Composite Materials – Assignment 3

Composite Manufacturing Methods

Q1 -Describe and illustrate typical manufacturing methods for:-

a) Polymer Matrix Composites

b) Metal Matrix Composites
Closed mold fabrication of Polymer Matrix Composites

Closed Mold methods are used when mass production of identical parts with both smooth
surfaces is required.

Compression Molding

Compression Molding Is a Closed Mold process in which a molding charge is squeezed into a
preheated mold taking a shape of the mold cavity and performing curing (cross-linking) due to
heat and pressure applied to the material.

The method uses a split mold mounted in a hydraulic press. Compression Molding process
involves the following steps:

• A pre-weighed amount of a polymer (commonly thermosetting resin) mixed with

chopped reinforcing fibers, hardening agent, anti-adhesive agent and pigment
(charge) is placed into the lower half of the mold.

The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-formed sheets.
The charge is usually preheated prior to placement into the mold. Preheated polymer
becomes softer resulting in shortening the molding cycle time.

• The upper half of the mold moves downwards, pressing on the charge and forcing it
to fill the mold cavity.

The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the polymer
matrix (if thermosetting resin is processed).

• The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.

Figure 1 – Compression Molding

Compression Molding cycle time is about 1-6 min, which is longer than an Injection Molding
cycle which I will mention In a moment.

The method is suitable for mass production of flat or moderately curved parts.
Injection Molding

Injection Molding is a Closed Mold process in which molten polymer (commonly

thermoplastic) mixed with very short reinforcing fibers (10-40%) is forced under high pressure
into a mold cavity through an opening (sprue).

Polymer-fiber mixture in form of pellets is fed into an Injection Molding machine through a
hopper. The material is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced into a split
mold, filling its cavity through a feeding system with sprue gate and runners.

Screw of injection molding machine is called reciprocating screw since it not only rotates but
also moves forward and backward according to the steps of the molding cycle. It acts as a
ram in the filling step when the molten polymer-fibers mixture is injected into the mold and
then it retracts backward in the molding step.

Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer.

The mold is equipped with a cooling system providing controlled cooling and solidification of
the material.
The polymer is held in the mold until solidification and then the mold opens and the part is
removed from the mold by ejector pins.

Injection Molding is used mainly for thermoplastic matrices, but thermosetting matrices are
also may be extruded. In this case curing occurs during heating and melting of the material in
the heated barrel.
A scheme of an Injection Molding Machine is shown in the picture below.

Figure 2 – Injection Molding

Injection Molding is highly productive method providing high accuracy and control of shape of
the manufactured parts. The method is profitable in mass production of large number of
identical parts.

One of the disadvantages of the method is limited length of fibers decreasing their reinforcing
effect.
Transfer Molding

Transfer Molding (Resin Transfer Molding) is a Closed Mold process in which a pre-weighed
amount of a polymer is preheated in a separate chamber (transfer pot) and then forced into a
preheated mold filled with a reinforcing fibers, taking a shape of the mold cavity, impregnating
the fibers and performing curing due to heat and pressure applied to the material.
The method is used primarily for molding Polymer Composites with thermosetting resin
matrices, but some thermoplastic parts may also be produced by Transfer Molding.

The picture below illustrates the Transfer Molding Process:

Figure 3 – Transfer Molding

The method uses a split mold and a third plate equipped with a plunger mounted in a
hydraulic press.
The method combines features of both Compression Molding - hydraulic pressing, the same
molding materials (thermosets) and Injection Molding – ram (plunger), filling the mold through
a sprue.

Transfer Molding process involves the following steps:

• The mold cavity is filled with preformed reinforcing fibers.

• A pre-weighed amount of a polymer mixed with additives and fillers (charge) is placed
into the transfer pot.

The charge may be in form of powders, pellets, putty-like masses or pre-formed blanks.
The charge is heated in the pot where the polymer softens.

• The plunger, mounted on the top plate, moves downwards, pressing on the polymer
charge and forcing it to fill the mold cavity through the sprue and impregnate the
fibers.

The mold, equipped with a heating system, provides curing (cross-linking) of the polymer (if
thermoset is processed).

• The mold is opened and the part is removed from it by means of the ejector pin.
If thermosetting resin is molded, the mold may be open in hot state – cured thermosets
maintain their shape and dimensions even in hot state.
If thermoplastic is molded, the mold and the molded part are cooled down before opening.

• The scrap left on the pot bottom (cull), in the sprue and in the channels is removed.
Scrap of thermosetting polymers is not recyclable.

Transfer Molding cycle time is shorter than Compression Molding cycle but longer than
Injection Molding cycle.
The method is capable to produce very large parts (car body shell), more complicated than
Compression Molding, but not as complicated as Injection Molding.

Hand Lay Up

Figure 4 – Hand Lay Up Method

Resins are impregnated by hand into fibres which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched
or bonded fabrics. This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an increasing use
of nip-roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by means of rotating rollers and
a bath of resin. Laminates are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.
This is normally used for products such as Standard wind-turbine blades, production boats,
and architectural moldings.

Spray Lay Up

Figure 5 – Spray Lay Up Method

Fibre is chopped in a hand-held gun and fed into a spray of catalyzed resin directed at the
mould. The deposited materials are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.
This method is normally used for products such as Simple enclosures, lightly loaded structural
panel, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings, bathtubs; shower trays, some small dinghies.
Vacuum Bagging

Figure 6 – Vacuum Bagging

This is basically an extension of the wet lay-up process described above where pressure is
applied to the laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation. This is achieved by
sealing a plastic film over the wet laid-up laminate and onto the tool. The air under the bag is
extracted by a vacuum pump and thus up to one atmosphere of pressure can be applied to
the laminate to consolidate it.
This process is used for Large, one-off cruising boats, racecar components, core-bonding in
production boats.

Filament Winding

Figure 7 – Filament Winding

This process is primarily used for hollow, generally circular or oval sectioned components,
such as pipes and tanks. Fibre tows are passed through a resin bath before being wound
onto a mandrel in a variety of orientations, controlled by the fiber feeding mechanism, and
rate of rotation of the mandrel.
Typical applications would be Chemical storage tanks and pipelines, gas cylinders, fire-
fighters breathing tanks.
Pultrusion

Figure 8 – Pultrusion

Fibres are pulled from a creel through a resin bath and then on through a heated die. The die
completes the impregnation of the fibre, controls the resin content and cures the material into
its final shape as it passes through the die. This cured profile is then automatically cut to
length. Fabrics may also be introduced into the die to provide fibre direction other than at 0°.
Although pultrusion is a continuous process, producing a profile of constant cross-section, a
variant known as 'pulforming' allows for some variation to be introduced into the cross-
section. The process pulls the materials through the die for impregnation, and then clamps
them in a mould for curing. This makes the process non-continuous, but accommodating of
small changes in cross-section.
Typically used in Beams and girders used in roof structures, bridges, ladders, frameworks.
 Advantages
Compression Molding • Lowest cost molds
• Little "throw away" material provides advantage
on expensive compounds
• Often better for large parts
Injection Molding • Provides the maximum product consistency
• Allows the most control of flash
• Because the rubber is warmed before going into
the mold, fastest cycle times
Transfer Molding • Provides more product consistency than
compression molding
• Cycle times are shorter than compression molding
• Better than compression molding for rubber-to-
metal bonding
Hand Lay Up • Widely used for many years.
• Simple principles to teach.
• Low cost tooling, if room-temperature cure resins
are used.
• Wide choice of suppliers and material types.
• Higher fibre contents, and longer fibres than with
spray lay-up.
Disadvantages
• Offers least product consistency
• Difficult to control flash
• Not suited for some types of parts
• Not suited for all compounds
• Most expensive molds
• Typically has some runners or other "throw away"
portion in each shot
• The transfer pad is scrap
• Cycle time is longer than injection molding
• Product consistency is poorer than injection molding
• Resin mixing, laminate resin contents, and laminate
quality are very dependent on the skills of laminators.
Low resin content laminates cannot usually be achieved
without the incorporation of excessive quantities of
voids.
• Health and safety considerations of resins. The lower
molecular weights of hand lay-up resins generally means
that they have the potential to be more harmful than
higher molecular weight products. The lower viscosity of
the resins also means that they have an increased
tendency to penetrate clothing.
• Limiting airborne styrene concentrations to legislated
levels from polyesters and vinylesters is becoming
increasingly hard without expensive extraction systems.
Spray Lay Up • Widely used for many years.
• Low cost way of quickly depositing fibre and resin.
• Low cost tooling.
Vacuum Bagging • Higher fibre content laminates can usually be
achieved than with standard wet lay-up
techniques.
• Lower void contents are achieved than with wet
lay-up.
• Better fibre wet-out due to pressure and resin flow
throughout structural fibres, with excess into
bagging materials.
Filament Winding • This can be a very fast and therefore economic
method of laying material down.
• Resin content can be controlled by metering the
resin onto each fibre tow through nips or dies.
• Fibre cost is minimized since there is no
secondary process to convert fibre into fabric prior
to use.
• Structural properties of laminates can be very
good since straight fibres can be laid in a complex
pattern to match the applied loads.
Pultrusion • This can be a very fast, and therefore economic,
way of impregnating and curing materials.
• Resin content can be accurately controlled.
• Fibre cost is minimised since the majority is taken
from a creel.
• Structural properties of laminates can be very
• Laminates tend to be very resin-rich and therefore
excessively heavy.
• Only short fibres are incorporated which severely limits
the mechanical properties of the laminate.
• Resins need to be low in viscosity to be sprayable. This
generally compromises their mechanical/thermal
properties.
• The extra process adds cost both in labour and in
disposable bagging materials.
• A higher level of skill is required by the operators.
• Mixing and control of resin content still largely
determined by operator skill.
• The process is limited to convex shaped components.
• Fibre cannot easily be laid exactly along the length of a
component.
• Mandrel costs for large components can be high.
• The external surface of the component is unmolded, and
therefore cosmetically unattractive.
• Low viscosity resins usually need to be used with their
attendant lower mechanical and health and safety
properties.
• Limited to constant or near constant cross-section
components
• Heated die costs can be high.
good since the profiles have very straight fibres
and high fibre volume fractions can be obtained.
Q2 – Explain the main technical features that must be considered in
identifying suitable machining methods for Composite Materials.
Illustrate your answer by including suitable examples of the use of
appropriate machining methods

Composites provide advantages to components due to features and properties such as,
strength and weight. They are easily damaged unless machining is performed properly. A
typical damage is delaminating during drilling. We are concerned with the machining
processes of composite materials. The operative must minimize delaminating while
minimizing the time required completing the operation.

Water Jet Cutting

Figure 9 – Water Jet Cutting

The cutter is commonly connected to a high-pressure water pump where the water is then
ejected from the nozzle, cutting through the material by spraying it with the jet of high-speed
water. Additives in the form of suspended grit or other abrasives, such as garnet and
aluminum oxide, can assist in this process. Because the nature of the cutting stream can be
easily modified, water jets can be used to cut diverse materials, from prepared foods to
metals. There are few materials that cannot be effectively cut with a water jet cutter; one of
these is tempered glass, which shatters when cut, regardless of the cutting technology used.
Certain ceramics are also resistant to water jet cutting. Water jet cuts are not typically limited
by the thickness of the material, and are capable of cutting materials over eighteen inches (45
cm) thick. The penetrating power of these tools has led to the exploration of their use as anti-
tank weapons but, due to their short range and the advent of composite armour, research was
discontinued.
Laser Cutting

Generation of the laser beam involves stimulating a lasing material by

electrical discharges or lamps within a closed container. As the lasing
material is stimulated, the beam is reflected internally by means of a
partial mirror, until it achieves sufficient energy to escape as a stream
of monochromatic coherent light. The coherent light then passes
through a lens that focuses the light into a highly intensified beam
generally less than 0.0125 in (0.3175 mm). in diameter. Depending
upon material thickness, kerf widths as small as 0.004 in (0.1016 mm).
are possible. In order to be able to start cutting from somewhere else
than the edge, a pierce is done before every cut. Piercing usually
involves a high power pulsed laser beam which slowly (taking around
5-15 seconds for half-inch thick stainless steel, for example) makes a
hole in the material. Figure 10 – Laser Cutting
There are many different methods in cutting using lasers, with different
types used to cut different material. Some of the methods are vaporization, melt and blow,
melt blow and burn, thermal stress cracking, scribing, cold cutting and burning stabilized laser
cutting.

Q3 – Compare and contrast the suitability and applicability of the main

joining methods that are used with PMC’s.

Biscuit Joints

Biscuits are small oval shapped disks made from composite material that expands when
moistened with glue. They are often used to to keep boards aligned when gluing up for
panels.

Dovetail

Blind dovetails are often used in drawer construction

because of the strength the locking design provides. They
can be cut by hand or with a router and a special jig.

Box Joints

Box joints are square interlocking fingers to join two pieces at a

right angle, they are cut on a table saw with a dado blade or with a
router and a straight bit. Either method requires a jig to space the
fingers evenly. If a router is used it is mounted under a table.
Domino Joints

Similar to biscuit joinery in that a plunge tool is

used to cut a slot for an insert, the inserts used
are rectangular shaped like the tiles in a set of
dominos

Dowel Butt Joint

Making a dowel butt joint requires nothing more

than a drill and a drill bit if the positions are carefully
measured, however there are tools and jigs which
make the job a lot easier. A jig can be purchased or
made to align the holes, using a drill press will make
straight holes and it has a depth gauge

Finger Joints

Finger joints are long tapered fingers that interlock to

join two pieces lengthwise as in commercial
moulding or side by side in panels. They are cut with
high powered routers or shapers.

Lap Joint

Lap joints are made by laying one piece on top of another; they can be used in angle or
lengthwise joints. Half lap joints are when half of the thickness from each piece is removed,
they can be made by hand with a saw and chisel, on a table saw or radial arm saw with a
dado blade, or with a router and a straight bit.

Lap Joint Half Lap Joint

Miter Joint

Miter joints are made by cutting the ends of the pieces on an

angle egual to one half of the angle of the finished product, a
square 90° corner is made by cutting each piece at a 45° angle.
Bonding

Mechanical fasteners, adhesives, or both are used to join composites. The joining technique
used on a particular composite depends on the application and the material composition. For
instance, composites used in aircraft are usually joined by a combination of mechanical
fasteners and adhesives, whereas those used in automobiles are often joined only with
adhesives.

Mechanical fasteners: Rivets, pins, two-piece bolts, and blind fasteners made of titanium,
stainless steel, and aluminium are all used for composites. Several factors should be
considered when specifying fasteners for composite materials:

• Differential expansion of the fastener in the composite.

• The effect of drilling on the structural integrity of the material, as well as delaminating
caused by fasteners under load.
• Water intrusion between the fastener and composite.
• Electrical continuity of the composite and arcing between fasteners.
• Possible galvanic corrosion at the composite joint.
• Weight of the fastening system.
• Fuel tightness of the fastening system, where applicable.

Aluminum and stainless-steel fasteners expand and contract when exposed to temperature
extremes, as in aircraft applications. In carbon-fiber composites, contraction and expansion of
such fasteners can cause changes in clamping load. Potential clamping changes should be
determined before the fastening system is chosen so joint design can be modified
accordingly.

Drilling and machining can damage composites. The number of defects, such as
delaminating, resin erosion, and fiber breakout allowed in any structure depends on the
application. For instance, because joint failure in carbon-fiber composites is caused primarily
by localized bearing stress rather than overall stress, delaminating is a much more serious
defect than fiber breakout in a carbon-fiber composite application.

Drilling techniques and the tools selected are determined by the resin, the fiber or fiber
combinations in the resin, the way the fibers are configured, and the composite/metal
composition of the structure.

Fasteners for composites should have large heads to distribute loads over a larger surface
area. In this way, crushing of the composite is reduced. Fasteners should also fit closely to
reduce the chances of fretting in the clearance hole. Interference fits may cause delaminating
of the composite. Special sleeved fasteners can limit the chances of damage in the clearance
hole and still provide an interference fit. Fasteners can also be bonded in place with
adhesives to reduce fretting.

When carbon-fiber composites are cut, fibers are exposed. These fibers can absorb water,
which both weakens the material and adds weight to the structure. Sealants can prevent
moisture absorption, but this both complicates the process and adds cost. It also defeats any
effort made to maintain electrical continuity between the composite fibers and the fasteners.
Sleeved fasteners can provide fits that reduce water absorption, as well as provide fuel
tightness.

Additionally, carbon-fiber composites may corrode galvanically if aluminum fasteners are

used, due to the chemical reaction of the aluminum with the carbon fibers. Coating the
fasteners guards against corrosion but adds cost and time to assembly. Aluminum fasteners
are often replaced by more expensive titanium and stainless steel when carbon-fiber
composites are used.
Adhesives

Composite bonds with adhesives generally are not weakened by drilling or other machining.
Adhesives have been used to assemble composite components, such as rotor blades and
airplane wings, and are sometimes used to join structural components. Bond reliability of
adhesive joints is sometimes questioned, however, and fasteners may be specified as
reinforcements for many composite applications.

Three adhesives are often used to bond composites: epoxies, acrylics, and urethanes.
Epoxies are especially reliable when used with epoxy-based composites because they have
similar flow characteristics.

Careful preparation of adhered surfaces is essential to making a quality adhesive bond, but it
varies depending on the adhered and adhesive used. Recommended preparation of many
composite adherents consists of a solvent wipe, to remove loose surface dirt and oil, and an
abrading operation. Abrasion should be done carefully to avoid damaging composite surface
fibers.

In some cases, primer is required to coat the composite before applying the adhesive. When
bonding composites to metals, the metal substrate can be prepared by blasting with sand,
grit, or metal oxides; abrading with a wire brush; and machining or scoring with cutting tools.
Metal surfaces can also be prepared chemically. To protect freshly prepared metal surfaces
from corrosion and contamination, adhesive should be applied as soon as possible.
Q4 – Describe and illustrate the appropriate technologies for applying
Hard ceramic coatings to Composite Materials and give suitable
applications

Hard materials suitable for thin film ceramic coatings are usually carbides, nitrides, borides
and silicides of the IVth, Vth and VIth groups of the periodic table. The ceramic coatings are
formed by introducing nitrogen, hydrocarbon, or silicide during the sputtering process. The
ceramic compound is thought to form at the surface of the substrate as this is the most
energetically favourable.
The most common ceramic coatings available are TiN, CrN, TiCN, and TiAlN.

TiN – Titanium Nitride

The hardness of TiN coatings is difficult to measure as the coatings are

exceptionally hard and the thinness of the coating causes conventional
hardness tests to penetrate into the substrate. Nanoindentation hardness tests
are required for accurate readings. The hardness of TiN is estimated as ~85 on
the Rockwell C Hardness (~2500 Vickers Hardness or 24.5 gigapascal). The
Rockwell C scale is regarded as crude for readings this high. Special
techniques have been developed to measure TiN hardness.

TiN has excellent infrared (IR) reflectivity properties, reflecting in a spectrum

similar to elemental gold (Au). Depending on the substrate material and
surface finish, TiN will have a coefficient of friction ranging from 0.4 to 0.9
versus itself (non-lubricated). Typical formation has a crystal structure of NaCl-
type with a roughly 1:1 stoichiometry; however TiN compounds with x ranging
from 0.6 to 1.2 are thermodynamically stable. TiN will oxidize at 600 °C (~1100
°F) at normal atmosphere, and has a melting point of 2930 °C.

CrN – Chromium Nitride

Chromium nitride, CrN has a metallic silver-like colour. CrN is a

tough thin film coating with high hardness, good oxidation
resistance, and a low coefficient of friction for a ceramic coating
making it ideal for metal and plastic forming applications. CrN is
also more corrosion resistant than TiN, especially in aqueous
solutions and is used as a direct substitute for chromium plating.
The hardness of the CrN coating is approximately 2x that of
conventional "hard" chrome plating.

TiCN

TiCN can be a range of colours (blue-grey through to pink) depending

on the Ti:C ratio. The TiCN coating is harder and has a lower
coefficient of friction than TiN. However it is not a direct replacement
for TiN in all applications and is only recommended for cutting,
punching, and wear applications where moderate temperatures will be
generated.

Alloyed elements improve oxidation resistance of ceramic coatings

The properties of the ceramic coatings, such as oxidation resistance; have been improved by
the addition of elements such as aluminium, vanadium, yttrium, chromium etc. and the
development of multilayers and nanocomposite coatings.
Multilayers and Superlattices improve ceramic coatings

Further improvement to the properties of hard PVD ceramic coatings are achieved by
depositing multilayers and superlattices. These are thin films formed by alternately depositing
two different components to form layered structures. Multilayers become superlatices when
the period of the different layers is less than 100Å.

Several authors have shown that this type of multilayered ceramic coating structure can
improve the hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance and oxidation resistance as well
as the toughness, compared to single layers of the same materials.

Applications –

TiN – (Titanium Nitride) aka Tinite

• Eliminates galling, fretting, micro welding, seizing and adhesive wear

• Smooth operation of moving components
• Wear resistance on precision components
• Holds sharp edges or corners
• Cavitation erosion
• Erosion resistance
• Non-stick surface, most materials will not adhere to TiN.
• Low Friction
• Little dimensional impact, perfect for close tolerance parts
• Enhances corrosion resistance but does not perfectly encapsulate the part
• Productivity improvement. Make more parts per hour. Plastic molds fill faster at
lower pressures and temperatures. Cutting tools run at faster speeds and feeds.
• Decrease Downtime. Longer life, less frequent tool replacement and cleanup.

CrN – Chromium Nitride

• Higher temperature applications

• Sliding wear applications
• Wear resistance on precision components
• Eliminates galling, fretting, micro welding, seizing and adhesive wear
• Enhances corrosion resistance but does not perfectly encapsulate the part
• Low Friction
• Holds sharp edges or corners
• Little dimensional impact, perfect for close tolerance

TiCn - Titanium CarboNitride

• Better abrasive wear resistance than TiN.

• Lower high temperature tolerance than TiN.
• Eliminates galling, fretting, microwelding, seizing and adhesive wear
• Smooth operation of moving components
• Wear resistance on precision components
• Holds sharp edges or corners
• Erosion resistance
• Low Friction
• Little dimensional impact, perfect for close tolerance parts
Processes

Plasma Coating

An inert gas such as Argon, when excited by an electric arc, becomes partially ionised and in
this state is able to carry an electric current for the generation of a hot gas stream having
temperatures approaching 12,000°C. Powder material is injected into the flame at optimum
conditions and projected in a semi-molten (plastic) state on to a suitably prepared work piece
to form high integrity coatings of typically 0.05mm. to 3mm.thickness. The gun is manipulated
by hand or by using a robot, enabling a wide range of component configurations to be coated

o high bond strength (55 Mpa / 8000 p.s.i. or higher).

o high density, low porosity.
o able to be ground or lapped to a fine finish(O.1-0.2 microns).

Due to the range of materials that can be sprayed it is difficult to generalise on coating
characteristics, but with the correct choice of material plasma coatings can:-

o perform better than chrome plating.

o be more cost effective than solid sintered carbide.
o resist wear better than the same material in cast or wrought form

Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD)

This technique is used to deposit thin layers of material to reduce friction and wear, or to act
as a diffusion barrier (to stop cold welding for example).
Figure 11 shows a schematic of the process. Titanium Nitride (TiN), for example, is deposited
in partial vacuum by feeding ionised titanium into plasma of ionised argon and nitrogen. The
operation occurs at a temperature of between 350 and 450°C with the resultant TiN growing
on the surface of the work piece

Figure 11 – Physical Vapor Deposition

Materials such as Titanium Carbo Nitride, Chromium Nitride and Tungsten Carbide/Carbon
can be produced by changing the material in the crucible and the reactive gases.
Because the process is carried out in a vacuum chamber there are issues of size limitation of
the work piece. In addition the process is effectively line of sight so deep holes and bores can
not easily be coated.
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)

This is a high temperature process (1000°C). It is carried out in vacuum chamber where the
disassociation of gases which then react at the work piece surface to form a solid coating.
This is the process by which Diamond and diamond like carbon (DLC) coatings are produced.
The greatest problem with the technique is the high temperatures that are required.

Figure 12 – Chemical Vapour Deposition

Chemically Formed Processes (CFP)

These coatings, which are usually between 10 and 100 microns thick, are typically used for
improving the corrosion or wear resistance of a component. The component is covered in the
appropriate precursor materials before heating to between 350 and 600°C when the desired
chemical reaction takes place and a thin coating is formed. This process is repeated several
times until the required thickening is achieved.
Advantages of this process include that it is not a line of sight process and large components
(several metres long) can be coated. The coatings are chemically bonded to the substrate
and are fully dense (i.e. no porosity) which affords excellent corrosion resistance.

Thermal Spraying

Thermal spraying of which flame spraying, plasma spraying and high velocity oxy fuel (HVOF)
are all examples work on the same fundamental principle. Figure 13 is a schematic of the
process, which consists of a heat source, a means of introducing powder particles into the
heat source and a way of accelerating the now semi solid particles toward the target.
Upon hitting the target the particles deform and "key-into" mechanically to defects in the
substrate. Other particles follow and a layer is built up.

Figure 13 - Schematic of Thermal Spraying

Considerable heat is imparted to the substrate and after deposition the coating can crack as
the component cools. This is related to the different coefficients of thermal expansion
between the metallic substrate (high) and the surfacing ceramic (low).
To avoid this cracking a bond coat is sometimes used. A way to imagine this process is to
think of the process as throwing cowpats against a wall.
Flame Spraying

This is the most basic form of thermal spraying and often involves an oxy-acetylene burner as
the heat source.
Advantages of such a system are that it is cheap, moderate deposition rates can be achieved
(0.5-0.6 kg/hour) and manual operation of the spraying unit can be employed.
Disadvantages of the system include low particle velocities (40-200 m/s) leading to low bond
strengths, high porosity (10-15%) and a high impurity level.

Figure 14 – Flame Spraying

High Velocity Oxy Fuel (HVOF)

This system is a refined oxy-fuel burner which uses advanced nozzle design technology to
accelerate the gas/particle stream to achieve particle velocities in excess of 600 m/s.
Coating with very high densities and bond strengths can be achieved. Unfortunately the noise
levels are very high (>130db) and only some systems are suitable for depositing ceramics. In
addition deposition rates are moderate – on a par with air plasma spraying.

Figure 15 – High Velocity Oxy Fuel (HVOF)

 Bibliography

www.gurit.com
www.wikipedia.com
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http://www.sawdustmaking.com/About%20Joints/about_joints.htm
http://www.pvd-coatings.co.uk
www.google.com
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www.tstcoatings.com
www.thejcdp.com