excitation and inhibition processes, mobility of nervous system. Second idea is about the theory which stated that there are four basic types of nervous system. The theory of four types of nervous system mainly comes from Pavlovs three basic properties of nervous system. Originally, Pavlov built his type classification on the principle of equilibrium between the excitation and inhibition processes. But later on, he based his classification on the strength of the nervous system, assigning the equilibrium principle to second place and in his final variant of the classification Pavlov intentionally used the last of the proposed properties of the nervous system, i.e., mobility of the nervous processes. International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 50
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
Pavlovs first two properties, namely, the strength of nervous system with regard to excitation and strength of nervous system with regard to inhibition are much well known but his third property is the most obscured, which is, mobility of nervous processes. Teplov, an adherent to the Pavlovs conception of the individual differences in higher nervous system, asserted the necessity of the extension of research in this direction by using new methods and techniques. His report: The Theory of Types of Higher Nervous system activity and Psychology at the International Congress of Psychology (Teplov, 1955a, 1955b) became an important step from physiology to psychology of individual differences. He improved the research methods that studied the parameters of the higher nervous system and allowed new principles to be proposed. Teplov and his disciple, named, Nebilitcyn (1976) suggested new independent parameters of the nervous system: lability as a characteristic of the excitation and inhibition rate, and dynamics as an excitation dynamic and inhibition dynamic. The term mobility seems suitable for denoting the property characterized by the speed of transformation (physiologists used it in this way with experiments on animals). Data obtained in these experiments indicate that the mobility of excitation and that of inhibition may be different. But the indices of speed of initiation and termination of the excitatory processes show good correlation with each other, and no correlation with speed of transformation. The property of nervous system characterized by them may be named lability (Teplov, 1963). Thus, in conclusion, mainly four properties of nervous system are proposed which are: (1) strength (endurance), (2) dynamism (the ease of generation of nervous system), (3) mobility (speed of transformation), and (4) lability (the speed of initiation and termination of the nervous processes). Each of these properties is different from each other in regard to the excitatory or inhibitory processes. Bodily functions (both internal and external) are mainly controlled and regulated by nervous processes which are concerned with the co-ordination and control of responses to environmental stimuli and appropriate behavior through a bundle of independently conducting neural fibers. Soviet psychologists, from whom the individual differences approach to studies of personality was for a long time the most representative (cited in Strelau, 1987), conceptualize temperament as the properties of nervous system International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 51
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
revealed in behavior and human actions (Smirnov, Leontev, Rubistein & Teplov, 1966). Temperament is defined as personality traits which are present since early childhood that can be observed not only in human behavior but also in animals, and refers rather to formal aspects of behavior (Strelau, 1998). In the context of the Pavlovian theory of temperament, mobility of the nervous system (MO) is a temperament trait expressed in the temporal aspects of behavior. Formal characteristics of behavior can be considered in terms of energetic and temporal patterns. Temperamental traits, being more or less unspecific, penetrate all kinds of behavior, whatever the content or direction of this behavior. According to present views, the properties of nervous system (such as Mobility, Lability, Equilibrium / balance etc.) are the basic characteristics of the functional system ensuring integrative activity of the brain and the whole nervous system. o Mobility has been described as the speed of transformation of nervous processes i.e. time taken in change of ongoing process. o Lability may be defined as the speed of arousal and termination of nervous processes, i.e. time taken in initiation and cessation of any activity. o Equilibrium/balance is the relative readiness with which the nervous system generates excitatory or inhibitory processes in the formation of conditioned reflexes, in the speed of substituting one process for the other, and so on. It can be represented by the end process of interference-facilitation among two or more excitatory or / and inhibitory processes at the same time - presently taken as cognitive interference- for e.g. Stroop color-word interference (Stroop, 1935). Human behavior and cognition are characterized by the ability to adapt to a dynamic environment, whether in attention, action or both. From a cognitive psychological perspective, human beings are basically conceptualized as dynamic information processing system whose mental operations can be described in computational terms (Neisser, 1967). In our day to day life, we have to do various types of activities, in which we have to change our attention or action from one activity to another and to make decisions accordingly so that we adapt or adjust to our surroundings adequately or properly. Individual differences exist in this ability to shift between various types of tasks. Some may switch very quickly from one task to another and hence results to a International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 52
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
faster shifting while others may take long time, hence, results to a slower shifting. This ability of individuals which is associated with an ability to switch response sets on the basis of feedback is known as Set Switching. Set-switching: It may be defined as a cognitive operation that entails an ability to switch response sets, whereby one must inhibit previously learned rules and apply new ones. It includes rule switching -switching between a set of rules and perceptual switching switching between set of features presented simultaneously (Ravizza & Carter, 2008). Previous literature related to this area clearly revealed that much emphasis has been on task parameters/variables (Allport et al., 1994; Rogers & Monsell, 1995; De Jong, 2000) and little efforts have been dedicated to study the explanatory constructs based on individual temperamental types for set-switching. A lot of research has been done by psychologists on nervous system properties, its types and construct validation (Pavlov, 1952; Kolesnikov, 1953; Krushinsky, 1947; Nebylitsyn , 1959) found that high anxiety goes together with weak nervous processes and this weak high sensitivity of nervous system determines the speed of conditioning. Mangan (1967) used tasks as transformation mobility, perceptual flexibility, originality and fluency. Results of their study showed that mobile subjects, because of strong inhibitory control, seem able to change set more efficiently. Gray (1964) found that the weak nervous system is more highly aroused and the personality dimension known as strength of nervous system could be described as arousability. Eysenck (1966); Eysenck and Levey, (1972) used this hypothesis in order to explain the relationship between strength of excitation and extraversion but the previous researches did not support the hypothesis. Slough, Brebner, Nettlebeck and Cooper (1996) found mobility was related to performance IQ and Ravens test scores. Johnson (2008) investigated the relationship between set switching and transfer learning, both of which presumably invoke executive functioning (EF), which may in turn be correlated with intelligence. Developmental studies have established that set switching abilities developed during childhood and reached adult level of performance at age 12 (Cepeda, Kramer, & Gonzqlez de Sather, 2001; Chelune & Baer,1986; Crone et al.,2004; Crone, Bunge , Van der Molen, & Ridderinkhof, 2006; Crone, Ridderinkhof, Worm, Somsen, and Van der Molen,2004; International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 53
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
Online ISSN 2250 - 1959 Letho,2004;
Huizinga & Van der Molen, 2007; Kray, Eber, & Lindenberger,2004; Welsh et al, 1991;)
whereas set-maintenance abilities continued to develop into Above researches clearly
adolescence (Chelune & Baer,1986; Crone et al.,2004).
indicate that there exists a notable gap to explain variations in cognitive set switching. In recent years, a number of investigations have also been conducted in India related to present study. In his study, Srivastva (1976) found extraversion was correlated with motor transformation mobility. Kohli and Kaur (2006) in their study found significant differences in scores of Indian and Western sample on Wisconsin card sorting test, more cognitive interference was found in Indian sample as compared to Western. Pati and Dash (1990) found females show less cognitive interference than males. Rathee and Singh (1999) studied construct validation of lability and mobility of nervous system, suggesting that mobility and labiality are two separate constructs. A little work has been done on nervous system properties and set switching in India. Rationale of present study: In our todays fast paced and competitive life we have to face various types of proble ms and in solution of many such problems our cognitive system plays a very important role. In fact, it is cognitive system that enables an individual to make independent and/or accurate decisions by proper planning, abstract thinking, initiating appropriate actions and inhibiting inappropriate ones. Set-switching is one such cognitive operation that entails an ability to switch response sets, whereby one must inhibit previously learned rules and apply new ones (Barcelo & Knight, 2002). Some persons engaged in task may shift easily and other may face difficulty (more time and more errors which are referred as switch cost). Our bodily functions (both internal and external) are mainly controlled and regulated by nervous processes which are concerned with the co-ordination and control of responses to environmental stimuli and appropriate behavior through a bundle of independently conducting neural fibers. According to present views, the properties of nervous system (such as Mobility, Lability, Equilibrium / balance etc.) are the basic characteristics of the functional system ensuring integrative activity of the brain and the whole nervous system. So, considering the importance of the present topic, present
Page 54
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
research was conducted to explain variations in cognitive set- switching on the bases of individual differences in nervous processes. Objective of study: To explain variations in cognitive set switching on the bases of individual differences in nervous processes. Hypothesis of study: There will be individual differences in cognitive set switching due to nervous system properties i.e. more mobile and more labile individuals shall have low switch costs. Method Subjects: A sample of 80 subjects (only boys) of age ranges between 15 to 18 years from Jawahar Navodyaya Vidalaya, Ghuskani, Rohtak who voluntary agree to participate in the study were selected for the present study. Tools used: 1. Structure of Temperament Questionnaire: STQ (Plasticity and Tempo scales): STQ by Rusalov (1989) proposed a structure of temperament comprising four traitsergonicity, plasticity, speed or tempo and emotionality. Each dimension consists of two sub-dimensions- object oriented and subject oriented. Plasticity (PI) defined as ability to switch one activity from to another (Rusalov), is in fact a substitution of Pavlovian mobility. Plasticity of STQ and mobility of PTS (Ruch, Angleitner & Strelau, 1990) were found positively correlated. The concept of tempo (speed) as developed by Rusalov was found relating to the neo-Pavlovian concept of lability. 2. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): WCST is considered as a good measure of setswitching. It requires subjects to sort cards on the basis of some rule, and then to switch to a new rule when the task changes. The rules constantly change, creating the dual challenge of learning new rules and inhibiting the old ones. For each rule in the WCST, subjects must develop a unique rule-like strategy used for responding to the stimuli, known as a response set. As rules change on subsequent problems, subjects must generate and employ appropriate response sets. In the WCST, for example, one may be sorting cards on the basis of color (a color response set) and then switch to a different response International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 55
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
set (e.g., shape). Performance on the WCST is measured by perseveration errors, which occur when a subject responds according to an old rule even though he or she is aware that a new rule is in effect. Thus, a perseveration error takes place when an incorrect response set is used and is an error in set-switching. Presumably, perseveration errors result from failure to inhibit the previously learned response set, failure to implement the new response set, or a combination of both. Procedure: Subjects were contacted personally and only those subjects who voluntarily agree to participate in the study were selected. The tests were administered individually. First of all, standardized instructions for WCST were provided to them. If the instructions were not clear to anyone, then relevant information was provided to them and their doubts were cleared. Sufficient time was provided to the subjects to respond and their responses were recorded on record booklet. After they had finished the test, the cards were collected and STQ was given to them. Each subject was instructed individually for this test also. If they have any query about test or instruction, then relevant information was provided to them. After the completion of both tests, they were thanked for their cooperation. Results and Discussion: Pearsons correlation was applied for analyzing the obtained data. Table 1 represents relationship between various dimensions of WCST and measures of Structure of Temperament Questionnaire (STQ).
Table 1 showing correlation between dimensions of WCST and STQ

Trials 1 .40** .91** Correct 1 -.02 1 Error P response NOCC TTCFC FTMS P SP T ST
Trials taken Correct Error
Page 56
IRJMST
Preservative (P) Response NOCC TTCFC FTMS Plasticity Social Plasticity Tempo Social Tempo .86** -.02
Volume 5 Issue 1
.94** 1
-.73** .45** .51** -.08 -.15 .02 .14
.17 -.07 .66** .11 -.18 -.10 -.15
-.88** .53** .25* -.14 -.07 .07 .22*
-.86** .40** .31** -.10 -.07 .05 .21
1 -.57** -.32** .211 -.02 -.00 -.23* 1 .15 -.10 .14 -.02 .16 1 -.00 -.11 -.06 .09 1 -.10 .36** .22* 1 -.06 -.07 1 .40** 1
**p< .01
*p<.05
In Table 1, NOCC represents No. of Categories Completed, FTMS represent Failure to Maintain Set, and TTCFC represent Trials to Complete First Category. From table it seems clear that a positive correlation (significant at .01 level) exist between numbers of trials administered to no. of correct responses, no. of errors, preservative responses, failure to maintain set and trials to complete first category. It means that as the number of trials administered to subjects increases, no. of correct responses, no. of errors, preservative responses, failure to maintain set and trials to complete first category also increases and vice-versa. A significant negative correlation was obtained between no. of trials administered and no. of categories completed by subjects. It indicates that as the no. of trials taken by subjects to complete the test increases, no. of categories completed decreases. A significant positive correlation was found between no. of correct responses and failure to maintain set. It indicates that with the increase in the no. of correct responses made by the subjects, there is also an increment in set failure or failure to maintain set. A significant positive correlation was obtained between no. of errors made by subjects to preservative responses, failure to maintain set and trials to complete first category. In other words, it can be said that more the errors, more will be preservative responses, failure to maintain set and trials to complete first category. A significant negative correlation was observed between no. of International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 57
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
errors made and no. of categories completed. It means that more the errors made by the subjects, less will be the categories completed. A significant positive correlation was found between preservative responses to failure to maintain set and trials to complete first category. It indicates that with an increase in preservative responses, an increment in failure to maintain set and trials to complete first category also takes place. A significant negative correlation was obtained between preservative responses and no. of categories completed i.e. with an increase in no. of preservative responses; decrement in no. of categories completed by subjects takes place. A significant negative correlation was obtained between no. of categories completed to trials taken by subjects to complete first category and failure to maintain set. It means that more the categories completed by the subjects, less will be the trials to complete first category, as well as set failure or failure to maintain set. Relation between various dimensions of WCST and measures of STQ seems to have a little correlation (Table1). From table, it is clear that only social tempo (i.e. Lability) shows a correlation to some extent with dimensions of WCST. Social tempo was found significantly and positively correlated with no. of errors made by subjects. It means that individuals, who have a high speed of speech in social interactions and other social activities/processes, also have more errors in task-switching and vice-versa. A significant negative correlation was found between Social tempo/lability and no. of categories completed. It indicates that individuals, who have high speed of transformation, also have less no. of categories completed. Measures or characteristics of temperament such as plasticity was also found significantly correlated with tempo and social tempo i.e. lability. In conclusion, intermeasure correlation between various dimensions of WCST was found significantly correlated, but a few dimensions of WCST correlate to some extent only with Lability of STQ. So, it may be concluded that nervous system properties have a little relationship with set/task switching and they are independent from each other.
Page 58
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
References Allport, D. A., Styles, E. A., & Hsieh, S. (1994). Shifting intentional set: Exploring the dynamic control of tasks. In C. Umilta & M. Moscovitch (Eds.), Attention and performance XV (pp. 421-452). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Barcelo & Knight (2002). Both random and perspective errors underlie WCST deficits in Prefrontal patients. Neuropsychologia, 40, 349-356. Cepeda, N.J., Kramer, & Gonzalez de Sather, J.C.M. (2001). Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance. Developmental Psychology, 37, 715-730. Chelune, G.J., & Baer, R.A. (1986). Developmental norms for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 8, 219228. Crone, E. A., Rtdderinkhof, K.R., Worm, M., Somsen, R.J.M., & Van der Molen, M.W. (2004). Switching between spatial stimulus-response mappings: A developmental study of cognitive flexibility. Developmental Science, 7, 443-455. Crone, E.A., Bunge, S.A., Van der Molen, M.W., & Ridderinkhof, K.R. (2006). Switching between tasks and responses: A developmental study. Developmental Science, 9, 278-287. Crone, E.A., Rtdderinkhof, K.R., Worm, M., Somsen, R.J.M., & Van der Molen, M.W. (2004).Switching between spatial stimulus-response mappings: A developmental study of cognitive flexibility. Developmental Science, 7, 443-455. De Jong, R. (2000). An intention-activation account of residual switch costs. In S. Monsell & J. Driver (Eds.), Attention and performance XVIII: Cognitive control (pp. 357-376). Cambridge. Eysenck, H. J. (1966). Conditioning, introversion-extraversion and the strength of nervous system. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Congress of Psychology, Moscow, SU.
Page 59
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
Eysenck, H. J., & Levey, A. (1972). Conditioning, introversion-extraversion and the strength of the nervous system. In V. D. Nebylistyn, & J. A. Gray. Biological bases of individual behavior. (206-220). New York: Academic Press. Grey, J. (1964). Pavlovs Typology. (Oxford: Permagon press). Huizinga, M., & Van der Molen, M.W. (2007). Age group differences in set switching and set-maintenance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. Developmental Neuropsychology, 31 (2), 193-215. Huizinga, M., & Van der Molen, M.W. (2007). Age-related changes in switching from color to shape, and from stopping to going. Manuscript submitted for Publication. Johnson, C. D. (2008). Set switching and learning transfer. Psychology honors thesis: Georgia State University. Kohli & Kaur. (2006). Wisconsin card sorting test: normative data and experience. Indian Journal of Psychology, 48, 181-184. Kolesnikov, M. S. (1953).Material on the description of the weak type of nervous system. Turdy Instituta Fiziolog ii im. I. p. Pavlova, 2, 120-135 (in Russian). Krausky, V.K. (1963). Methods of evaluation of nervous processes in dogs. Journal of higher Nervous Activity, 13. Kray, J., Eber, J., & Lindenberger, U. (2004). Age differences in executive functioning across the life span: The role of verbalization in task preparation. Acta Psychologica, 115, 143-165. Krusinsky, L. V. (1947). Inheritance of passive-defensive behavior as connected with types of nervous system in the dog. Turdy Instituta Fiziologii im. I. p. Pavlova, 1, 39-62. (in Russian). Letho, J.H. (2004). A test for childrens goal directed behavior: A pilot study. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 98, 223-236. Mangan, G.L. (1967b). The relation of neo-Pavlovian properties of higher nervous activity and Western personality dimensions: IV. A factor analytic study of extraversion and flexibility and the sensitivity and mobility of nervous system. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 2, 124-127. International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 60
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
Nebilitcyn, V. D. (1976). Psyhophysiologicheskie Issledovaniay Individualnih Razlichii [Psychophysiological research of individual differences] . Moscow: Nauka. Nebylitsyn, V.D. (1959). Investigation of the Connection between Sensitivity and Strength of the Nervous System. In Teplov, B. M. (Ed.), Typological Features of Higher Nervous Activity in Man, Vol. 1. RSFSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Moscow. Neisser, U., (1967). Cognitive Psychology. Appleton, New York. Pati, P. and Dash, A. S. (1990). Effect of grade, sex and achievement level on intelligence, incidental memory and stroop scores. Psychological Studies, 35, 3640. Pavlov, I. P. (1952). Twentyfive years of objective study of higher activity in animals. Warszawa: Panstwowy Zaklad Wydawnictw Lekarskich. Rathee, N., Singh, R. (2001). Mobility or/and lability of the nervous processes as temperamental trait(s). Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 1091-1104. Ravizza & Carter. (2008). Shifting set about task switching: Behavioral and neural evidence for distinct forms of cognitive flexibility. Neuropsychologia, 46, 2924-2935. Rogers, R.D., & Monsell, S. (1995). Costs of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 124, 207-231. Rusalov, V. M. (1989). Object-related and communicative aspects of human temperament: a new questionnaire of the structure of temperament. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 817-827. Sechenov, I.M. (1965). Reflexes of the Brain (trans. S. Belsky) p. 54. Mass: The M. I.T. Press, Cambridge. Setchenov, I. M. (1866, 2007). Reflexi Golovnogo Mozga [Reflexes of the brain]. A. Golovachevs typography. Slough, C., Brebner, J., Nettlebeck, T., & Cooper, C. J. ( 1996). The relationship between intelligence, personality and inspection time. British Journal of Psychology, 87, 255-268. International Research Journal of Management Science & Technology http:www.irjmst.com
Page 61
IRJMST
Volume 5 Issue 1
Smirnov, A., Leontev, A., Rubinstein, S., & Teplov, B. M. ( Eds.) (1966). Psychologia. Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe , Warszawa ( in Russian). Srivastava, R. (1976). Personality types, reversal shifts and different amount of training trails. Indian Journal of Behavior, 1, 9-11. Strelau J. 1998.Temperament: A Psychological Perspective. Plenum Press: New York. Strelau, J. (1987). The concept of temperament in personality research. European journal of Personality, 1, 107-117. Strelau, J., Angleitner, A., Bantelmann, J. and Ruch, W. (1990). The Strelau Temperament Inventory-Revised (STI-R): theoretical considerations and scale development. European Journal of Personality, 4: 209-235. Stroop, John Ridley (1935). "Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions". Journal of Experimental Psychology 18 (6): 643662. Teplov, B. M. (1955a). Uchenie o tipah visshei nervnoi deyatelnosti e psyhologya [The study of the Higher Nervous system activity and psychology]. Voprosi Psyhologii, 1, 3641. Teplov, B. M. (1955b). O ponyatiyah slabosti i inertnosti nervnoi sistemi [About the weakness and inertness of nervous system]. Voprosi psihologii, 6, 315. Teplov, B. M. (1995). On notions of weakness and inertness of the nervous system. Vop. Psikhol., No. 6. Welsh, M.C., Pennington, B.F., & Groisser, D.B. (1991). A normative developmental study of executive function: A window on perceptual function in children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 7, 131-149.
Page 62

Cognitive Set - Switching and Nervous System Properties (NSPS)

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Cognitive Set - Switching and Nervous System Properties (NSPS)

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

IRJMST

Online ISSN 2250 - 1959