B.Sc.(Hons.), MBA ngcheekin@gmail.com mrcheekin@blogspot.com.

au
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Ng Chee Kin

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Page 1

Respiration
Human Breathing Mechanism
Blood capillaries around the alveoli

t.c

1.1

Oxygen

1. The human respiratory system:

Trachea

Oxygenated blood returns to the heart Oxygen enters blood in the lungs

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Heart 2.1
Semilunar valves Right atrium Tricuspid valve Right ventricle

CHAPTER 1

3. When oxyhaemoglobin reaches the body cells, it breaks down and releases oxygen.

4. The oxygen is then absorbed by the body cells for cellular respiration.

Oxygenated blood pumped out of the heart

.a
Vena cava

Pr Re E SS EXp s

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Other body cells Lungs Deoxygenated blood pumped out of the heart

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Lung

Bronchus (plural: bronchi) Bronchiole

Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart

Key:

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Movement of oxygen Movement of oxygenated blood Movement of deoxygenated blood

Haemoglobin Oxyhaemoglobin

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Bronchioles

Nose Trachea Alveolus

Bronchus

Bronchiole

in

2. The air flow during inhalation:

3. The air flow during exhalation: Alveolus Trachea 1.2 Bronchiole Nose Bronchus

Transport of Oxygen in the Human Body

1. The oxygen dissolves in the moist lining of the alveolus and then it diffuses into the blood capillaries. 2. In the blood capillaries, oxygen will combine with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.

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1. Chemical substances which are harmful to the respiratory system are: (a) nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide from cigarette smoke (b) sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, asbestos dust, coal dust and hydrocarbons from vehicles and factories. 2. Tar and asbestos dust are carcinogenic, which means they can cause lung cancer if inhaled excessively. 3. Bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms produce toxins which cause illnesses. 4. We need to improve the quality of air in order to preserve healthy respiratory system.

.b

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Alveolus (plural: alveoli)

1.3

The Importance of a Healthy Respiratory System

CHAPTER 2

Blood Circulation and Transport

Transport System in Humans

1. The human heart:

Aorta Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein Left atrium Bicuspid valve Left ventricle Septum

Page 2
Pulmonary artery Vena cava Right atrium Vena cava Aorta Pulmonary vein Semilunar valves Left atrium Bicuspid valve Septum Left ventricle Right ventricle Oxygenated blood Internal organs (for example, liver, gut)

4. Path of blood flow in the circulator system:

Deoxygenated blood Lung Oxygenated blood

Tricuspid valve Right ventricle Cardiac muscle

Deoxygenated blood

Right atrium

Left atrium

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2.2

5. Double circulatory system: (a) Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs and oxygenated blood flows back again to the heart. (b) Oxygenated blood is pumped from the heat to the rest of the body and deoxygenated blood flows back again to the heart. 6. Human blood transports many substances in our body.

.a
Substance transported Type

From Lungs

To All body cells Lungs Liver and all body cells Kidneys Target organs

t.c
Left ventricle Endothelium

Oxygen (in the form of oxyhaemoglobin) Carbon dioxide Digested food (glucose, amino acids) Waste materials (such as urea) Hormones

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Rest of the body (for example, head, arms, legs)

All body cells Small intestine Liver and cells Endocrine glands

.b

Characteristic Structure Lumen

Artery
Connective tissue Smooth muscle Endothelium

Vein

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2. Functions of the heart: (a) Pumps blood to all parts of the body. (b) Transports nutrients and oxygen to the body cells. (c) Transports carbon dioxide and waste materials from the body cells. 3. Types of blood vessels:

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Capillary
Lumen

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in

Thickness of wall Speed of blood flow Blood pressure Presence of valves

Thick, muscular, elastic Rapid

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iv

Human Blood

Connective tissue Smooth muscle

Lumen

Endothelium

1. Human blood consists of: (a) 55% plasma (b) 45% blood cells and platelets 2. Types of blood cells: Function Carries oxygen from the lungs to the body cells Defends the body against diseases Helps in blood clotting

Size of lumen

Small

Large

Very small Only one cell thick and not muscular Very slow Very low pressure No

Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets

Thin, less elastic, muscular Slow Low pressure Yes

Very high pressure

No except at aorta and pulmonary artery

3. Functions of blood: (a) Transports gases and dissolved substances (b) Protects the body against diseases (c) Maintains the body temperature at 37oC

Page 3
4. Compatibility of blood groups: Recipients blood Donors group blood group A B AB O A B AB O

t.c

5. Universal donor is a person with blood group O. 6. Universal recipient is a person with blood group AB. 2.3 Transport System in Plants

.b

Xylem

Phloem

in

Cross section of leaf

Epidermis Phloem vascular Xylem bundle pith

1. Excretion is a process of eliminating waste products from the body. 2. The organs responsible for removing waste products are called the excretory organs. 3. The waste products removed from the body are called the excretory products. Excretory organ Excretory products Water, mineral salts, urea Water, carbon dioxide Water, mineral salts, urea

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1. The transport system in plants is called the vascular system. 2. There are two main vascular tissues: (a) Xylem- transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves (b) Phloem- transports glucose from the leaves to all parts of the plants 3. Xylem and phloem are found in the vascular bundle.

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4. Transpiration is the process by which plant loses water, in the form of water vapour. 5. Transpiration happens through the stomata (singular: stoma), tiny pores on the leaves of the plant. 6. Factors that affect the rate of transpiration: (a) Light the brighter the light, the greater the rate of transpiration. (b) Temperature the higher the temperature, the greater the rate of transpiration. (c) Humidity the lower the humidity, the greater the rate of transpiration. (d) Wind the faster the movement of air, the greater the rate of transpiration. 7. Transpiration helps plants to absorb and transport water and minerals.

3.2

The Urinary System in Humans

Vena cava

Aorta Adrenal gland Renal artery Left kidney Ureters Urinary bladder

Renal vein

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CHAPTER 3
3.1

Excretion

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Right kidney Urethra
Cortex Medulla

.a
Pelvis Ureter

Human Excretion

Cortex Medulla
Renal artery Renal vein

Cross section of stem

Root hair Cortex

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Pyramid

Skin Lungs Kidneys

Endodermis Xylem Phloem Epidermis

4. Excretion helps to maintain the balance of water content, chemical composition and pH in the body system.

Cross section of root

1. The human urinary system consists of: kidney, ureter, bladder and urethra. 2. Functions of kidneys: (a) To filter blood. (b) To remove urea, excess mineral salts and water to form urine. (c) To control the balance of water and chemical in the body.

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3. Kidney failure happens when the kidneys of a person unable to perform their functions properly. 4. Kidney failure can be treated through dialysis or kidney transplant. 5. Dialysis is a method used to filter and remove waste products from the blood of a patient. 3.3 Excretion in Plants 6. Most nitrogenous wastes are very poisonous. 7. Some excretory products of plants are useful to humans such as: morphine, opium, cocaine, tannins and oils. 4.2 Male Reproductive System Organ Testis (plural: testes)

Function

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Scrotum Urethra Penis Seminal vesicles

CHAPTER 4
4.1

Reproduction
Understanding Reproduction Sexual and

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1. Plants excrete waste products mainly through simple diffusion. 2. Excretion in plant is mainly done through the cell wall and stomata. 3. Mineral salts such as calcium carbonate and calcium oxalate are retained in the plant as crystals. 4. Minerals such as silicon salts are deposited in the leaves to strengthen the leaf blade. 5. Nitrogenous waste products are removed when plants shed their leaves, flowers or bark.

Asexual

1. Reproduction is a process of producing new individuals by living organisms. 2. Importance of reproduction: (a) To increase the number of individuals of the same species. (b) To ensure certain species does not become extinct. 3. Types of reproduction:

t.c
Seminal vesicle Prostate gland

Sperm duct (vas deferens)

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Budding (yeast)

Reproduction Sexual (Involving the male and the female gametes)

lo

Asexual

Binary fission (bacteria) Animals (sperm and ovum) Plant (pollen grain and ovule)

Regeneration (planaria)

Spore formation (moss, ferns and fungi)

Vegetative reproduction

Seminal vesicle Prostate gland Epididymis Penis Testis

Vas deferens

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Vas deferens

Urethra Penis

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Urethra Scrotum

1. Sperm: (a) It is the male sex cell. (b) It is produced by the testes. (c) It is also the smallest cell in the males body. (d) It is shaped like a tadpole, which has a head, neck, middle piece and tail. (e) The head contains a nucleus which has genetic material. (f) The tail helps the sperm to move or swim in the female reproductive system. 2. Males reach puberty at 12 to 14 years old, which is later than girls. 3. There are physical, emotional and physiological changes during puberty. 4. The testes start to produce sperm and male sex hormones during puberty.

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.b

Scrotum

Testis

.a

Produces sperms (the male gametes) Produces male sex hormones Holds and protects the testes Transports sperms from the testes to the urethra inside the body Allows sperms to flow out of the body Transfers semen into vagina during copulation Secrete fluid which contains nutrients for the sperms

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Page 5
4.3 Female Reproductive System
Oviduct (Fallopian tube)

Uterus Cervix Vagina

4.4

Menstrual Cycle

Ovary

Oviduct (Fallopian tube)

Uterus

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Cervix

1. Menstrual cycle is the changes in a womans ovary and uterus over 28 days. 2. Menstrual cycle involves ovulation and menstruation which happen regularly each month. 3. Ovulation happens when an ovary releases a mature ovum. 4. Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine wall and blood through the vagina. 5. Menstruation can be divided into four stages: (a) Menstruation phase (day 1 to 5) (b) Repair phase (day 6 to 11)

t.c
A zygote is formed Eight-cell Four-cell Two-cell stage stage stage Ovary Embryo attaches to uterine wall (implantation)

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4.7

Ovary

1. Ovum (plural: ova): (a) It is the female sex cell. (b) It is produced by the ovary. (c) It is the largest cell in the females body. (d) It is spherical in shape, which contains a nucleus and cytoplasm. (e) The nucleus contain genetic material. (f) It cannot move by itself.

4.5

Fertilisation and Pregnancy

1. Fertilisation is the fusion between the sperm and the ovum. 2. Development of an embryo into a foetus until birth: Sperm Ovum Fertilisation Zygote Embryo Implantation Foetus Childbirth Baby

Vagina Urethra

Organ Ovary

Function Produces ova (the female gametes) Produces female sex hormones

in

.b

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An embryo is formed The ovum is fertilised (fertilisation) Fallopian tube Ovary produces an ovum (ovulation)

Embryo moves towards uterus

Fallopian Place of fertilisation tube (oviduct) Uterus (womb)

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Place for the implantation of zygote Place where the foetus develops and grows Place where the sperms are deposited during copulation Baby is born through this birth canal

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Uterus

Vagina (birth canal)

rc

Cervix

Widens during childbirth

4.6

Importance of Prenatal Care

po

1. Pregnant women need to take enough nutritious food and have a balanced diet. 2. Pregnant women should avoid smoking, taking alcohol or drugs.

Importance of Reproduction

.a

(c) Fertile phase / ovulation phase (day 12 to 16) (d) Premenstrual phase (day 17 to 28) 6. Women of about 50 years of age undergo menopause when their menstruation stops.

vii

Research

in

Human

1. Sterility (infertility) is the inability to produce children. 2. Methods to overcome sterility:

Page 6
(a) Drug treatment (such as hormones) (b) Surgery (c) In vitro fertilisation (IVF) 3. Methods for birth control (contraception): (a) Contraceptive pills (b) Rhythm method (natural method) (c) Using a condom (d) Using a diaphragm (e) Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD) (f) Vasectomy sperm ducts cut and tied (g) Ligation (tubectomy) oviducts cut and tied 4.8 Sexual reproductive System of Flowering Plants Structure Ovary Ovule Anther Filament 4.9 Function To protect the ovule Contains ova (the female gametes) Contains pollen grains (the male gametes) To support anther 2. Germination happens when the embryo grows into a seedling. 3. Seeds need air, water and suitable temperature to germinate. 4.12

Pollination

1. Struture of a flower: Flower Stamen Anther Filament Ovary Ovule

Petal Stamen Anther Filament Nectary Receptacle Sepal Pedicel

Pollen grains Pollen grains

Pistil Stigma Style

po gs lo
One plant Pistil Stigma Style Ovary Ovule Key: Another plant of the same species Cross-pollination

t.c
Stigma Anther

1. Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. 2. Self-pollination and cross-pollination:

Pollen grain

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4. Agents of pollination: (a) Wind (c) Insects (b) Animals (d) Water Development of Fruits and Seeds in Plants

4.10

.b

Self-pollination

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Structure Sepal Petal Stamen Pistil Stigma Style

Function

Height (cm)

To protect flower during the bud stage To attract insects or animals The male reproductive part To receive pollen grains

The female reproductive part

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1. Fertilisation occurs when the male gamete fuses with the ovum in the ovule. 2. A zygote is formed when the ovum is fertilised by the male gamete. 3. After fertilisation, the ovule will develop into a seed and the ovary become the fruit. Germination of Seeds

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5.1
Rapid growth 0 3

1. Vegetative reproduction is a method of producing new plants from any vegetative parts of the parent plant. 2. Vegetative reproduction is an asexual reproduction. 3. Vegetative parts that can reproduce are: stem, leaf and root. 4. Tissue culture and stem cuttings are techniques used to produce new plants.

CHAPTER 5

Growth

Human Growth Pattern

1. Growth is an irreversible and permanent process in living things. 2. Growth in humans can be determined by measuring the height and weight. 3. Growth curve is divided into five stages: (a) Infancy (d) Adulthood (b) Childhood (e) Old age (c) Adolescence
Infancy Adolescence Old age Childhood Adulthood Minimal growth Rapid growth Negative growth

4.11

To support stigma

1. A seed is made up of an embryo and a food store wrapped in a testa (seed coat).

.a
Slow growth 13 20

Vegetative reproduction in Flowering Plants

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65

Age (years)

Page 7
CHAPTER 6
6.1 2. Silicon always exists in the form of compounds such as silicas and silicates. 3. Silica is silicon dioxide, which consists of silicon and oxygen. 4. Silicate is made up of silicon, metal and oxygen. 5. Properties of silicas and silicates: (a) Insoluble in water (b) Do not react with acid (c) Do not break down when heated (d) Very stable and are not eroded easily Calcium Compounds

Minerals in the Earths Crust

Oxide Element Tin Iron Calcium Copper Lead Aluminium Silicon Cassiterite Haematite

Carbonate Calcite Malachite

Sulphide Galena Iron pyrite

Silicate China clay Calcium silicate

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Oxygen Carbon Sulphur

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po
Metal Reaction rate with oxygen Very fast Very fast Fast Fast Slow Reaction rate with sulphur Very fast Very fast Fast Fast Slow

t.c

3. Properties of minerals: Properties Hardness Solubility in water Action of heat Description Most mineral are hard Most minerals are insoluble in water

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Most metal oxides are stable Metal sulphides break down into metal oxide and release sulphur dioxide gas

1. Metals react with non-metals at different rates to form stable compounds: (a) Metals react with oxygen to form metal oxide

rc

6.2

Reactions Between Metals and Non-metals

in

(b) Metals react with sulphur to form metal sulphide

.b

Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Copper

6.3

Silicon Compounds

1. Silicon is the second most abundant element in the Earths crust.

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6.4 6.5

1. Minerals are solid elements or compounds found naturally. 2. Elements present in various minerals:

1. Properties of calcium carbonate: (a) Insoluble in water (b) Reacts with dilute acids to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide (c) Breaks down into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide when heated 2. Quicklime (calcium oxide) is formed when calcium carbonate is heated strongly. 3. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is formed when calcium oxide is added with some water. 4. Limewater (calcium hydroxide solution) is formed when slaked lime is added with more water. Natural Fuel Resources and Their Importance

1. Fossil fuels include petroleum, natural gas and coal. 2. Petroleum: (a) Formed from organism remains buried in sediment under heat and high pressure. (b) It contains many types of hydrocarbons which can be separated by fractional distillation. (c) The components of petroleum produced by fractional distillation are called fractions (or distillates). (d) Different fractions are obtained due to different boiling points. the greater the boiling point, the darker the colour of the fractions the greater the boiling point, the more viscous the fractions

.a

Land and Its Resources

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Page 8
the greater the boiling point, the more soot is produced when the fractions are burnt the greater the boiling point, the harder the fractions burn Product of distillation Petroleum gas Petrol (gasoline) Naphta Uses Cooking gas Fuel for vehicles For making plastics and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Fuel for aircraft Fuel for lorries and buses Lubricants for machines Fuel oil for ships To seal roads
Proton (positively charged) Neutron (no charged)

Electron (negatively charged)

t.c

Structure of an atom

Kerosene Diesel oil Lubricating oil Fuel oil Bitumen

he

3. Natural gas: (a) consists of 90% methane, 10% of mixture of ethane, propane, butane and pentane. (b) It is usually found together with the petroleum. (c) It is used as fuel source and to produce fertilisers. 4. Coal: (a) Made up of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. (b) It is formed from plant remains that grew in swamps.

7.2

Electricity

1. Electricity is a form of energy. It is also called the electrical energy. 2. Electrical energy can be generated by generators and electric cells. 3. Current, voltage and resistance: (a) Current the rate of flow of charges. flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a battery.
Current

rc

CHAPTER 7
7.1

Electricity
Electrostatics

ek

in

.b

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4. An atom has two charged particles: (a) Electrons, which have a negative charge () (b) Protons, which have a positive charge (+) 5. Neutrons in an atom have no charge because they are neutral. 6. An atom becomes positively charged when it loses electrons. 7. An atom becomes negatively charged when it gains electrons.

gs

po

1. Electrostatics is the study of static electrical charges.

(a) Direction of electric current flow

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7.3 7.4

The flow of electric current and electron

(b) Voltage the electrical force needed to move electrical charges from one point to other in a conductor. (c) Resistance characteristic that resists the flow of electric current in a conductor. Electric Current, Voltage and Resistance

1. Measuring current (symbol: I ): connect an ammeter in series with other electrical components in a circuit. the deflection of the pointer of the ammeter shows the value of current flowing through the components. the SI unit for electric current is ampere (symbol: A). 2. Measuring voltage (symbol: V): connect a voltmeter in parallel to other electrical components in a circuit. the deflection of the pointer of the voltmeter shows the value of voltage across the components. the SI unit for voltage is volt (symbol: V). 3. The SI unit for resistance (symbol: R) is the ohm (symbol: ). The Relationship Between Current, Voltage and Resistance

1. Resistor is an electrical component that resists the flow of electric current.

.a
(b) Direction of electron flow

2. Electrical charges can be produced through friction between two objects. 3. Matters are made up of small particles called atoms.

Electron flow

Page 9
2. Ohms Law: the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to its voltage. Voltage (V) Resistance (R) = Current (I) the greater the resistance, the smaller the current. increasing the voltage supplied will increase the current in the circuit. 7.5 Electric Circuits Electrical component Rheostat (Variable resistor) Fuse Galvanometer Voltmeter Ammeter
G G G V V V A A A

Symbol or or

Dry cell Wire

Light bulb

in

An electric circuit 3. Symbols of electrical components: Electrical component Electric cell Battery (more than one cell) Switch Bulb Resistor Symbol

If one light bulb burns out, the circuit becomes incomplete. Hence, other light bulbs will not light up.

lo

.b

gs

1. An electric circuit is a path which allows an electric current to flow through. 2. A simple electric circuit is made up of 3 components: (a) A cell (a source of electrical energy) (b) A bulb (a resistor) (c) Connecting wire (a conductive path)

4. Comparison between series and parallel circuits: Series circuit Has only one path for current to flow through Light bulbs do not glow as bright as those connected in parallel

t.c

2. Advantages of a series circuit: (a) When more cells are added to the circuit, the voltage and current increase. Hence, the bulbs glow brighter. (b) Bulbs light up with equal brightness because the current flows through each bulb is the same. 3. Disadvantages of a series circuit: (a) If one of the bulbs is fused (burned out), the other bulbs will not light up. (b) The brightness of the bulbs decreases when more bulbs are connected in series, because the electrical energy is shared by more bulbs. Parallel Circuit

po
Parallel circuit

Has more than one path for currect to flow through Light bulbs glow brighter than those connected in series If one light bulb burns out, other light bulbs will still light up.

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7.7
I

1. Current, voltage and total resistance in parallel circuit: 2. Advantages of a parallel circuit: (a) When one of the bulbs is burned out, the other bulbs will still light up. (b) Each electrical component can be controlled by separate switches. (c) All bulbs will light up with the same brightness. I = I1 + I2
V1 V R1 I2 V R2 V2

.a
V V I1

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or or

V = V1 = V2 1 = 1 + 1 R R1 R2

7.6

Series Circuit

1. Current, voltage and total resistance in series circuit:

V V I

I = I1 = I2 = I3 V = V1 + V2 + V3 R = R1 + R2 + R3

3. Disadvantage of a parallel circuit: (a) When more bulbs are connected in parallel, the dry cells will become weak quicker. 7.8 Magnetism

I1R1 V V1

I2R2 V V2

I3R3 V V3

1. Magnetism is the properties and effects of magnetic substances.

Page 10
2. Magnetic field is the area around a magnet where a magnetic force can be detected. 3. The magnetic field of a magnet can be represented by lines, called magnetic field lines. 4. The magnetic field lines have a certain pattern and direction. (a) The pattern of the magnetic field lines can be shown by using iron filings.
Copper wire Switch Card

(c) Gas turbine generator

Air filter Combustion chamber Exhaust Compressor Electric tower

Compass Power pack

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Retort stand

.a
Motor

Spark plug

Iron filings Magnet placed under the cardboard Cardboard

Generation of Electricity

8.1

The Generation of Electrical Energy

t.c

CHAPTER 8

(d) Diesel power plant

u
Control rods Steam Pump

Gas turbine Generator

(b) The direction of the magnetic field lines can be detected by using a compass.

1. Types of generators: (a) Hydroelectric power plant

Dam

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electric current Generator

Diesel engine

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Pylon

(e) Nuclear power plant

Concrete wall Steam turbine Electrical Output Condenser Pump Pump 27C
Generator

.b in

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Tunnel Turbine and generator

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xii
7.9

Compass

Magnetic field lines

Water

5. Characterstics of magnetic field lines: (a) Run from the north pole to the south pole of the magnet. (b) Do not cross one another. Electromagnetism

(b) Thermal generator

Steam Pylon

Reactor Water Steam generator

Boiler

1. Electromagnetism refers to the properties and effects of electromagnets produced by electric current. 2. An electromagnet is a magnet that is produced by the flow of electric current. (a) Without electrical energy, an electromagnet loses its megnetism. (b) An electromagnet is a temporary magnet. 3. A straight line conductor carrying current produces a concentric magnetic field lines around it.

Turbine

38C

Water

8.2
Water Burner Sea water Condenser From water purification plant

Transformers

1. A transformer is a device for changing the voltage of an alternating current. 2. An alternating current (symbol: a.c.) flows back and forth, reversing its direction.

Page 11
3. Types of transformers: (a) Step-up transformer
Soft iron core a.c. input voltage Primary coil a.c. output voltage a.c. input voltage Primary coil

(b)

Step-down transformer
Soft iron core a.c. output voltage Secondary coil

Secondary coil

8.3

Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution System

Transmission over long distances
Transmission system

t.c

To increase the output voltage. The secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil.

To reduce the output voltage. The secondary coil has less turns than the primary coil.

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8.4 Mains fuse Mains switch Earth wire

1. National Grid Network is a system of high voltage circuits that connects the main power stations. 2. Advantages of National Grid Network: (a) Ensures continuous and uninterrupted electrical power supply to the consumers. (b) Reduces the operational cost of electrical energy transmission. (c) Prevents wastage of electrical energy. Electrical Power Supply and Wiring system in Homes

1. Homes are supplied with 240 V alternating current (a.c.). Part Function Breaks the circuit when current exceeds a safe value Cuts off electrical power supply from the mains when electricity is not needed Cuts off the electric current that flows under abnormal conditions Carries the electric current from the substation to the house Carries the electric current from the house back to the substation Connects an electrical appliance to the earth or ground Measures the amount of electricity used

A 11 kV B

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132 kV/ 275 kV/ 500 kV

po

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33 kV

33 kV

Distribution system

240 V/ 415 V

Heavy industrial area

33 kV Residential area Shopping complex Hospital

in

.b

11 kV

Components: A Power station B Step-up transformer C National Grid Network D Step-down transformer E Branch substation

Circuit breaker Live wire Neutral wire

Light industrial area

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Branch substation Branch substation Branch substation Branch substation

33 kV 11 kV 240 V 415 V

Heavy industrial area Light industrial area Residential area Shopping complexes

Electric meter

Power stations
11 kV

Step-up transformer

Switch zone

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132 kV/ 275 kV/ 500 kV

National Grid Network

132 kV/ 275 kV/ 500 kV

Main substation (Step-down transformer)

2. Our home uses single-phase wiring system. 3. The commercial and industrial areas use threephase wiring system. 4. 3-pin plug:
Cover removed Earth wire Neutral wire Cover Fuse

132 kV/ 275 kV/ 500 kV

Generation

Transmission system

Distribution system

.a
Cable

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Live wire

Page 12
3-pin plug 3. Types of fuses: (a) Replaceable wire fuse (b) Cartridge fuse Fuse
Metal cap Glass tube Fuse wire

Holder Replaceable wire fuse

t.c

Carries current from the substation to the house

Carries current from the house back to the substation

Carries leakage current from the appliances to the Earth

Prevents excessive current flowing into the appliance and damaging it

Cartridge fuse Fuse wire Contact

Contact

1. The Sun is a star that is closest to the Earth. 2. Characteristics of the Sun: (a) It is the centre of the solar system. (b) It is the only star in the solar system. (c) It is mainly made of hydrogen (70% to 80%) and helium. 3. Structure of the Sun:

om
Prominence Sunspots Solar flare

.a

Live wire

Neutral wire

Earth wire

9.1

The Sun

u
Corona Chromosphere Photosphere Core

CHAPTER 9

Stars and Galaxies

8.7

Safety Precautions in the Use of Electrical Energy

8.5

Cost of Electrical Energy Usage

8.6

Fuse and Earth Wire

ek

1 unit of electrical energy = 1 kWh

1. Fuse and earth wire are protection devices. (a) Fuse breaks off the electrical circuit. (b) Earth wire ensures the leakage of current flows to the ground. 2. Function of the fuse: (a) A fuse has a piece of short wire which has a low melting point. (b) When excess current flows through it, the wire in the fuse melts and disconnects the current.

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in

Energy used (J) 1. Power (W) = Time (s) 2. Power (P) = Voltage (V) Current (I) 3. Energy (kWh) = Power (kW) Time (h)

1. Damaged appliances must be repaired by qualified electrician only. 2. Avoid overloading a power point. 3. Avoid touching switches, wires or plugs with wet hands, as this may cause electric shock or electrocution. 4. Install Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) and Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) in home wiring system for additional protection against electrical accidents.

lo

gs

A 3-pin plug carries electric current from a power station to an appliance in use, and then returns it to the substation. A 3-pin plug also acts as a safety device to protect an appliance in use from getting damaged.

4. Fuses have different ratings, according to the maximum current they can carry. For example, 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A and 13 A.

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8.8

1. We need to conserve electrical energy to prevent wastage. 2. Ways to conserve energy: (a) Use fluorescent lamps instead of incandescent light bulbs. (b) Use energy efficient electrical appliances. (c) Use the washing machine with a full load. (d) Switch off electrical appliances when they are not in use.

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Conserving Electrical Energy

(a) Corona (outermost layer) is seen only during a total solar eclipse. (b) Chromosphere (middle layer) appears reddish during a solar eclipse. (c) Photosphere (innermost layer) is the Suns surface as seen from the Earth. It has sunspots, prominences and solar flares. (d) Core (centre of the Sun) is the place where nuclear fusion takes place, that is, hydrogen is changed into helium, releasing a lot of energy. (e) Sunspots (dark patches) are cooler and they can cause changes in the Earths climate, such as extreme drought. (f) Prominences are giant flares which are huge columns, extending thousands of kilometres from the surface. It produces solar wind and causes aurora. (g) Solar flares are huge clouds of hydrogen that explode violently on the Suns surface. They

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also change the Earths climate and affect the telecommunication systems on Earth. 9.2 Stars and Galaxies in the Universe (e) The death of a large star: Red giant Supergiant Supernova Neutron star (f) The death of a super-large star: Red giant Supergiant Supernova Black hole Types Description It has a diameter between 25 000 and 32 000 light years. It does not have a definite pattern or shape. It exists in various different forms and is usually made up of young stars that are very hot. Example: Large Magellanic Cloud

Red Yellow White Whitish-blue Blue 3. Arrangement of stars in ascending order of size: Neutron star White dwarf star Dwarf star Giant star Supergiant star 4. Formation of stars: (a) Stars are formed from nebulae (singular: nebula), which are made of clouds of dust and gases. (b) The nebula contracts when the gases and dust exert a strong gravitational force on each other. (c) Further contraction causes the ball to become denser until hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium atoms a nuclear fusion reaction. (d) The reaction causes the temperature to rise and causes the star to expand. (e) The balance between the contraction and expansion of star will form a stable star, such as the Sun. 5. The death of stars: (a) When nuclear fusion no longer takes place, the size of the core of the star will reduce. (b) The size of a star determines its lifespan. (c) Massive stars have longer lifespan than smaller ones. (d) The death of a medium-sized star:

Types Elliptical-shaped galaxy

Description

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It has a diameter between 3000 and 10 000 light years. It looks like a smooth, round and oval-shaped disc, and has no arms. It is the brightest at the core and gradually fades towards the edge. It is made up of old yellow stars and does not contain gas and dust, so new stars are not formed. Example: M87 in the centre of Virgo cluster.

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1. Stars: (a) Made up of dust and gases (such as hydrogen and helium). (b) Generate heat and light through nuclear fusion. (c) Differ in size , brightness , colour and temperature. 2. Arrangement of stars in ascending order of temperature:

6. Galaxies: (a) Are collection of billions of stars, planets, dust and gases held together by a gravitational force (b) Types of galaxies:

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Spiral-shaped galaxy

Red giant White dwarf Black dwarf

It has a diameter of about 20 000 to 100 000 light years. It is disc-shaped and made up of stars gathering in a whorl with spiral arms at the edges. These arms contain dust and gases. It has a bright centre. Its centre has older stars. Its arms have younger stars, while dwarf stars and nebulae. The arms rotate around its centre. Example: The Milky Way, Andromeda

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7. The Milky Way: (a) It is a spiral-shaped galaxy. (b) The solar system is located in the Milky Way. 8. The Universe: (a) It consists of all the matter, energy and space that exist. (b) It has billions of galaxies, stars, planets and particles. (c) Its size is infinitive and unknown. The Universe as a Gift from God

1. The Universe is a unique creation of God. 2. Everything that exists in the Universe is not permanent: Stars are born and die out, new stars are formed to replace them.

CHAPTER 10
10.1

Space Exploration
Developments in the Field of Astronomy and Space Exploration

1. Astronomy is the study of objects in the Universe. 2. The Greeks: (a) The first people to study astronomy. (b) First to declare that the Earth is spherical, and the orbits of the planets are circular.

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Irregular-shaped galaxy

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3. The Islamic astronomers studied the rotation of the Earth and the eclipses of the Sun and the Moon. 4. Other developments: (a) Hans Lippershey invested a telescope. (b) Galileo Galilei was the first man to observe objects in space with a telescope. (c) Yuri Gagarin was the first person in space. (d) Neil Armstrong was the first human to set foot on the Moon. (e) Aristotle believed wrongly that the Earth was the centre of the Universe. (f) Claudius Ptolemy supported Aristotles belief that the Earth was the centre of the Universe. (g) Nicholas Copernicus (The father of the modern astronomy) stated that the Sun is the centre of the solar system. 5. Technology used in space exploration: (a) Space telescope (such as Hubble Space Telescope) helps scientists to discover distant objects (b) Space probes send images and data back to Earth for analysis (c) Space station allows scientists to work in space for a long period of time (d) Space shuttles carry astronauts to repair and retrieve damaged satellites in space (e) Satellites unmanned devices which are placed in the orbit of the Earth to carry out certain functions.

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Space station Space shuttle

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Satellite 6. Types of satellites: (a) Communication satellites enable instant radio and telephone communication, live telecast and Internet applications (b) Weather satellites enable meteorologists to predict weather hazards such as hurricanes and floods (c) Navigation satellites guide ships and aircraft (d) Military satellites improve national security, defence and spying systems (e) Environmental satellites detect worlds resources 7. Remote sensing is the means of using satellites to study the conditions on Earth from space. 8. Remote sensing can be used in geology , agriculture, forestry, disaster management and national security management.

Space probe

Space telescope

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