HNC Yr1 Science Assignment 4 Steve Goddard

Contents

Topic Page
How Electrical Signal Convey Information 2
How Electrical Systems Control Energy Flow 6
Demonstration Of System Operation 8
Bibliography 12

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HNC Yr1 Science Assignment 4 Steve Goddard

Engineering Science - Assignment 4

Information and Energy Control Systems

How Electrical Signals Convey Information

1. Describe the following methods used by electrical signals to

convey information:

1.1 Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulation (FM) is a method of impressing data onto an alternating-

current (AC) wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. This
scheme can be used with analogue or digital data.

In analogue FM, the frequency of the AC signal wave, also called the carrier,
varies in a continuous manner. Thus, there are infinitely many possible carrier
frequencies.

In digital FM, the carrier frequency shifts abruptly, rather than varying
continuously. The number of possible carrier frequency states is usually a power
of 2. If there are only two possible frequency states, the mode is called frequency-
shift keying (FSK). In more complex modes, there can be four, eight, or more
different frequency states. Each specific carrier frequency represents a specific
digital input data state.

1.2 Modulation Amplitude

Amplitude modulation (AM) is a method of impressing data onto an alternating-

current (AC) carrier waveform. The highest frequency of the modulating data is
normally less than 10 percent of the carrier frequency. The instantaneous
amplitude (overall signal power) varies depending on the instantaneous amplitude
of the modulating data.
In AM, the carrier itself does not fluctuate in amplitude. Instead, the modulating
data appears in the form of signal components at frequencies slightly higher and
lower than that of the carrier. These components are called sidebands. The lower
sideband (LSB) appears at frequencies below the carrier frequency; the upper
sideband (USB) appears at frequencies above the carrier frequency. The LSB and
USB are essentially "mirror images" of each other in a graph of signal amplitude
versus frequency, as shown in the picture below. The sideband power accounts
for the variations in the overall amplitude of the signal.

When a carrier is amplitude-modulated

with a pure sine wave, up to 1/3 (33
percent) of the overall signal power is
contained in the sidebands. The other 2/3
of the signal power is contained in the
carrier, which does not contribute to the
transfer of data. With a complex
modulating signal such as voice, video,
or music, the sidebands generally
contain 20 to 25 percent of the overall
signal power; thus the carrier consumes
75 to 80 percent of the power. This
makes AM an inefficient mode. If an
attempt is made to increase the
modulating data input amplitude beyond
these limits, the signal will become
distorted, and will occupy a much greater

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bandwidth than it should. This is called over modulation, and can result in
interference to signals on nearby frequencies.

1.3 Morse Code

Morse code is a character

encoding for transmitting
telegraphic information, using
standardized sequences of short
and long elements to represent
the letters, numerals,
punctuation and special
characters of a given message.
The short and long elements can
be formed by sounds, marks or
pulses, in on off keying and are
commonly known as "dots" and
"dashes" or "dits" and "dahs".
Morse code can be transmitted
in a number of ways: originally
as electrical pulses along a
telegraph wire, but also as an
audio tone, a radio signal with
short and long tones, or as a
mechanical or visual signal (e.g.
a flashing light) using devices
like an Aldis lamp or a
heliograph. Morse code is
transmitted using just two states
(on and off) so it was an early
form of a digital code. However,
it is technically not binary, as the pause lengths are required to decode the
information.

1.4 ASCII Code

ASCII specifies a correspondence

between digital bit patterns and
character symbols This allows digital
devices to communicate with each
other and to process, store, and
communicate character-oriented
information such as written language.
The ASCII character encoding or a
compatible extension is used on nearly
all common computers, especially
personal computers and workstations.
The preferred MIME name for this
encoding is "US-ASCII".
ASCII is, strictly, a seven-bit code,
meaning it uses patterns of seven
binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to represent each character.
When ASCII was introduced, many computers used eight-bit bytes (groups of bits),
also called octets, as the native data type. In seven-bit ASCII encoding, the eighth
bit was commonly used as a parity bit for error checking on communication lines
or for other device-specific functions. Machines that did not use parity checking
typically set the eighth bit to 0.
Except for a few of the ASCII control characters that prescribe some elementary
line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the
structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as
markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.
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2. Describe the inherent function of the following electrical

components used within an information system:

2.1 Transducers

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form into corresponding
variations in another, most commonly electrical form. Measurement or input
transducers use a range of physical, chemical or biological effects to achieve
transduction and they are aimed for high sensitivity and a small amount of
disturbance. On the opposite side, output transducers are designed to achieve an
end result. Occasionally, a transducer can be referred to as a sensor, which is
incorrect as a sensor does not transform energy it either changes by sensing and
input which it then passes onto another device.
Examples of transducer include:

• pH probes
• Linear motors
• Rotary motors
• Microphone
• Loudspeaker
• Light Bulb
• LCD Display

Within Westland Helicopters, certain departments have to use and take readings
from transducers on aircraft. These include:

• Thermocouples
• Strain Gauges
• Accelerometers

2.2 Amplifiers

An amplifier is a device that is there to control

amounts of energy or ‘amplify’ an energy source.
Amplification is done by using gain within the
component. Gain is generally calculated by the ratio
or the output power to the input power and is
measured in decibels (dB’s). There are many types of
amplifiers on the market today ranging from audio
amplifiers which started out as vacuum tubes (value)
which proved very efficient in high power applications to today’s class D
amplifiers which are no bigger than a pea. Video amplifiers also play a significant
part in today’s technological advancements. These all vary on bandwidth
depending on what signal is being processed whether it be SDTV (480i) to HDTV
(1080p).

2.3 Digital to Analogue converters

A digital to analogue converter (DAC) is a device that is used for converting a

digital (usually binary) code to an analogue signal (current, voltage or electric
charge). Digital to analogue converters are the link between the abstract digital
world and the analogue real life. They are built up with a network of resistors,
simple switches and current sources or capacitors may implement the conversion.

There are a number of common DAC applications. These include:

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• CD Players – converts the digital music to music which you hear.

• PC Sound cards – converts digital sounds into analogue which can be
heard
• Digital music Players – converts digital music files into music which you
hear
• Computer monitors – converts a digital video signal into analogue so you
can see it on a monitor

There are also a number of different digital to analogue converters available.

Some of the most common ones are:

• Pulse Width Modulator – This is the simplest digital to analogue

converter and it works by a stable current or voltage being switched into a
low pass analogue filter with the duration determined by the digital input.
• Binary Weighted – This type of digital to analogue converter contains
one resistor and a current source for each part connected to a summing
point. These precise voltages or currents total up to the correct output
value. This method is the quickest, but it is the least accurate.
• R2R Ladder – This is a binary weighted digital to analogue converter
which uses a repeating structure of resistors with values of R and 2R. This
is a more accurate converter but it is slower than most others.
• Thermometer Coded – This contains an equal resistor or current source
segment for each possible output. This is the faster and most accurate
digital to analogue converter but because of this, it is the most expensive
to produce.
• Segmented – This combines the thermometer coded DAC for the most
significant bits and the binary weighted DAC for the least significant bits.
Due to this, it is both accurate and quick, but a cheaper price to produce.

2.4 Oscillators

An oscillator is a device that produces a repetitive electronic signal. (Sine wave or

square wave). A low frequency oscillator generates an AC waveform between
0.1Hz and 10Hz. A voltage controlled oscillator is specifically designed to be
controlled by a voltage input. This means that the frequency of oscillation varies
with an applied DC voltage, while modulating signals may be fed into the VCO to
generate frequency modulation, phase modulation and pulse-width modulation.

3. Explain the meaning of the following terms and discuss their

significance within an electrical system:

3.1 Signal

Electronic signals fall into two categories, analogue and digital. Both types of
signal have been used from the earliest days of electrical communication.
Analogue systems came around first with the telephone, whereas digital systems
first appeared when telegraph systems introduced the Morse code.

In analogue systems the information or data is given as an electrical signal that

varies in direct proportion to the information or data. It follows that the variation
must be continuous and, between the limits of operation of the system, the
variation can have any value from an infinite number of values. Such variation is
associated with the production of sound (as in the telephone) in radio receivers or
vision in television sets.

An analogue system in its most basic form has an input electrical signal that is
either a voltage or a current varying directly in proportion to the input

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information. The input information is converted into the electrical signal by a

transducer.

Digital signals have one of a limited number of discrete values. In most

applications, the applications have two values which in crude terms could be
explained as ON and OFF. These values are usually described as 1 and 0, being
the presence and absence of the supply voltage or current. As previously
mentioned in question 1.3, the first form of digital signal in common use was that
associated with the Morse code.

3.2 Noise

Electronic noise is created by interference and can be a problem in any electronic

circuit. Semi-conductor devices can also contribute flicker noise and generation-
recombination noise. In electrical circuits random variations in voltage and current
are caused by random movement of electrons carrying the current as they are
moved around by thermal energy.
How electrical Signals Control Energy Flow

4. Describe the following methods used by electrical signals to

control energy flow:

4.1 Temperature sensing and control

The most common application of temperature sensing and control is a thermostat.

This is a device that is found on virtually every heating system where by the
thermostat regulates the temperature to a desired set temperature. This can be
achieved by the thermostat switching the heating on and off to regulate this
desired temperature set by the operator, thus creating a regulated energy flow.

4.2 Humidity sensing and control

Devices using humidity sensing and control use

hermidistats to know when to switch themselves
on or off. These work by using the expansion and
contraction of certain materials to measure the
humidity in an area. This means that the more
water molecules that are in the air, the more
there will be on the material, and this is what the
humidistat will measure.

Examples of devices using humidity sensing and

control are dehumidifiers, humidifiers and also air
purifiers.

4.3 Speed control of AC and DC machines

Speed control is used in both AC and DC machines. For an AC machine, a

universal motor is used instead. It operates single phase AC supplies and
accelerates until the output and load torque are equal.
In DC machines, a common way of controlling the
speed is with a DC motor. It is used with a tacho
generator usually, which controls the driven load
speed and it is essentially a torque source
controller. The speed is controlled by regulating
the voltage applied to the motor and all current
passes through the voltage regulator.

5. Describe the functions of the following

electrical components used within an
energy flow control system:

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5.1 Relays

A relay is a simple electromechanical switch made up of an electromagnet and a

set of contacts.

Relays are amazingly simple devices. There are four parts in every relay:
• Electromagnet
• Armature that can be attracted by the electromagnet
• Spring
• Set of electrical contacts

5.2 Thyristors

A thyristor or a Silicone Controlled Rectifier is a solid state

semiconductor/junction diode that allows a significant
current in one direction and little in the other. The thyristor
passes negligible current when reverse biased and when
forward biased the current is also negligible until the
forward breakdown voltage is exceeded. Generally,
thyristors are used when a high current/high voltage
application is involved and usually control alternating
current. Another use that thyristors serve is the control
element for phase angle triggered controllers.

5.3 Triacs

A triac or TRIode for Alternating Current is an electronic

component similar to 2 silicon-controlled rectifiers joined in
inverse parallel and with the gates connected together. The
result of this is a bidirectional electronic switch which can
conduct current in either direction when it is triggered. It
can be triggered by either a positive or negative current
being applied to its gate electrode. Similar to the thyristor,
the triac will continue to conduct until the current drops
below a set threshold value.
Low power triacs are used in a number of applications such
as light dimmers, speed controls for electric fans and
electric motors and in the computer controlled circuits in
many household appliances.
To assist in the turning off of a triac, snubber circuits may
be used and they can also be used to prevent premature
triggering of the triac.

5.4 Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductor that uses a small amount of voltage or current to

control a larger change in voltage or current. It is used in a large number of
applications including amplification, switching, voltage stabilization, signal
modulation and it also can be used as an oscillator. Transistors are split into 2
categories. These categories are bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and field effect
transistors (FETs). Transistors are used in switches, amplifiers and computers.

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Demonstration of System Operation

6. Choose a recognised communication system, e.g. television, radio,

RS232, satellite communications, an EFTPOS system, mobile
phone to satellite uplink, broadband, etc.

6.1 Evaluate and justify the method used to convey information in

your chosen system.

The communication system that I have chosen is broadband.

From the name, broadband essentially means wide bandwidth and because of
that a lot more information can be carried.
It can also be referred to as data transmission, where multiple pieces of data are
sent at the same time and this increases the rate of effective transmission.
Broadband, or Active Digital Subscribers Line (ADSL) is a transmission medium
network where by packets of information are sent thousands of times a second at
set frequencies over an exchange network that gets relayed from the exchange
server to your Personal Computer. The speed that the exchange server supplies
limit the amount of bandwidth channels that can be used at any one time. This is
known as the download limit. This can vary from 1 Mega Bit per Second (mbs) to
10mbs. In the 90’s phone lines could only support audio frequencies as this were
their main purpose. As time went on, British Telecom increased the frequencies of
its telephone exchanges making way for video frequencies by demand from
business users. This eventually became public and virtually every house in the UK
has a broadband connection. The future of broadband is being implemented all
the time, the trouble is, phone lines can only handle up to a certain frequency
before it gets too much, so fibre optic technology is being put into place with
speeds starting at 32mbs going all the way up to 40gbs.

6.2 Within your chosen system consider/discuss the following:

6.2.1 Security

Using broadband potentially makes your PC vulnerable to unwanted visitors such

as viruses; because of this precautions are deemed necessary. This is because
broadband has an ‘always-on’ nature.
When signing up for broadband you should look into what security you ISP
(internet service provider) will provide you with to protect your PC and any
information you have on it. It is also advised that you install your own firewall and
virus scanning software packages to further protect your PC.

6.2.2 Encryption

Encryption is used to protect system from outside hackers, software piracy and
reverse engineering. In a broadband system, the encryption is obtained using
broadband encryption units. These are the key units in the system that protects it
from outside interference and they protect both corporate and public backbone
networks. They are inserted at the connection between public and corporate
networks and they operate on real time data.

Such a product is the r & S SITline which provides encryption for up to 4096 bi-
directional channels with a broadband of 16kbs to 155mbps.

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6.2.3 Bandwidth

This depends on the amount of channels and frequency the exchange server allows
down the users phone line. The days before broadband, dial up used to run purely on
audio frequencies which meant that a slow connection of 20kbs to 50kbs was
established. Now, broadband runs on video frequencies well into 8mbs giving a fast
connection due to more channels available and a higher frequency rate.
Broadband bandwidth is measured in bps (bits per second) and can be bought at
different amounts depending on how fast you require your download speed. Such
values include 2Mbps, 4Mbps and 10Mbps.

6.2.4 Cost

Broadband can vary in price, if a user would like 8mbs broadband, they can
expect to pay up to £40 a month. 2mbs is an average connection speed and will
total approximately £20 per month. These prices are of course based on the ISP
availability and price that they charge.

Business users on the other hand will either opt for Very high bit Digital
Subscriber Line (VDSL) or fibre optics if cost is relative. These services can be
expensive but give a very high amount of channels and high frequencies which
can be very beneficial with 100 plus users on the internet at one time.

6.2.5 Reliability

The reliability of broadband depends on the broadband entry level cost. A low cost
usually does not have a service level agreement, therefore if a fault occurs your
connection may be unavailable for part or most of the working day. Also if the ISP
is busy you may not get a connection as fast or as quick as you like.
Because of this it would be worth thinking about having a backup connection if it
fails such as a modem.

7. Investigate and analyse an energy flow control system (e.g. AC &

DC machines, heating, lighting, air conditioning, etc.) as follows:

7.1 Draw and appropriately label the general block diagram of an

open-loop control system, giving two suitable examples.

Open-loop control systems are kept as simple as possible. An input is applied, a

function or process occurs and an output is produced, an operator would have to
adjust the input in response of the output. Two good examples of this is a system
with a variable switch on a heater and the output of heat and the speed of a car.

Example 1
Input Output
Heating
Of the Process Of the room
switched temperature
selection

Example 2

Brain/ Error Gearbox/

Detector Power Carburetto Engin Transmissio
Selector r e n

Speed
Eye

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7.2 Draw and appropriately label the general block diagram of a

closed-loop control system, giving two suitable examples

A closed look system is where an operator selects the desired output and the
system will automatically controls the inputs to achieve the desired output.
Two good examples would be air conditioning and an oven which is set to a
temperature and will maintain that temperature under normal circumstances.
But if the oven door is opened, the oven will detect this and increase the
amount of heat released in order to maintain the temperature in the oven.

7.3 Describe the relative advantages and disadvantages of each of

these control systems

A feedback controller/signal is the main difference between an open and a

closed loop system, so the relative advantages and disadvantages would be
around weather it’s a good idea to have this feedback or not. The feedback
can for example keep an oven's temperature within acceptable ranges as
mentioned above or maintain a car's speed through an uphill climb. Every
feedback controller has a different strategy for accomplishing its particular
target, but all use some variation on the closed-loop control algorithm, this is –
measure a process variable, decide if its value is acceptable, apply a
corrective effort as necessary, and repeat the whole operation infinitely.

Error = reference value – measured value signal

Open loop controllers, on the other hand, do not use feedback. They apply a
single corrective effort when commanded by the user and assume that the
desired results will be achieved. An oven may have a separate open-loop
controller that opens and closes the oven doors without verification. The
steam supply system may have an emergency shutdown controller that
automatically cuts power and vents the lines when a dangerous over-pressure
condition is detected.
Even feedback controllers must operate in the open-loop mode on occasion. A
sensor may fail to generate the feedback signal or an operator may take over
the feedback operation to manipulate the controller's output manually.
Operator intervention is generally required when a feedback controller proves
unable to maintain stable closed-loop control. For example, a particularly
aggressive pressure controller may overcompensate for a drop in line
pressure. If the controller then overcompensates for its overcompensation, the
pressure may end up lower than before, then higher, then even lower, then
even higher, etc. The simplest way to terminate such unstable oscillations is to
break the loop and regain control manually.
There are also many applications where experienced operators can make
manual corrections faster than a feedback controller can. Using knowledge of
the process' past behavior, operators can manipulate process inputs now to
achieve the desired output values later. A feedback controller, on the other
hand, must wait until the effects of its latest efforts are measurable before it
decides on the next appropriate control action. Predictable processes with
long time constants or excessive dead time are particularly suited for open-
loop manual control.

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The principal drawback/ disadvantage of open-loop control is accuracy

loss. Without feedback, there is no guarantee that the control inputs applied to
the process will actually have the desired effect.

7.4 Choose one of your examples of closed-loop control system and

give an in-depth analysis as to the function of:

7.4.1 The individual elements

For my chosen closed-loop control system I have chosen the air conditioning.
The individual elements of the system involve an input with a comparison
element to measure the value against the input, to correct any error there will
be a controller and a process which would be a switch from cold to hot air and
the fans to pump the air out. This will produce the output, from this a
measurement will be taken with a thermostat to determine the new
temperature and then the loop continues. For a more visual description se the
diagram below:

Input Output
Comparison Switc Fan
h

Temperature
Measuremen
t

7.4.2 The system as a whole

Air conditioning units work by measuring the temperature or the air and
comparing this to a user defined temperature. The system measures this error
and adjusts the temperature output accordingly so that the temperature stays
within the defined value. Specifically for air conditioning systems temperature
normally vary between 1 or 2 degrees above and below the defined
temperature.
In perfect circumstances the above will always happen but more than likely
there will be external elements that will be influencing the temperature
control such as an open window which will make the system think it is colder
in the room that it might be therefore it will work harder to increase the
temperature and use more energy in doing so.

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Bibliography

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/ - Frequency modulation

www.wikipedia.org – Various information

www.whatis.com

www.howstuffworks.com

Higher Engineering Science – W Bolton

Class Notes

NC Course Handouts

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