Karl Marx 1847

The Poverty of Philosophy

Answer to the Philosophy of Poverty by M. Proudhon
Written First half of 1847; !our"e The Poverty of Philosophy, by Karl Marx, Progress Publishers, 1955; #irst Published in Paris and Brussels, 1847; Translated fro the Fren!h by the "nstitute of Marxis #$eninis , 1955; Trans"ribed by %odia! for Marx&'ngels "nternet (r!hi)e * arxists+org, 1999; Proofed and !orre!ted by Matthe- .ar ody, /009+ "n this -or1 Marx !riti2ues the e!ono i! *!ha3ter one, and 3hiloso3hi!al *!ha3ter t-o, do!trine of P+ 4+ Proudhon+ Marx started -or1 on this boo1 in 4anuary 1847, as !an be 5udged fro 'ngels6 letter to Marx on 4anuary 15, 1847+ By the beginning of (3ril 1847, Marx6s -or1 -as !o 3leted in the ain and had gone to the 3ress+ 7n 4une 15, 1847 he -rote a short fore-ord+ Published in Paris and Brussels in 1847, the boo1 -as not re3ublished in full during Marx6s lifeti e+ 'x!er3ts fro se!tion fi)e of .ha3ter 8-o a33eared in different years, ostly bet-een 187/ # 1875 in 3a3ers su!h as La Emancipacion, Der Volksstaat, SocialDemokrat, and others+ "n 1880 Marx atte 3ted to 3ublish the Poverty of Philosophy in the Fren!h so!ialist ne-s3a3er Lgalit, the organ of the Fren!h 9or1ers6 Party, but only the fore-ord and se!tion one of .ha3ter 7ne -ere 3ublished+ 8his translation is fro the original 1847 Fren!h edition+ "t has been u3dated to also in!lude the !hanges&!orre!tions Marx ade in the !o3y of the boo1 he 3resented to :+ ;tina in 187<, as -ell as the !orre!tions ade by Frederi!1 'ngels in the se!ond Fren!h edition and the =er an editions of 1885 and 189/+ 8-entieth .entury Press 3ublished the first 'nglish edition of this -or1 in 1900+ :ote> itali!s in 2uotations are as a rule Marx6s+ (lso, referen!es added in bra!1ets !orres3ond to the sa e edition Marx used+

#oreword
M+ Proudhon has the isfortune of being 3e!uliarly isunderstood in 'uro3e+ "n Fran!e, he has the right to be a bad e!ono ist, be!ause he is re3uted to be a good =er an 3hiloso3her+ "n =er any, he has the right to be a bad 3hiloso3her, be!ause he is re3uted to be one of the ablest Fren!h e!ono ists+ Being both =er an and e!ono ist at the sa e ti e, -e desire to 3rotest against this double error+ 8he reader -ill understand that in this than1less tas1 -e ha)e often had to abandon our !riti!is of M+ Proudhon in order to !riti!i?e =er an 3hiloso3hy, and at the sa e ti e to gi)e so e obser)ations on 3oliti!al e!ono y+ Karl Marx Brussels, 4une 15, 1847 M+ Proudhon6s -or1 is not 5ust a treatise on 3oliti!al e!ono y, an ordinary boo1; it is a bible+ @Mysteries,A @Be!rets 9rested fro the Boso of =od,A @Ce)elationsA D it la!1s nothing+ But as 3ro3hets are dis!ussed no-adays ore !ons!ientiously than 3rofane -riters, the reader ust resign hi self to going -ith us through the arid and gloo y eruditions of @=enesis,A in order to as!end later, -ith M+ Proudhon, into the ethereal and fertile real of super-socialism+ *Bee Proudhon, Philosophy of Poverty, Prologue, 3+ """, line /0+,

Marx and $odbertus Prefa"e to the #irst %er&an 'dition by #rederi"( 'n)els
'ngels6 letters -ritten bet-een (ugust and 7!tober 1884 sho- that he did a great deal of -or1 in 3re3aring Marx6s Poverty of Philosophy for 3ubli!ation in =er an+ *8he boo1 -as -ritten and 3ublished in Fren!h in 1847 and -as not re3ublished in full during Marx6s lifeti e+, 'ngels edited the translation ade by 'duard Bernstein and Karl Kauts1y and su33lied a nu ber of notes to it+ 8he first =er an edition of Marx6s boo1 a33eared in the se!ond half of 4anuary 1885 and, a little earlier, at the beginning of 4anuary, 'ngels 3ublished his Prefa!e in the aga?ine Die eue !eit under the title @Marx und Codbertus+A "t -as also in!luded in the se!ond =er an edition of the boo1 -hi!h a33eared in 189/ -ith a s3e!ial 3refa!e -ritten by 'ngels+ D E"itors+

8he 3resent -or1 -as 3rodu!ed in the -inter of 184<#47, at a ti e -hen Marx had !leared u3 for hi self the basi! features of his ne- histori!al and e!ono i! outloo1+ Proudhon6s Syst#me "es contra"ictions conomi$ues% ou Philosophie "e la mis#re, -hi!h had 5ust a33eared, ga)e hi the o33ortunity to de)elo3 these basi! features, setting the against the )ie-s of a an -ho, fro then on, -as to o!!u3y the ost i 3ortant 3la!e a ong li)ing Fren!h so!ialists+ Bin!e the ti e in Paris -hen the t-o of the had often s3ent -hole nights dis!ussing e!ono i! 2uestions, their 3aths had in!reasingly di)erged> Proudhon6s boo1 3ro)ed that there -as already an unbridgeable gulf bet-een the + 8o ignore it -as at that ti e i 3ossible, and so Marx 3ut on re!ord the irre3arable ru3ture in this re3ly of his+

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ "ntrodu!tion

Marx6s general o3inion of Proudhon is to be found in the arti!le -hi!h a33eared in the Berlin Social-Demokrat :os+ 1<, 17 and 18 for 18<5+ "t -as the only arti!le Marx -rote for that 3a3er; Eerr )on B!h-eit?er6s atte 3ts to guide it along feudal and go)ern ent lines, -hi!h be!a e e)ident soon after-ards, !o 3elled us to 3ubli!ly ter inate our !ollaboration after only a fe- -ee1s+1 For =er any, the 3resent -or1 has at this 3re!ise o ent a signifi!an!e -hi!h Marx hi self ne)er i agined+ Eo- !ould he ha)e 1no-n that, in troun!ing Proudhon, he -as hitting Codbertus, the idol of the !areerists of today, -ho -as un1no-n to hi e)en by na e at that ti eF 8his is not the 3la!e to deal -ith relations bet-een Marx and Codbertus; an o33ortunity for that is sure to 3resent itself to e )ery soon+/ Buffi!e it to note here that -hen Codbertus a!!uses Marx of ha)ing @3lunderedA hi and of ha)ing @freely used in his &apital -ithout 2uoting hi A his -or1 !ur Erkenntnis% he allo-s hi self to indulge in an a!t of slander -hi!h is only ex3li!able by the ir1so eness of unre!ognised genius and by his re ar1able ignoran!e of things ta1ing 3la!e outside Prussia, and es3e!ially of so!ialist and e!ono i! literature+ :either these !harges, nor the abo)e# entioned -or1 by Codbertus e)er !a e to Marx6s sight; all he 1ne- of Codbertus -as the three Sociale 'riefe and e)en these !ertainly not before 1858 or 1859+ 9ith greater reason Codbertus asserts in these letters that he had already dis!o)ered @Proudhon6s !onstituted )alueA (efore Proudhon; but here again it is true he erroneously flatters hi self -ith being the first dis!o)erer+ "n any !ase, he is thus one of the targets of !riti!is in the 3resent -or1, and this !o 3els e to deal briefly -ith his @funda entalA 3ie!e> !ur Erkenntnis unsrer staats)irthschaftlichen !ust*n"e, 184/, insofar as this brings forth anti!i3ations of Proudhon as -ell as the !o unis of 9eitling li1e-ise *again un!ons!iously, !ontained in it+ "nsofar as odern so!ialis , no atter of -hat tenden!y, starts out fro bourgeois 3oliti!al e!ono y, it al ost -ithout ex!e3tion ta1es u3 the Ci!ardian theory of )alue+ 8he t-o 3ro3ositions -hi!h Ci!ardo 3ro!lai ed in 1817 right at the beginning of his Principles, 1, 8hat the )alue of any !o odity is 3urely and solely deter ined by the 2uantity of labour re2uired for its 3rodu!tion, and /, 8hat the 3rodu!t of the entire so!ial labour is di)ided a ong the three !lasses> lando-ners *rent,, !a3italists *3rofit, and -or1ers *-ages, 8hese t-o 3ro3ositions had e)er sin!e 18/1 been utilised in 'ngland for so!ialist !on!lusions G, and in 3art -ith su!h 3ointedness and resolution that this literature, -hi!h had then al ost been forgotten and -as to a large extent only redis!o)ered by Marx, re ained unsur3assed until the a33earan!e of &apital+ (bout this another ti e+ "f, therefore, in 184/ Codbertus for his 3art dre- so!ialist !on!lusions fro the abo)e 3ro3ositions, that -as !ertainly a )ery !onsiderable ste3 for-ard for a =er an at that ti e, but it !ould ran1 as a ne- dis!o)ery only for =er any at best+ 8hat su!h an a33li!ation of the Ci!ardian theory -as far fro ne- -as 3ro)ed by Marx against Proudhon, -ho suffered fro a si ilar !on!eit+ @(nyone -ho is in any -ay fa iliar -ith the trend of 3oliti!al e!ono y in 'ngland !annot fail to 1no- that al ost all the so!ialists in that !ountry ha)e, at different 3eriods, 3ro3osed the e$ualitarian *i+e+ so!ialist, a33li!ation of Ci!ardian theory+ 9e !ould 2uote for M+ Proudhon> Eodgs1in, Political Economy, 18/7; 9illia 8ho 3son, ,n -n$uiry into the Principles of the Distri(ution of .ealth /ost &on"ucive to 0uman 0appiness , 18/4; 8+ C+ 'd onds, Practical /oral an" Political Economy, 18/8, et!+, et!+, and four 3ages ore of et!+ 9e shall !ontent oursel)es -ith listening to an 'nglish .o unist, Mr+ Bray +++ in his re ar1able -or1, La(ours .rongs an" La(ours 1eme"y, $eeds, 18G9+A (nd the 2uotations gi)en here fro Bray on their o-n 3ut an end to a good 3art of the 3riority !lai ed by Codbertus+ (t that ti e Marx had ne)er yet entered the reading roo of the British Museu + (3art fro the libraries of Paris and Brussels, a3art fro y boo1s and extra!ts, he had only exa ined su!h boo1s as -ere obtainable in Man!hester during a six# -ee1 5ourney to 'ngland -e ade together in the su er of 1845+ 8he literature in 2uestion -as, therefore, by no eans so ina!!essible in the forties as it ay be no-+ "f, all the sa e, it al-ays re ained un1no-n to Codbertus, that is to be as!ribed solely to his Prussian lo!al bigotry+ Ee is the a!tual founder of s3e!ifi!ally Prussian so!ialis and is no- at last re!ognised as su!h+ Eo-e)er, e)en in his belo)ed Prussia, Codbertus -as not to re ain undisturbed+ "n 1859, Marx6s , &ontri(ution to the &riti$ue of Political Economy, Part ", -as 3ublished in Berlin+ 8herein, a ong the e!ono ists6 ob5e!tions to Ci!ardo, the follo-ing -as 3ut for-ard as the se!ond ob5e!tion *3+ 40,> @"f the ex!hange )alue of a 3rodu!t e2uals the labour ti e !ontained in the 3rodu!t, then the ex!hange )alue of a -or1ing day is e2ual to the 3rodu!t it yields, in other -ords, -ages ust be e2ual to the 3rodu!t of labour+ But in fa!t the o33osite is true+A 7n this there -as the follo-ing note> @8his ob5e!tion, -hi!h -as ad)an!ed against Ci!ardo by e!ono ists, -as later ta1en u3 by so!ialists+ (ssu ing that the for ula -as theoreti!ally sound, they alleged that 3ra!ti!e stood in !onfli!t -ith the theory and de anded that bourgeois so!iety should dra- the 3ra!ti!al !on!lusions su33osedly arising fro its theoreti!al 3rin!i3les+ "n this -ay at least 'nglish so!ialists turned Ci!ardo6s for ula of ex!hange )alue against 3oliti!al e!ono y+A "n the sa e note there -as a referen!e to Marx6s /is#re "e la philosophie, -hi!h -as then obtainable in all the boo1sho3s+

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ "ntrodu!tion

Codbertus, therefore, had suffi!ient o33ortunity of !on)in!ing hi self -hether his dis!o)eries of 184/ -ere really ne-+ "nstead he 3ro!lai s the again and again and regards the as so in!o 3arable that it ne)er o!!urs to hi that Marx ight ha)e dra-n his !on!lusions fro Ci!ardo inde3endently, 5ust as -ell as Codbertus hi self+ (bsolutely i 3ossibleH Marx had @3lunderedA hi D the an -ho the sa e Marx had offered e)ery o33ortunity to !on)in!e hi self ho- long before both of the these !on!lusions, at least in the !rude for -hi!h they still ha)e in the !ase of Codbertus, had 3re)iously been enun!iated in 'nglandH 8he si 3lest so!ialist a33li!ation of the Ci!ardian theory is indeed that gi)en abo)e+ "t has led in any !ases to insights into the origin and nature of sur3lus )alue -hi!h go far beyond Ci!ardo, as in the !ase of Codbertus a ong others+ Iuite a3art fro the fa!t that on this atter he no-here 3resents anything -hi!h has not already been said at least as -ell, before hi , his 3resentation suffers li1e those of his 3rede!essors fro the fa!t that he ado3ts, un!riti!ally and -ithout exa ining their !ontent, e!ono i! !ategories D labour, !a3ital, )alue, et!+ D in the !rude for , !linging to their external a33earan!e, in -hi!h they -ere handed do-n to hi by the e!ono ists+ Ee thereby not only !uts hi self off fro all further de)elo3 ent D in !ontrast to Marx -ho -as the first to a1e so ething of these 3ro3ositions so often re3eated for the last sixty#four years D but, as -ill be sho-n, he o3ens for hi self the road leading straight to uto3ia+ 8he abo)e a33li!ation of the Ci!ardian theory that the entire so!ial 3rodu!t belongs to the -or1ers as their 3rodu!t, be!ause they are the sole real 3rodu!ers, leads dire!tly to !o unis + But, as Marx indeed indi!ates in the abo)e#2uoted 3assage, it is in!orre!t in for al e!ono i! ter s, for it is si 3ly an a33li!ation of orality to e!ono i!s+ (!!ording to the la-s of bourgeois e!ono i!s, the greatest 3art of the 3rodu!t does not belong to the -or1ers -ho ha)e 3rodu!ed it+ "f -e no- say> that is un5ust, that ought not to be so, then that has nothing i ediately to do -ith e!ono i!s+ 9e are erely saying that this e!ono i! fa!t is in !ontradi!tion to our sense of orality+ Marx, therefore, ne)er based his !o unist de ands u3on this, but u3on the ine)itable !olla3se of the !a3italist ode of 3rodu!tion -hi!h is daily ta1ing 3la!e before our eyes to an e)er gro-ing degree; he says only that sur3lus )alue !onsists of un3aid labour, -hi!h is a si 3le fa!t+ But -hat in e!ono i! ter s ay be for ally in!orre!t, ay all the sa e be !orre!t fro the 3oint of )ie- of -orld history+ "f ass oral !ons!iousness de!lares an e!ono i! fa!t to be un5ust, as it did at one ti e in the !ase of sla)ery and statute labour, that is 3roof that the fa!t itself has outli)ed its day, that other e!ono i! fa!ts ha)e ade their a33earan!e due to -hi!h the for er has be!o e unbearable and untenable+ 8herefore, a )ery true e!ono i! !ontent ay be !on!ealed behind the for al e!ono i! in!orre!tness+ 8his is not the 3la!e to deal ore !losely -ith the signifi!an!e and history of the theory of sur3lus )alue+ (t the sa e ti e other !on!lusions !an be dra-n, and ha)e been dra-n, fro the Ci!ardian theory of )alue+ 8he )alue of !o odities is deter ined by the labour re2uired for their 3rodu!tion+ But no- it turns out that in this i 3erfe!t -orld !o odities are sold so eti es abo)e, so eti es belo- their )alue, and indeed not only as a result of u3s and do-ns in !o 3etition+ 8he rate of 3rofit tends 5ust as u!h to balan!e out at the sa e le)el for all !a3italists as the 3ri!e of !o odities does to be!o e redu!ed to the labour )alue by agen!y of su33ly and de and+ But the rate of 3rofit is !al!ulated on the total !a3ital in)ested in an industrial business+ Bin!e no- the annual 3rodu!ts in t-o different bran!hes of industry ay in!or3orate e2ual 2uantities of labour, and, !onse2uently, ay re3resent e2ual )alues and also -ages ay be at an e2ual le)el in both, -hile the !a3ital ad)an!ed in one bran!h ay be, and often is, t-i!e or three ti es as great as in the other, !onse2uently the Ci!ardian la- of )alue, as Ci!ardo hi self dis!o)ered, !o es into !ontradi!tion here -ith the la- of the e2ual rate of 3rofit+ "f the 3rodu!ts of both bran!hes of industry are sold at their )alues, the rates of 3rofit !annot be e2ual; if, ho-e)er, the rates of 3rofit are e2ual, then the 3rodu!ts of the t-o bran!hes of industry !annot al-ays be sold at their )alues+ 8hus, -e ha)e here a !ontradi!tion, the antino y of t-o e!ono i! la-s, the 3ra!ti!al resolution of -hi!h ta1es 3la!e a!!ording to Ci!ardo *.ha3ter ", Be!tion 4 and 54, as a rule in fa)our of the rate of 3rofit at the !ost of )alue+ But the Ci!ardian definition of )alue, in s3ite of its o inous !hara!teristi!s, has a feature -hi!h a1es it dear to the heart of the honest bourgeois+ "t a33eals -ith irresistible for!e to his sense of 5usti!e+ 4usti!e and e2uality of rights are the !ornerstones on -hi!h the bourgeois of the eighteenth and nineteenth !enturies -ould li1e to ere!t his so!ial edifi!e o)er the ruins of feudal in5usti!e, ine2uality and 3ri)ilege+ (nd the deter ination of )alue of !o odities by labour and the free ex!hange of the 3rodu!ts of labour, ta1ing 3la!e a!!ording to this easure of )alue bet-een !o odity o-ners -ith e2ual rights, these are, as Marx has already 3ro)ed, the real foundations on -hi!h the -hole 3oliti!al, 5uridi!al and 3hiloso3hi!al ideology of the odern bourgeoisie has been built+ 7n!e it is re!ognised that labour is the easure of )alue of a !o odity, the better feelings of the honest bourgeois !annot but be dee3ly -ounded by the -i!1edness of a -orld -hi!h, -hile re!ognising the basi! la- of 5usti!e in na e, still in fa!t a33ears at e)ery o ent to set it aside -ithout !o 3un!tion+ (nd the 3etty bourgeois es3e!ially, -hose honest labour D e)en if it is only that of his -or1 en and a33renti!es D is daily ore and ore de3re!iated in )alue by the !o 3etition of large#s!ale 3rodu!tion and a!hinery, this s all#s!ale 3rodu!er es3e!ially ust long for a so!iety in -hi!h the ex!hange of 3rodu!ts a!!ording to their labour )alue is at last a !o 3lete and in)ariable truth+ "n other -ords, he ust long for a so!iety in -hi!h a single la- of !o odity 3rodu!tion 3re)ails ex!lusi)ely and in full, but in -hi!h the !onditions are abolished in -hi!h it !an 3re)ail at all, )i?+, the other la-s of !o odity 3rodu!tion and, later, of !a3italist 3rodu!tion+

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ "ntrodu!tion

Eo- dee3ly this uto3ia has stru!1 roots in the -ay of thin1ing of the odern 3etty bourgeois D real or ideal D is 3ro)ed by the fa!t that it -as syste ati!ally de)elo3ed by 4ohn =ray ba!1 in 18G1, that it -as tried in 3ra!ti!e and theoreti!ally 3ro3agated in 'ngland in the thirties, that it -as 3ro!lai ed as the latest truth by Codbertus in =er any in 184/ and by Proudhon in Fran!e in 184<, that it -as again 3ro!lai ed by Codbertus as late as 1871 as the solution to the so!ial 2uestion and, as, so to say, his so!ial testa ent, and that in 1884 it again finds adherents a ong the horde of !areerists -ho in the na e of Codbertus set out to ex3loit Prussian state so!ialis + 5 8he !riti2ue of this uto3ia has been so exhausti)ely furnished by Marx both against Proudhon and against =ray *see the a33endix to this -or1, that " !an !onfine yself here to a fe- re ar1s on the for of substantiating and de3i!ting it 3e!uliar to Codbertus+ (s already noted, Codbertus ado3ts the traditional definitions of e!ono i! !on!e3ts entirely in the for in -hi!h they ha)e !o e do-n to hi fro the e!ono ists+ Ee does not a1e the slightest atte 3t to in)estigate the + Jalue is for hi @the )aluation of one thing against others a!!ording to 2uantity, this )aluation being !on!ei)ed as easureA 8his, to 3ut it ildly, extre ely slo)enly definition gi)es us at the best an idea of -hat )alue a33roxi ately loo1s li1e, but says absolutely nothing of -hat it is+ Bin!e this, ho-e)er, is all that Codbertus is able to tell us about )alue, it is understandable that he loo1s for a easure of )alue lo!ated outside )alue+ (fter thirty 3ages in -hi!h he ixes u3 use )alue and ex!hange )alue in higgledy#3iggledy fashion -ith that 3o-er of abstra!t thought so infinitely ad ired by Eerr (dolf 9agner,< he arri)es at the !on!lusion that there is no real easure of )alue and that one has to a1e do -ith a substitute easure+ $abour !ould ser)e as su!h but only if 3rodu!ts of an e2ual 2uantity of labour -ere al-ays ex!hanged against 3rodu!ts of an e2ual 2uantity of labour -hether this @is already the !ase of itself, or -hether 3re!autionary easures are ado3tedA to ensure that it is+ .onse2uently )alue and labour re ain -ithout any sort of aterial !onne!tion in s3ite of the fa!t that the -hole first !ha3ter is ta1en u3 to ex3ound to us that !o odities @!ost labourA and nothing but labour, and -hy this is so+ $abour, again, is ta1en un!riti!ally in the for in -hi!h it o!!urs a ong the e!ono ists+ (nd not e)en that+ For, although there is a referen!e in a !ou3le of -ords to differen!es in intensity of labour, labour is still 3ut for-ard 2uite generally as so ething -hi!h @!osts,A hen!e as so ething -hi!h easures )alue, 2uite irres3e!ti)e of -hether it is ex3ended under nor al a)erage so!ial !onditions or not+ 9hether the 3rodu!ers ta1e ten days, or only one, to a1e 3rodu!ts -hi!h !ould be ade in one day; -hether they e 3loy the best or the -orst tools; -hether they ex3end their labour ti e in the 3rodu!tion of so!ially ne!essary arti!les and in the so!ially re2uired 2uantity, or -hether they a1e 2uite undesired arti!les or desired arti!les in 2uantities abo)e or belo- de and D about all this there is not a -ord> labour is labour, the 3rodu!t of e2ual labour ust be ex!hanged against the 3rodu!t of e2ual labour+ Codbertus, -ho is other-ise al-ays ready, -hether rightly or not, to ado3t the national stand3oint and to sur)ey the relations of indi)idual 3rodu!ers fro the high -at!hto-er of general so!ial !onsiderations, is anxious to a)oid doing so here+ (nd this, indeed, solely be!ause fro the )ery first line of his boo1 he a1es dire!tly for the uto3ia of labour oney, and be!ause any in)estigation of labour seen fro its 3ro3erty of !reating )alue -ould be bound to 3ut insu3erable obsta!les in his -ay+ Eis instin!t -as here !onsiderably stronger than his 3o-er of abstra!t thought -hi!h, by the by, is re)ealed in Codbertus only by the ost !on!rete absen!e of ideas+ 8he transition to uto3ia is no- ade in the turn of a hand+ 8he @ easures,A -hi!h ensure ex!hange of !o odities a!!ording to labour )alue as the in)ariable rule, !ause no diffi!ulty+ 8he other uto3ians of this tenden!y, fro =ray to Proudhon, ra!1 their brains to in)ent so!ial institutions -hi!h -ould a!hie)e this ai + 8hey atte 3t at least to sol)e the e!ono i! 2uestion in an e!ono i! -ay through the a!tion of the o-ners the sel)es -ho ex!hange the !o odities+ For Codbertus it is u!h easier+ (s a good Prussian he a33eals to the state> a de!ree of the state authority orders the refor + "n this -ay then, )alue is ha33ily @!onstituted,A but by no eans the 3riority in this !onstitution as !lai ed by Codbertus+ 7n the !ontrary, =ray as -ell as Bray D a ong any others D before Codbertus, at length and fre2uently a" nauseam, re3eated this idea, )i?+ the 3ious desire for easures by eans of -hi!h 3rodu!ts -ould al-ays and under all !ir!u stan!es be ex!hanged only at their labour )alue+ (fter the state has thus !onstituted )alue D at least for a 3art of the 3rodu!ts, for Codbertus is also odest D it issues its labour 3a3er oney, and gi)es ad)an!es therefro to the industrial !a3italists, -ith -hi!h the latter 3ay the -or1ers, -hereu3on the -or1ers buy the 3rodu!ts -ith the labour 3a3er oney they ha)e re!ei)ed, and so !ause the 3a3er oney to flo- ba!1 to its starting 3oint+ Eo- )ery beautifully this is effe!ted, one ust hear fro Codbertus hi self> @"n regard to the se!ond !ondition, the ne!essary easure that the )alue !ertified in the note should be a!tually 3resent in !ir!ulation is realised in that only the 3erson -ho a!tually deli)ers a 3rodu!t re!ei)es a note, on -hi!h is a!!urately re!orded the 2uantity of labour by -hi!h the 3rodu!t -as 3rodu!ed, 9hoe)er deli)ers a 3rodu!t of t-o days6 labour re!ei)es a note ar1ed Kt-o days6+ By the stri!t obser)an!e of this rule in the issue of notes, the se!ond !ondition too -ould ne!essarily be fulfilled+ For a!!ording to our su33osition the real )alue of the goods al-ays !oin!ides -ith the 2uantity of labour -hi!h their 3rodu!tion has !ost and this 2uantity of labour is easured by the usual units of ti e, and therefore so eone -ho hands in a 3rodu!t on -hi!h t-o days6 labour has been ex3ended and re!ei)es a !ertifi!ate for t-o days, has re!ei)ed, !ertified or assigned to hi neither ore nor less )alue than that -hi!h he has in fa!t su33lied+ Further, sin!e only the 3erson -ho has

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ "ntrodu!tion

a!tually 3ut a 3rodu!t into !ir!ulation re!ei)es su!h a !ertifi!ate, it is also !ertain that the )alue ar1ed on the note is a)ailable for the satisfa!tion of so!iety+ Eo-e)er extensi)e -e i agine the !ir!le of di)ision of labour to be, if this rule is stri!tly follo-ed the sum total of availa(le value ust (e e2actly e$ual to the sum total of certifie" value+ Bin!e, ho-e)er, the su total of !ertified )alue is exa!tly e2ual to the su total of )alue assigned, the latter ust necessarily coinci"e )ith the availa(le value% all claims )ill (e satisfie" an" the li$ui"ation correctly (rought a(out A *33+ 1<<#<7,+ "f Codbertus has hitherto al-ays had the isfortune to arri)e too late -ith his ne- dis!o)eries, this ti e at least he has the erit of one sort of originality> none of his ri)als has dared to ex3ress the stu3idity of the labour oney uto3ia in this !hildishly nai)e, trans3arent, " ight say truly Po eranian, for + Bin!e for e)ery 3a3er !ertifi!ate a !orres3onding ob5e!t of )alue has been deli)ered, and no ob5e!t of )alue is su33lied ex!e3t in return for a !orres3onding 3a3er !ertifi!ate, the su total of 3a3er !ertifi!ates ust al-ays be !o)ered by the su total of ob5e!ts of )alue+ 8he !al!ulation -or1s out -ithout the s allest re ainder, it is !orre!t do-n to a se!ond of labour ti e, and no go)ern ental !hief re)enue offi!e a!!ountant, ho-e)er any years of faithful ser)i!e he ay ha)e behind hi , !ould 3ro)e the slightest error in !al!ulation+ 9hat ore !ould one -antF "n 3resent#day !a3italist so!iety ea!h industrial !a3italist 3rodu!es off his o-n bat -hat, ho- and as u!h as he li1es+ 8he so!ial de and, ho-e)er, re ains an un1no-n agnitude to hi , both in regard to 2uality, the 1ind of ob5e!ts re2uired, and in regard to 2uantity+ 8hat -hi!h today !annot be su33lied 2ui!1ly enough, ay to orro- be offered far in ex!ess of the de and+ :e)ertheless, de and is finally satisfied in one -ay or another, good or bad, and, ta1en as a -hole, 3rodu!tion is ulti ately geared to-ards the ob5e!ts re2uired+ Eo- is this e)ening#out of the !ontradi!tion effe!tedF By !o 3etition+ (nd ho- does !o 3etition bring about this solutionF Bi 3ly by de3re!iating belo- their labour )alue those !o odities -hi!h by their 1ind or a ount are useless for i ediate so!ial re2uire ents, and by a1ing the 3rodu!ers feel, through this roundabout eans, that they ha)e 3rodu!ed either absolutely useless arti!les or ostensibly useful arti!les in unusable, su3erfluous 2uantity+ 8-o things follo- fro this> First, !ontinual de)iations of the 3ri!es of !o odities fro their )alues are the ne!essary !ondition in and through -hi!h the )alue of the !o odities as su!h !an !o e into existen!e+ 7nly through the flu!tuations of !o 3etition, and !onse2uently of !o odity 3ri!es, does the la- of )alue of !o odity 3rodu!tion assert itself and the deter ination of the )alue of the !o odity by the so!ially ne!essary labour ti e be!o e a reality+ 8hat thereby the for of anifestation of )alue, the 3ri!e, as a rule loo1s so e-hat different fro the )alue -hi!h it anifests, is a fate -hi!h )alue shares -ith ost so!ial relations+ ( 1ing usually loo1s 2uite different fro the onar!hy -hi!h he re3resents+ 8o desire, in a so!iety of 3rodu!ers -ho ex!hange their !o odities, to establish the deter ination of )alue by labour ti e, by forbidding !o 3etition to establish this deter ination of )alue through 3ressure on 3ri!es in the only -ay it !an be established, is therefore erely to 3ro)e that, at least in this s3here, one has ado3ted the usual uto3ian disdain of e!ono i! la-s+ Be!ondly, !o 3etition, by bringing into o3eration the la- of )alue of !o odity 3rodu!tion in a so!iety of 3rodu!ers -ho ex!hange their !o odities, 3re!isely thereby brings about the only organisation and arrange ent of so!ial 3rodu!tion -hi!h is 3ossible in the !ir!u stan!es+ 7nly through the under)aluation or o)er)aluation of 3rodu!ts is it for!ibly brought ho e to the indi)idual !o odity 3rodu!ers -hat so!iety re2uires or does not re2uire and in -hat a ounts+ But it is 3re!isely this sole regulator that the uto3ia ad)o!ated by Codbertus a ong others -ishes to abolish+ (nd if -e then as1 -hat guarantee -e ha)e that ne!essary 2uantity and not ore of ea!h 3rodu!t -ill be 3rodu!ed, that -e shall not go hungry in regard to !orn and eat -hile -e are !ho1ed in beet sugar and dro-ned in 3otato s3irit, that -e shall not la!1 trousers to !o)er our na1edness -hile trouser buttons flood us by the illion D Codbertus triu 3hantly sho-s us his s3lendid !al!ulation, a!!ording to -hi!h the !orre!t !ertifi!ate has been handed out for e)ery su3erfluous 3ound of sugar, for e)ery unsold barrel of s3irit, for e)ery unusable trouser button, a !al!ulation -hi!h @-or1s outA exa!tly, and a!!ording to -hi!h @all !lai s -ill be satisfied and the li2uidation !orre!tly brought about+A (nd anyone -ho does not belie)e this !an a33ly to go)ern ental !hief re)enue offi!e a!!ountant L in Po erania -ho has !he!1ed the !al!ulation and found it !orre!t, and -ho, as one -ho has ne)er yet been !aught la!1ing -ith the a!!ounts, is thoroughly trust-orthy+ (nd no- !onsider the nai)etM -ith -hi!h Codbertus -ould abolish industrial and !o er!ial !rises by eans of his uto3ia+ (s soon as the 3rodu!tion of !o odities has assu ed -orld ar1et di ensions, the e)ening#out bet-een the indi)idual 3rodu!ers -ho 3rodu!e for 3ri)ate a!!ount and the ar1et for -hi!h they 3rodu!e, -hi!h in res3e!t of 2uantity and 2uality of de and is ore or less un1no-n to the , is established by eans of a stor on the -orld ar1et, by a !o er!ial !risis+ N "f no- !o 3etition is to be forbidden to a1e the indi)idual 3rodu!ers a-are, by a rise or fall in 3ri!es, ho- the -orld ar1et stands, then they are !o 3letely blindfolded+ 8o institute the 3rodu!tion of !o odities in su!h a fashion that the 3rodu!ers !an no longer learn anything about the state of the ar1et for -hi!h they are 3rodu!ing D that indeed is a !ure for the !risis disease -hi!h !ould a1e Or+ 'isenbart en)ious of Codbertus+
N

(t least this -as the !ase until re!ently+ Bin!e 'ngland6s ono3oly of the -orld ar1et is being in!reasingly shattered by the 3arti!i3ation of Fran!e, =er any and, abo)e all, ( eri!a in -orld trade, a ne- for of e)ening#out a33ears to !o e into o3eration+ 8he 3eriod of general 3ros3erity 3re!eding the !risis still fails to a33ear+ "f it should re ain absent altogether, then !hroni! stagnation ust ne!essarily be!o e the nor al !ondition of odern industry, -ith only insignifi!ant flu!tuations+ D :ote by 'ngels+

<

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ "ntrodu!tion

"t is no- !o 3rehensible -hy Codbertus deter ines the )alue of !o odities si 3ly by @labourA and at ost allo-s for different degrees of intensity of labour+ "f he had in)estigated by -hat eans and ho- labour !reates )alue and therefore also deter ines and easures it, he -ould ha)e arri)ed at so!ially ne!essary labour, ne!essary for the indi)idual 3rodu!t, both in relation to other 3rodu!ts of the sa e 1ind and also in relation to so!iety6s total de and+ Ee -ould thereby ha)e been !onfronted -ith the 2uestion as to ho- the ad5ust ent of the 3rodu!tion of se3arate !o odity 3rodu!ers to the total so!ial de and ta1es 3la!e, and his -hole uto3ia -ould thereby ha)e been ade i 3ossible+ 8his ti e he 3referred in fa!t to @ a1e an abstra!tion,A na ely of 3re!isely that -hi!h attered+ :o- at last -e !o e to the 3oint -here Codbertus really offers us so ething ne-; so ething -hi!h distinguishes hi fro all his nu erous fello- su33orters of the labour oney ex!hange e!ono y+ 8hey all de and this ex!hange organisation for the 3ur3ose of abolishing the ex3loitation of -age labour by !a3ital+ ')ery 3rodu!er is to re!ei)e the full labour )alue of his 3rodu!t+ 7n this they all agree, fro =ray to Proudhon+ :ot at all, says Codbertus+ 9age labour and its ex3loitation re ain+ "n the first 3la!e, in no !on!ei)able !ondition of so!iety !an the -or1er re!ei)e the full )alue of his 3rodu!t for !onsu 3tion+ ( series of e!ono i!ally un3rodu!ti)e but ne!essary fun!tions ha)e to be et fro the fund 3rodu!ed, and !onse2uently also the 3ersons !onne!ted -ith the aintained+ 8his is only !orre!t so long as the 3resent#day di)ision of labour a33lies+ "n a so!iety in -hi!h general 3rodu!ti)e labour is obligatory, -hi!h is also @!on!ei)ableA after all, this !eases to a33ly+ But the need for a so!ial reser)e and a!!u ulation fund -ould re ain and !onse2uently e)en in that !ase, the -or1ers, i+e+, all, -ould re ain in 3ossession and en5oy ent of their total 3rodu!t, but ea!h se3arate -or1er -ould not en5oy the @full returns of his labour+A :or has the aintenan!e of e!ono i!ally un3rodu!ti)e fun!tions at the ex3ense of the labour 3rodu!t been o)erloo1ed by the other labour oney uto3ians+ But they lea)e the -or1ers to tax the sel)es for this 3ur3ose in the usual de o!rati! -ay, -hile Codbertus, -hose -hole so!ial refor of 184/ is geared to the Prussian state of that ti e, refers the -hole atter to the de!ision of the bureau!ra!y, -hi!h deter ines fro abo)e the share of the -or1er in his o-n 3rodu!t and gra!iously 3er its hi to ha)e it+ "n the se!ond 3la!e, ho-e)er, rent and 3rofit are also to !ontinue undi inished+ For the lando-ners and industrial !a3italists also exer!ise !ertain so!ially useful or e)en ne!essary fun!tions, e)en if e!ono i!ally un3rodu!ti)e ones, and they re!ei)e in the sha3e of rent and 3rofit a sort of 3ay on that a!!ount D a !on!e3tion -hi!h -as, it -ill be re!alled, not ne- e)en in 184/+ (!tually they get at 3resent far too u!h for the little that they do, and badly at that, but Codbertus has need, at least for the next fi)e hundred years, of a 3ri)ileged !lass, and so the 3resent rate of sur3lus )alue, to ex3ress yself !orre!tly, is to re ain in existen!e but is not to be allo-ed to be in!reased+ 8his 3resent rate of sur3lus )alue Codbertus ta1es to be /00 3er !ent, that is to say, for t-el)e hours of labour daily the -or1er is to re!ei)e a !ertifi!ate not for t-el)e hours but only for four, and the )alue 3rodu!ed in the re aining eight hours is to be di)ided bet-een lando-ner and !a3italist+ Codbertus6 labour !ertifi!ates, therefore, are a dire!t lie+ (gain, one ust be a Po eranian anor o-ner in order to i agine that a -or1ing !lass -ould 3ut u3 -ith -or1ing t-el)e hours in order to re!ei)e a !ertifi!ate for four hours of labour+ "f the ho!us#3o!us of !a3italist 3rodu!tion is translated into this naP)e language, in -hi!h it a33ears as na1ed robbery, it is ade i 3ossible+ ')ery !ertifi!ate gi)en to a -or1er -ould be a dire!t instigation to rebellion and -ould !o e under Q 110 of the =er an " 3erial .ri inal .ode+7 7ne need ne)er ha)e seen any other 3roletariat than the day#labourer 3roletariat, still a!tually in se i# serfdo , of a Po eranian anor -here the rod and the -hi3 reign su3re e, and -here all the beautiful -o en in the )illage belong to his lordshi36s hare , in order to i agine one !an treat the -or1ers in su!h a sha efa!ed anner+ But, after all, our !onser)ati)es are our greatest re)olutionaries+ "f, ho-e)er, our -or1ers are suffi!iently do!ile to be ta1en in that they ha)e in reality only -or1ed four hours during a -hole t-el)e hours of hard -or1, they are, as a re-ard, to be guaranteed that for all eternity their share in their o-n 3rodu!t -ill ne)er fall belo- a third+ 8hat is indeed 3ie in the s1y of the ost infantile 1ind and not -orth -asting a -ord o)er+ "nsofar, therefore, as there is anything no)el in the labour oney ex!hange uto3ia of Codbertus, this no)elty is si 3ly !hildish and far belo- the a!hie)e ents of his nu erous !o rades both before and after hi + For the ti e -hen Codbertus6 !ur Erkenntnis, et!+, a33eared, it -as !ertainly an i 3ortant boo1+ Eis de)elo3 ent of Ci!ardo6s theory of )alue in that one dire!tion -as a )ery 3ro ising beginning+ ')en if it -as ne- only for hi and for =er any, still as a -hole, it stands on a 3ar -ith the a!hie)e ents of the better ones a ong his 'nglish 3rede!essors+ But it -as only a beginning, fro -hi!h a real gain for theory !ould be a!hie)ed only by further thorough and !riti!al -or1+ But he !ut hi self off fro further de)elo3 ent by also ta!1ling the de)elo3 ent of Ci!ardo6s theory fro the )ery beginning in the se!ond dire!tion, in the dire!tion of uto3ia+ 8hereby he surrendered the first !ondition of all !riti!is D freedo fro bias+ Ee -or1ed on to-ards a goal fixed in ad)an!e, he be!a e a Ten"en34konom+ 7n!e i 3risoned by his uto3ia, he !ut hi self off fro all 3ossibility of s!ientifi! ad)an!e+ Fro 184/ u3 to his death, he -ent round in !ir!les, al-ays re3eating the sa e ideas -hi!h he had already ex3ressed or suggested in his first -or1, feeling hi self una33re!iated, finding hi self 3lundered, -here there -as nothing to 3lunder, and finally refusing, not -ithout intention, to re!ognise that in essen!e he had only redis!o)ered -hat had already been dis!o)ered long before+ "n a fe- 3la!es the translation de3arts fro the 3rinted Fren!h original+ 8his is due to hand-ritten alterations by Marx, -hi!h -ill also be inserted in the ne- Fren!h edition that is no- being 3re3ared+ 8

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ "ntrodu!tion

"t is hardly ne!essary to 3oint out that the ter inology used in this -or1 does not entirely !oin!ide -ith that in &apital+ 8hus this -or1 still s3ea1s of la(our as a !o odity, of the 3ur!hase and sale of labour, instead of labour po)er+ (lso added as a su33le ent to this edition are> 1, ( 3assage fro Marx6s -or1 , &ontri(ution to the &riti$ue of Political Economy , Berlin, 1859, dealing -ith the first labour oney ex!hange uto3ia of 4ohn =ray, and /, ( translation of Marx6s s3ee!h on free trade in Brussels *1848,, -hi!h belongs to the sa e 3eriod of the author6s de)elo3 ent as the /is#re+ $ondon, 7!tober /G, 1884 Frederi!1 'ngels

'n)els* 18+, -ntrodu"tion

For the se!ond edition " ha)e only to re ar1 that the na e -rongly -ritten Eo31ins in the Fren!h text *on 3age 45, has been re3la!ed by the !orre!t na e Eodgs1in and that in the sa e 3la!e the date of the -or1 of 9illia 8ho 3son has been !orre!ted to 18/4+ "t is to be ho3ed that this -ill a33ease the bibliogra3hi!al !ons!ien!e of Professor (nton Menger+ Frederi!1 'ngels $ondon, Mar!h /9, 189/

.otes
1. Marx -rote the state ent about the brea1 -ith Der Social-Demokrat on February 18, 18<5 and sent it to 'ngels, -ho fully endorsed it and returned it to Marx -ith his signature; on February /G, 18<5 Marx sent the state ent to the editors of the ne-s3a3er+ 8his -as o!!asioned by B!h-eit?er6s series of arti!les Das /inisterium 'ismarck in -hi!h he ex3ressed o)ert su33ort for Bis ar!16s 3oli!y of unifying =er any under Prussian su3re a!y+ Marx too1 easures to a1e B!h-eit?er 3ublish the state ent+ "t -as 3ublished in any 3a3ers, a ong the the 'armer !eitung and El(erfel"er !eitung on February /<+ B!h-eit?er -as for!ed to 3ublish this state ent in Der Social Demokrat, :o+ /9, Mar!h G, 18<5+ ,. 8he referen!e is to 'ngels6 Prefa!e to the first =er an edition of Jol+ "" of Marx6s &apital, -hi!h 'ngels !o 3leted on May 5, 1885+ /. Bee the anony ous 3a 3hlet> 8he Bour!e and Ce edy of the :ational Oiffi!ulties, dedu!ed fro 3rin!i3les of 3oliti!al e!ono y, in a letter to $ord 4ohn Cussell, $ondon, 18/1+ For ore details about the 3a 3hlet see 'ngels6 Prefa!e to Jol+ "" of Marx6s .a3ital+ 4. 'ngels is referring to the se!ond edition of Ci!ardo6s boo1 7n the Prin!i3les of Politi!al '!ono y, and 8axation, $ondon, 1819, 33+ G/#4<, -here the author di)ided the text into se!tions+ 0. 8he referen!e is to the 3eo3le -ho too1 3art in 3ublishing the literary lega!y of Codbertus#4aget?o-, in 3arti!ular his -or1 Oas Ka3ital+ Jierter so!ialer Brief an )on Kir!h ann, Berlin, 1884; the 3ublisher of this -or1 and the author of the introdu!tion to it -as 8heo3hil Ko?a1; the 3refa!e -as -ritten by the =er an )ulgar e!ono ist (dolf 9agner+ 1. 'ngels is referring to the 3refa!e to K+ Codbertus#4aget?o-6s -or1, Oas Ka3ital+ Jierter so!ialer Brief an )on Kir!h ann, Berlin, 1884, 33+ J""#J""", in -hi!h (dolf 9agner -rote> @Codbertus e)in!es here su!h a 3o-er of abstra!t thin1ing as is 3ossessed only by the greatest asters+A 7. Q 110 of the =er an " 3erial .ri inal .ode 3ro ulgated in 1871 sti3ulated a fine of u3 to <00 ar1s or i 3rison ent for a ter of u3 to / years for a 3ubli! a33eal in -riting to disobey the la-s and de!rees o3erating in the =er an ' 3ire+ 8. 8he se!ond Fren!h edition of 8he Po)erty of Philoso3hy, -hi!h -as being 3re3ared by Marx6s daughter $aura $afargue, a33eared in Paris only after 'ngels6 death, in 189<+

.ha3ter 7ne> ( B!ientifi! Ois!o)ery

2 1. The Antithesis of 3se 4alue and 'x"han)e 4alue A8he !a3a!ity for all 3rodu!ts, -hether natural or industrial, to !ontribute to an6s subsisten!e is s3e!ifi!ally ter ed use )alue; their !a3a!ity to be gi)en in ex!hange for one another, ex!hange )alue++++ Eo- does use )alue be!o e ex!hange )alueF+++ 8he genesis of the idea of *ex!hange, )alue has not been noted by e!ono ists -ith suffi!ient !are+ "t is ne!essary, therefore, for us to d-ell u3on it+ Bin!e a )ery large nu ber of the things " need o!!ur in nature only in oderate 2uantities, or e)en not at all, " a for!ed to assist in the 3rodu!tion of -hat " la!1+ (nd as " !annot set y hand to so any things, " shall 3ro3ose to other en, y !ollaborators in )arious fun!tions, to !ede to e a 3art of their 3rodu!ts in ex!hange for ine+A *Proudhon, Jol+ ", .ha3+ "", M+ Proudhon underta1es to ex3lain to us first of all the double nature of )alue, the @distin!tion in )alue,A the 3ro!ess by -hi!h use )alue is transfor ed into ex!hange )alue+ "t is ne!essary for us to d-ell -ith M+ Proudhon u3on this a!t of transubstantiation+ 8he follo-ing is ho- this a!t is a!!o 3lished, a!!ording to our author+ ( )ery large nu ber of 3rodu!ts are not to be found in nature, they are 3rodu!ts of industry+ "f an6s needs go beyond nature6s s3ontaneous 3rodu!tion, he is for!ed to ha)e re!ourse to industrial 3rodu!tion+ 9hat is this industry in M+ Proudhon6s )ie-F 9hat is its originF ( single indi)idual, feeling the need for a )ery great nu ber of things, @!annot set his hand to so any things+A Bo any things to 3rodu!e 3resu33ose at on!e ore than one an6s hand hel3ing to 3rodu!e the + :o-, the o ent you 3ostulate ore than one hand hel3ing in 3rodu!tion, you at on!e 3resu33ose a -hole 3rodu!tion based on the di)ision of labour+ 8hus need, as M+ Proudhon 3resu33oses it, itself 3resu33oses the -hole di)ision of labour+ "n 3resu33osing the di)ision of labour, you get ex!hange, and, !onse2uently, ex!hange )alue+ 7ne ight as -ell ha)e 3resu33osed ex!hange )alue fro the )ery beginning+ But M+ Proudhon 3refers to go the roundabout -ay+ $et us follohi in all his detours, -hi!h al-ays bring hi ba!1 to his starting 3oint+ "n order to e erge fro the !ondition in -hi!h e)eryone 3rodu!es in isolation and to arri)e at ex!hange, @" turn to y !ollaborators in )arious fun!tions,A says M+ Proudhon+ ", yself, then, ha)e !ollaborators, all -ith different fun!tion+ (nd yet, for all that, " and all the others, al-ays a!!ording to M+ Proudhon6s su33osition, ha)e got no farther than the solitary and hardly so!ial 3osition of the Cobinsons+ 8he !ollaborators and the )arious fun!tions, the di)ision of labour and the ex!hange it i 3lies, are already at hand+ 8o su u3> " ha)e !ertain needs -hi!h are founded on the di)ision of labour and on ex!hange+ "n 3resu33osing these needs, M+ Proudhon has thus 3resu33osed ex!hange, ex!hange )alue, the )ery thing of -hi!h he 3ur3oses to @note the genesis -ith ore !are than other e!ono ists+A

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

M+ Proudhon ight 5ust as -ell ha)e in)erted the order of things, -ithout in any -ay affe!ting the a!!ura!y of his !on!lusions+ 8o ex3lain ex!hange )alue, -e ust ha)e ex!hange+ 8o ex3lain ex!hange, -e ust ha)e the di)ision of labour+ 8o ex3lain the di)ision of labour, -e ust ha)e needs -hi!h render ne!essary the di)ision of labour+ 8o ex3lain these needs, -e ust @3resu33oseA the , -hi!h is not to deny the D !ontrary to the first axio in M+ Proudhon6s 3rologue> @8o 3resu33ose =od is to deny hi +A *Prologue, 3+ 1, Eo- does M+ Proudhon, -ho assu es the di)ision of labour as the 1no-n, anage to ex3lain ex!hange )alue, -hi!h for hi is al-ays the un1no-nF @( anA sets out to @propose to other en, his !ollaborators in )arious fun!tions,A that they establish ex!hange, and a1e a distin!tion bet-een ordinary )alue and ex!hange )alue+ "n a!!e3ting this 3ro3osed distin!tion, the !ollaborators ha)e left M+ Proudhon no other @!areA than that of re!ording the fa!t, or ar1ing, of @notingA in his treatise on 3oliti!al e!ono y @the genesis of the idea of )alue+A But he has still to ex3lain to us the @genesisA of this 3ro3osal, to tell us finally ho- this single indi)idual, this Cobinson R.rusoeS, suddenly had the idea of a1ing @to his !ollaboratorsA a 3ro3osal of the ty3e 1no-n and ho- these !ollaborators a!!e3ted it -ithout the slightest 3rotest+ M+ Proudhon does not enter into these genealogi!al details+ Ee erely 3la!es a sort of histori!al sta 3 u3on the fa!t of ex!hange, by 3resenting it in the for of a otion, ade by a third 3arty, that ex!hange be established+ 8hat is a sa 3le of the @histori!al and des!ri3ti)e ethodA of M+ Proudhon, -ho 3rofesses a su3erb disdain for the @histori!al and des!ri3ti)e ethodsA of the (da B iths and Ci!ardos+ 'x!hange has a history of its o-n+ "t has 3assed through different 3hases+ 8here -as a ti e, as in the Middle (ges, -hen only the su3erfluous, the ex!ess of 3rodu!tion o)er !onsu 3tion, -as ex!hanged+ 8here -as again a ti e, -hen not only the su3erfluous, but all 3rodu!ts, all industrial existen!e, had 3assed into !o er!e, -hen the -hole of 3rodu!tion de3ended on ex!hange+ Eo- are -e to ex3lain this se!ond 3hase of ex!hange D ar1etable )alue at its se!ond 3o-erF M+ Proudhon -ould ha)e a re3ly ready# ade> (ssu e that a an has @propose" to other en, his !ollaborators in )arious fun!tions,A to raise ar1etable )alue to its se!ond 3o-er+ Finally, there !a e a ti e -hen e)erything that en had !onsidered as inalienable be!a e an ob5e!t of ex!hange, of traffi! and !ould be alienated+ 8his is the ti e -hen the )ery things -hi!h till then had been !o uni!ated, but ne)er ex!hanged; gi)en, but ne)er sold; a!2uired, but ne)er bought D )irtue, lo)e, !on)i!tion, 1no-ledge, !ons!ien!e, et!+ D -hen e)erything, in short, 3assed into !o er!e+ "t is the ti e of general !orru3tion, of uni)ersal )enality, or, to s3ea1 in ter s of 3oliti!al e!ono y, the ti e -hen e)erything, oral or

10

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

3hysi!al, ha)ing be!o e a ar1etable )alue, is brought to the ar1et to be assessed at its truest )alue+ Eo-, again, !an -e ex3lain this ne- and last 3hase of ex!hange D ar1etable )alue at its third 3o-erF M+ Proudhon -ould ha)e a re3ly ready# ade> (ssu e that a 3erson has @propose" to other 3ersons, his !ollaborators in )arious fun!tions,A to a1e a ar1etable )alue out of )irtue, lo)e, et!+, to raise ex!hange )alue to its third and last 3o-er+ 9e see that M+ Proudhon6s @histori!al and des!ri3ti)e ethodA is a33li!able to e)erything, it ans-ers e)erything, ex3lains e)erything+ "f it is a 2uestion abo)e all of ex3laining histori!ally @the genesis of an e!ono i! idea,A it 3ostulates a an -ho 3ro3oses to other en, @his !ollaborators in )arious fun!tions,A that they 3erfor this a!t of genesis and that is the end of it+ 9e shall hereafter a!!e3t the @genesisA of ex!hange )alue as an a!!o 3lished a!t; it no- re ains only to ex3ound the relation bet-een ex!hange )alue and use )alue+ $et us hear -hat M+ Proudhon has to say> @'!ono ists ha)e )ery -ell brought out the double !hara!ter of )alue, but -hy they ha)e not 3ointed out -ith the sa e 3re!ision is its !ontradi!tory nature; there is -here our !riti!is begins++++ "t is a s all thing to ha)e dra-n attention to this sur3rising !ontrast bet-een use )alue and ex!hange )alue, in -hi!h e!ono ists ha)e been -ont to see only so ething )ery si 3le> -e ust sho- that this alleged si 3li!ity !on!eals a 3rofound ystery into -hi!h it is our duty to 3enetrate++++ "n te!hni!al ter s, use )alue and ex!hange )alue stand in in)erse ratio to ea!h other+A "f -e ha)e thoroughly gras3ed M+ Proudhon6s thought the follo-ing are the four 3oints -hi!h he sets out to establish> 1+ ;se )alue and ex!hange )alue for a @sur3rising !ontrast,A they are in o33osition to ea!h other+ /+ ;se )alue and ex!hange )alue are in in)erse ratio, in !ontradi!tion, to ea!h other+ G+ '!ono ists ha)e neither obser)ed nor re!ognised either the o33osition or the !ontradi!tion+ 4+ M+ Proudhon6s !riti!is begins at the end+ 9e, too, shall begin at the end, and, in order to !lear the e!ono ists fro M+ Proudhon6s a!!usations, -e shall let t-o suffi!iently -ell# 1no-n e!ono ists s3ea1 for the sel)es+ B"BM7:O"> @"t is the o33osition bet-een use )alue and ex!hange )alue to -hi!h !o er!e has redu!ed e)erything, et!+A *'tudes, Jolu e "", 3+ 1</, Brussels edition, $(;O'CO($'> @"n 3ro3ortion as the ri!hes of indi)iduals are in!reased by an aug entation of the )alue of any !o odity, the -ealth of the so!iety is generally di inished; and in 3ro3ortion as the ass of indi)idual ri!hes is di inished, by the di inution of the )alue of any !o odity, its o3ulen!e is generally in!reased+A *Ce!her!hes sur la nature et l6origine de la ri!hesse 3ubli2ue, translated by $angentie de $a)aisse, Paris, 1808 R3+ GGS,

11

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

Bis ondi founded on the o33osition bet-een use )alue and ex!hange )alue his 3rin!i3al do!trine, a!!ording to -hi!h di inution in re)enue is 3ro3ortional to the in!rease in 3rodu!tion+ $auderdale founded his syste on the in)erse ratio of the t-o 1inds of )alue, and his do!trine -as indeed so 3o3ular in Ci!ardo6s ti e that the latter !ould s3ea1 of it as of so ething generally 1no-n+ @"t is through !onfounding the ideas of )alue and -ealth, or ri!hes that it has been asserted, that by di inishing the 2uantity of !o odities, that is to say, of the ne!essaries, !on)enien!es, and en5oy ents of hu an life, ri!hes ay be in!reased+A *Ci!ardo, Oes Prin!i3les de l6M!ono ie 3oliti2ue, translated by F+ B+ .onstan!io, annotations by 4+ B+ Bay, Paris 18G5, Jolu e "", .ha3ter @Bur la )aleur et les ri!hesses+A, 9e ha)e 5ust seen that the e!ono ists before M+ Proudhon had @dra-n attentionA to the 3rofound ystery of o33osition and !ontradi!tion+ $et us no- see ho- M+ Proudhon ex3lains this ystery after the e!ono ists+ 8he ex!hange )alue of a 3rodu!t falls as the su33ly in!reases, the de and re aining the sa e; in other -ords, the ore abundant a 3rodu!t is relati)ely to the de and, the lo-er is its ex!hange )alue, or 3ri!e+ Ji!e )ersa> 8he -ea1er the su33ly relati)ely to the de and, the higher rises the ex!hange )alue or the 3ri!e of the 3rodu!t su33lied> in other -ords, the greater the s!ar!ity in the 3rodu!ts su33lied, relati)ely to the de and, the higher the 3ri!es+ 8he ex!hange )alue of a 3rodu!t de3ends u3on its abundan!e or its s!ar!ity; but al-ays in relation to the de and+ 8a1e a 3rodu!t that is ore than s!ar!e, uni2ue of its 1ind if you -ill> this uni2ue 3rodu!t -ill be ore than abundant, it -ill be su3erfluous, if there is no de and for it+ 7n the other hand, ta1e a 3rodu!t ulti3lied into illions, it -ill al-ays be s!ar!e if it does not satisfy the de and, that is, if there is too great a de and for it+ 8hese are -hat -e should al ost !all truis s, yet -e ha)e had to re3eat the here in order to render M+ Proudhon6s ysteries !o 3rehensible+ @Bo that, follo-ing u3 the 3rin!i3le to its ulti ate !onse2uen!es, one -ould !o e to the !on!lusion, the ost logi!al in the -orld, that the things -hose use is indis3ensable and -hose 2uantity is unli ited should be had for nothing, and those -hose utility is nil and -hose s!ar!ity is extre e should be of in!al!ulable -orth+ 8o !a3 the diffi!ulty, these extre es are i 3ossible in 3ra!ti!e> on the one hand, no hu an 3rodu!t !ould e)er be unli ited in agnitude; on the other, e)en the s!ar!est things ust 3erfor!e be useful to a !ertain degree, other-ise they -ould be 2uite )alueless+ ;se )alue and ex!hange )alue are thus inexorably bound u3 -ith ea!h other, although by their nature they !ontinually tend to be utually ex!lusi)e+A *Jolu e ", 3+ G9, 9hat !a3s M+ Proudhon6s diffi!ultyF 8hat he has si 3ly forgotten about de and, and that a thing !an be s!ar!e or abundant only in so far as it is in de and+ 8he o ent he lea)es out de and, he identifies ex!hange )alue -ith s!ar!ity and use )alue -ith abundan!e+ "n reality, in saying that things @-hose utility is nil and s!ar!ity

1/

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

extre e are of in!al!ulable -orth,A he is si 3ly de!laring that ex!hange )alue is erely s!ar!ity+ @B!ar!ity extre e and utility nilA eans 3ure s!ar!ity+ @"n!al!ulable -orthA is the axi u of ex!hange )alue, it is 3ure ex!hange )alue+ Ee e2uates these t-o ter s+ 8herefore ex!hange )alue and s!ar!ity are e2ui)alent ter s+ "n arri)ing at these alleged @extre e !onse2uen!es,A M+ Proudhon has in fa!t !arried to the extre e, not the things, but the ter s -hi!h ex3ress the , and, in so doing, he sho-s 3rofi!ien!y in rhetori! rather than in logi!+ Ee erely redis!o)ers his first hy3otheses in all their na1edness, -hen he thin1s he has dis!o)ered ne- !onse2uen!es+ 8han1s to the sa e 3ro!edure he su!!eeds in identifying use )alue -ith 3ure abundan!e+ (fter ha)ing e2uated ex!hange )alue and s!ar!ity, use )alue and abundan!e, M+ Proudhon is 2uite astonished not to find use )alue in s!ar!ity and ex!hange )alue, nor ex!hange )alue in abundan!e and use )alue; and seeing that these extre es are i 3ossible in 3ra!ti!e, he !an do nothing but belie)e in ystery+ "n!al!ulable -orth exists for hi , be!ause buyers do not exist, and he -ill ne)er find any buyers, so long as he lea)es out de and+ 7n the other hand, M+ Proudhon6s abundan!e see s to be so ething s3ontaneous+ Ee !o 3letely forgets that there are 3eo3le -ho 3rodu!e it, and that it is to their interest ne)er to lose sight of de and+ 7ther-ise, ho- !ould M+ Proudhon ha)e said that things -hi!h are )ery useful ust ha)e a )ery lo- 3ri!e, or e)en !ost nothingF 7n the !ontrary, he should ha)e !on!luded that abundan!e, the 3rodu!tion of )ery useful things, should be restri!ted if their 3ri!e, their ex!hange )alue is to be raised+ 8he old )ine#gro-ers of Fran!e in 3etitioning for a la- to forbid the 3lanting of ne- )ines; the Out!h in burning (siati! s3i!es, in u3rooting !lo)e trees in the Molu!!as, -ere si 3ly trying to redu!e abundan!e in order to raise ex!hange )alue+ Ouring the -hole of the Middle (ges this sa e 3rin!i3le -as a!ted u3on, in li iting by la-s the nu ber of 5ourney en a single aster !ould e 3loy and the nu ber of i 3le ents he !ould use+ *Bee (nderson, Eistory of .o er!e+, R(+ (nderson, (n Eistori!al and .hronologi!al Oedu!tion of the 7rigin of .o er!e fro the 'arliest (!!ounts to the Present 8i e+ First edition a33eared in $ondon in 17<4+ 3+ GGS (fter ha)ing re3resented abundan!e as use )alue and s!ar!ity as ex!hange )alue D nothing indeed is easier than to 3ro)e that abundan!e and s!ar!ity are in in)erse ratio D M+ Proudhon identifies use )alue -ith su33ly and ex!hange )alue -ith de and+ 8o a1e the antithesis e)en ore !lear#!ut, he substitutes a ne- ter , 3utting @esti ation )alueA instead of ex!hange )alue+ 8he battle has noshifted its ground, and -e ha)e on one side utility *use )alue, su33ly,, on the other side, esti ation *ex!hange )alue, de and,+ 9ho is to re!on!ile these t-o !ontradi!tory for!esF 9hat is to be done to bring the into har ony -ith ea!h otherF "s it 3ossible to find in the e)en a single 3oint of !o 3arisonF @.ertainly,A !ries M+ Proudhon, @there is one D free -ill+ 8he 3ri!e resulting fro this battle bet-een su33ly and de and, bet-een utility and esti ation -ill not be the ex3ression of eternal 5usti!e+A

1G

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

M+ Proudhon goes on to de)elo3 this antithesis+ @"n y !a3a!ity as a free buyer, " a 5udge of y needs, 5udge of the desirability of an ob5e!t, 5udge of the 3ri!e " a )illing to 3ay for it+ 7n the other hand, in your !a3a!ity as a free 3rodu!er, you are aster of the means of e2ecution, and in !onse2uen!e, you ha)e the 3o-er to redu!e your ex3enses+A *Jolu e ", 3+ 41, (nd as de and, or ex!hange )alue, is identi!al -ith esti ation, M+ Proudhon is led to say> @"t is 3ro)ed that it is an6s free -ill that gi)es rise to the o33osition bet-een use )alue and ex!hange )alue+ Eo- !an this o33osition be re o)ed, so long as free -ill existsF (nd ho- !an the latter be sa!rifi!ed -ithout sa!rifi!ing an1indFA *Jolu e ", 3+ 41, 8hus there is no 3ossible -ay out+ 8here is a struggle bet-een t-o as it -ere in!o ensurable 3o-ers, bet-een utility and esti ation, bet-een the free buyer and the free 3rodu!er+ $et us loo1 at things a little ore !losely+ Bu33ly does not re3resent ex!lusi)ely utility, de and does not re3resent ex!lusi)ely esti ation+ Ooes not the de ander also su33ly a !ertain 3rodu!t or the to1en re3resenting all 3rodu!ts D )i?+, oney; and as su33lier, does he not re3resent, a!!ording to M+ Proudhon, utility or use )alueF (gain, does not the su33lier also de and a !ertain 3rodu!t or the to1en re3resenting all 3rodu!ts D )i?+, oneyF (nd does he not thus be!o e the re3resentati)e of esti ation, of esti ation )alue or of ex!hange )alueF Oe and is at the sa e ti e a su33ly, su33ly is at the sa e ti e a de and+ 8hus M+ Proudhon6s antithesis, in si 3ly identifying su33ly and de and, the one -ith utility, the other -ith esti ation, is based only on a futile abstra!tion+ 9hat M+ Proudhon !alls use )alue is !alled esti ation )alue by other e!ono ists, and -ith 5ust as u!h right+ 9e shall 2uote only Btor!h *.ours d6M!ono ie 3oliti2ue, Paris 18/G, 33+ 48 and 49,+ (!!ording to hi , needs are the things for -hi!h -e feel the need; )alues are things to -hi!h -e attribute )alue+ Most things ha)e )alue only be!ause they satisfy needs engendered by esti ation+ 8he esti ation of our needs ay !hange; therefore the utility of things, -hi!h ex3resses only the relation of these things to our needs, ay also !hange+ :atural needs the sel)es are !ontinually !hanging+ "ndeed, -hat !ould be ore )aried than the ob5e!ts -hi!h for the sta3le food of different 3eo3lesH 8he !onfli!t does not ta1e 3la!e bet-een utility and esti ation; it ta1es 3la!e bet-een the ar1etable )alue de anded by the su33lier and the ar1etable )alue su33lied by the de ander+ 8he ex!hange )alue of the 3rodu!t is ea!h ti e the resultant of these !ontradi!tory a33re!iations+ "n final analysis, su33ly and de and bring together 3rodu!tion and !onsu 3tion, but 3rodu!tion and !onsu 3tion based on indi)idual ex!hanges+ 8he 3rodu!t su33lied is not useful in itself+ "t is the !onsu er -ho deter ines its utility+ (nd e)en -hen its 2uality of being useful is ad itted, it does not ex!lusi)ely re3resent utility+ "n the !ourse of

14

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

3rodu!tion, it has been ex!hanged for all the !osts of 3rodu!tion, su!h as ra- aterials, -ages of -or1ers, et!+, all of -hi!h are ar1etable )alues+ 8he 3rodu!t, therefore, re3resents, in the eyes of the 3rodu!er, a su total of ar1etable )alues+ 9hat he su33lies is not only a useful ob5e!t, but also and abo)e all a ar1etable )alue+ (s to de and, it -ill only be effe!ti)e on !ondition that it has eans of ex!hange at its dis3osal+ 8hese eans are the sel)es 3rodu!ts, ar1etable )alue+ "n su33ly and de and, then, -e find on the one hand a 3rodu!t -hi!h has !ost ar1etable )alues, and the need to sell; on the other, eans -hi!h ha)e !ost ar1etable )alues, and the desire to buy+ M+ Proudhon o33oses the free (uyer to the free pro"ucer+ 8o the one and to the other he attributes 3urely eta3hysi!al 2ualities+ "t is this that a1es hi say> @"t is 3ro)ed that it is an6s free -ill that gi)es rise to the o33osition bet-een use )alue and ex!hange )alue+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 41, 8he 3rodu!er, the o ent he 3rodu!es in a so!iety founded on the di)ision of labour and on ex!hange *and that is M+ Proudhon6s hy3othesis,, is for!ed to sell+ M+ Proudhon a1es the 3rodu!er aster of the eans of 3rodu!tion; but he -ill agree -ith us that his eans of 3rodu!tion do not de3end on free -ill+ Moreo)er, any of these eans of 3rodu!tion are 3rodu!ts -hi!h he gets fro the outside, and in odern 3rodu!tion he is not e)en free to 3rodu!e the a ount he -ants+ 8he a!tual degree of de)elo3 ent of the 3rodu!ti)e for!es !o 3els hi to 3rodu!e on su!h or su!h a s!ale+ 8he !onsu er is no freer than the 3rodu!er+ Eis 5udg ent de3ends on his eans and his needs+ Both of these are deter ined by his so!ial 3osition, -hi!h itself de3ends on the -hole so!ial organi?ation+ 8rue, the -or1er -ho buys 3otatoes and the 1e3t -o an -ho buys la!e both follo- their res3e!ti)e 5udg ents+ But the differen!e in their 5udg ents is ex3lained by the differen!e in the 3ositions -hi!h they o!!u3y in the -orld, and -hi!h the sel)es are the 3rodu!t of so!ial organi?ation+ "s the entire syste of needs on esti ation or on the -hole organi?ation of 3rodu!tionF Most often, needs arise dire!tly fro 3rodu!tion or fro a state of affairs based on 3rodu!tion+ 8hus, to !hoose another exa 3le, does not the need for la-yers su33ose a gi)en !i)il la- -hi!h is but the ex3ression of a !ertain de)elo3 ent of 3ro3erty, that is to say, of 3rodu!tionF "t is not enough for M+ Proudhon to ha)e eli inated the ele ents 5ust entioned fro the relation of su33ly and de and+ Ee !arries abstra!tion to the furthest li its -hen he fuses all 3rodu!ers into one single 3rodu!er, all !onsu ers into one single !onsu er, and sets u3 a struggle bet-een these t-o !hi eri!al 3ersonages+ But in the real -orld, things ha33en other-ise+ 8he !o 3etition a ong the su33liers and the !o 3etition a ong the de anders for a ne!essary 3art of the struggle bet-een buyers and sellers, of -hi!h ar1etable )alue is the result+ (fter ha)ing eli inated !o 3etition and the !ost of 3rodu!tion, M+ Proudhon !an at his ease redu!e the for ula of su33ly and de and to an absurdity+

15

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

@Bu33ly and de and,A he says, @are erely t-o !ere onial for s that ser)e to bring use )alue and ex!hange )alue fa!e to fa!e, and to lead to their re!on!iliation+ 8hey are the t-o ele!tri! 3oles -hi!h, -hen !onne!ted, ust 3rodu!e the 3heno enon of affinity !alled ex!hange+A *Jolu e ", 33+ 49 and 50, 7ne ight as -ell say that ex!hange is erely a @!ere onial for A for introdu!ing the !onsu er to the ob5e!t of !onsu 3tion+ 7ne ight as -ell say that all e!ono i! relations are @!ere onial for sA ser)ing i ediate !onsu 3tion as go#bet-eens+ Bu33ly and de and are neither ore nor less relations of a gi)en 3rodu!tion than are indi)idual ex!hanges+ 9hat, then, does all M+ Proudhon6s diale!ti! !onsist inF "n the substitution for use )alue and ex!hange )alue, for su33ly and de and, of abstra!t and !ontradi!tory notions li1e s!ar!ity and abundan!e, utility and esti ation, one 3rodu!er and one !onsu er, both of the knights of free )ill+ (nd -hat -as he ai ing atF (t arranging for hi self a eans of introdu!ing later on one of the ele ents he had set aside, the cost of pro"uction, as the synthesis of use )alue and ex!hange )alue+ (nd it is thus that in his eyes the !ost of 3rodu!tion !onstitutes synthetic value or constitute" value+ 2 ,. 5onstituted 4alue or !yntheti" 4alue Jalue * ar1etable )alue, is the !orner#stone of the e!ono i! stru!ture+ @.onstitutedA )alue is the !orner#stone of the syste of e!ono i! !ontradi!tions+ 9hat then is this @!onstituted )alueA -hi!h is all M+ Proudhon has dis!o)ered in 3oliti!al e!ono yF 7n!e utility is ad itted, labour is the sour!e of all )alue+ 8he easure of labour is ti e+ 8he relati)e )alue of 3rodu!ts is deter ined by the labour ti e re2uired for their 3rodu!tion+ Pri!e is the onetary ex3ression of the relati)e )alue of a 3rodu!t+ Finally, the !onstituted )alue of a 3rodu!t is 3urely and si 3ly the )alue -hi!h is !onstituted by the labour ti e in!or3orated in it+ 4ust as (da B ith dis!o)ered the di)ision of labour, so he, M+ Proudhon, !lai s to ha)e dis!o)ered @!onstituted )alue+A 8his is not exa!tly @so ething unheard of,A but then it ust be ad itted that there is nothing unheard of in any dis!o)ery of e!ono i! s!ien!e+ M+ Proudhon, -ho fully a33re!iates the i 3ortan!e of his o-n in)ention, see1s ne)ertheless to tone do-n the erit therefore @in order to reassure the reader as to his !lai s to originality, and to -in o)er inds -hose ti idity renders the little fa)ourable to ne- ideas+A But in a33ortioning the !ontribution ade by ea!h of his 3rede!essors to the understanding of )alue, he is for!ed to !onfess o3enly that the largest 3ortion, the lion6s share, of the erit falls to hi self+ @8he syntheti! idea of )alue had been )aguely 3er!ei)ed by (da B ith++++ But -ith (da B ith the idea of )alue -as entirely intuiti)e+ :o-, so!iety does not !hange its habits erely on the strength of intuitions> its de!isions are ade only on the authority of fa!ts+ 8he antino y had to be stated ore 3al3ably and ore !learly> 4+B+ Bay -as its !hief inter3reter+A

1<

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

Eere, in a nutshell, is the history of the dis!o)ery of syntheti! )alue> (da B ith D )ague intuition; 4+ B+ Bay D antino y; M+ Proudhon D !onstituting and @!onstitutedA truth+ (nd let there be no ista1e about it> all the other e!ono ists, fro Bay to Proudhon, ha)e erely been trudging along in the rut of antino y+ @"t is in!redible that for the last 40 years so any en of sense should ha)e fu ed and fretted at su!h a si 3le idea+ But no, )alues are !o 3ared -ithout there being any 3oint of !o 3arison bet-een the and -ith no unit of easure ents; this, rather than e bra!e the re)olutionary theory of e2uality, is -hat the e!ono ists of the 19th !entury are resol)ed to u3hold against all !o ers+ 9hat -ill 3osterity say about itFA *Jolu e ", 3+ <8, Posterity, so abru3tly in)o1ed, -ill begin by getting uddled o)er the !hronology+ "t is bound to as1 itself> are not Ci!ardo and his s!hool e!ono ists of the 19th !enturyF Ci!ardo6s syste , 3utting as a 3rin!i3le that @the relati)e )alue of !o odities !orres3onds ex!lusi)ely to their 3rodu!tion,A dates fro 1817+ Ci!ardo is the head of a -hole s!hool do inant in 'ngland sin!e the Cestoration+ R8he Cestoration began after the ter ination of the :a3oleoni! -ars and the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in Fran!e in 1815+S 8he Ci!ardian do!trine su ari?es se)erely, re orselessly, the -hole of the 'nglish bourgeoisie+ @9hat -ill 3osterity say about itFA "t -ill not say that M+ Proudhon did not 1no- Ci!ardo, for he tal1s about hi , he tal1s at length about hi , he 1ee3s !o ing ba!1 to hi , and !on!ludes by !alling his syste @trash+A "f e)er 3osterity does interfere, it -ill say 3erha3s that M+ Proudhon, afraid of offending his readers6 (nglo3hobia, 3referred to a1e hi self the res3onsible editor of Ci!ardo6s ideas+ "n any !ase, it -ill thin1 it )ery nai)e that M+ Proudhon should gi)e as a @re)olutionary theory of the futureA -hat Ci!ardo ex3ounded s!ientifi!ally as the theory of 3resent#day so!iety, of bourgeois so!iety, and that he should thus ta1e for the solution of the antino y bet-een utility and ex!hange )alue -hat Ci!ardo and his s!hool 3resented long before hi as the s!ientifi! for ula of one single side of this antino y, that of ex!hange )alue+ But let us lea)e 3osterity alone on!e and for all, and !onfront M+ Proudhon -ith his 3rede!essor Ci!ardo+ Eere are so e extra!ts fro this author -hi!h su ari?e his do!trine on )alue> @;tility then is not the easure of ex!hangeable )alue, although it is absolutely essential to it+A *Jolu e ", 3+ G, Prin!i3les de l6M!ono ie 3oliti2ue, et!+, translated fro the 'nglish by F+ B+ .onstan!io, Paris 18G5, @Possessing utility, !o odities deri)e their ex!hangeable )alue fro t-o sour!es> fro their s!ar!ity, and fro the 2uantity of labour re2uired to obtain the + 8here are so e !o odities, the )alue of -hi!h is deter ined by their s!ar!ity alone+ :o labour !an in!rease the 2uantity of su!h goods, and therefore their )alue !annot be lo-ered by an in!reased su33ly+ Bo e rare statues and 3i!tures, s!ar!e boo1s+++ are all of this des!ri3tion+ 8heir )alue+++ )aries -ith the )arying -ealth and in!linations of those -ho are desirous to 3ossess the +A *Jolu e ", 33+ 4 and 5, l+ c+, @8hese !o odities, ho-e)er, for a )ery s all 3art of the ass of !o odities daily ex!hanged in

17

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

the ar1et+ By far the greatest 3art of these goods -hi!h are the ob5e!ts of desire, are 3ro!ured by labour; and they ay be ulti3lied, not in one !ountry alone, but in any, al ost -ithout any assignable li it, if -e are dis3osed to besto- the labour ne!essary to obtain the +A *Jolu e ", 33+ 5, l+ c+, @"n s3ea1ing then of !o odities, of their ex!hangeable )alue, and of the la-s -hi!h regulate their relati)e 3ri!es, -e ean al-ays su!h !o odities only as !an be in!reased in 2uantity by the exertion of hu an industry, and on the 3rodu!tion of -hi!h !o 3etition o3erates -ithout restraint+A *Jolu e ", 3 +5, Ci!ardo 2uotes (da B ith, -ho, a!!ording to hi , @so a!!urately defined the original sour!e of ex!hangeable )alueA *(da B ith, 9ealth of :ations, Boo1 ", .ha3 5 R(n "n2uiry into the :ature and .auses of the 9ealth of :ations, first edition a33earing in $ondon, 177<S,, and he adds> @8hat this *i+e+, labour ti e, is really the foundation of the ex!hangeable )alue of all things, ex!e3ting those -hi!h !annot be in!reased by hu an industry, is a do!trine of the ut ost i 3ortan!e in 3oliti!al e!ono y; for fro no sour!e do so any errors, and so u!h differen!e of o3inion in that s!ien!e 3ro!eed, as fro the )ague ideas -hi!h are atta!hed to the -ord )alue+A *Jolu e ", 3+ 8, @"f the 2uantity of labour realised in !o odities regulate their ex!hangeable )alue, e)ery in!rease of the 2uantity of labour ust aug ent the )alue of that !o odity on -hi!h it is exer!ised, as e)ery di inution ust lo-er it+A *Jolu e ", 3+ 8, Ci!ardo goes on to re3roa!h B ith> 1+ 9ith ha)ing @hi self ere!ted another standard easure of )alueA than labour+ @Bo eti es he s3ea1s of !orn, at other ti es of labour, as a standard easure; not the 2uantity of labour besto-ed on the 3rodu!tion of any ob5e!t, but the 2uantity it !an !o and in the ar1et+A *Jol+ ", 33+ 9 and 10, /+ 9ith ha)ing @ad itted the 3rin!i3le -ithout 2ualifi!ation and at the sa e ti e restri!ted its a33li!ation to that early and rude state of so!iety, -hi!h 3re!edes both the a!!u ulation of sto!1 and the a33ro3riation of land+A *Jol+ ", 3+ /1, Ci!ardo sets out to 3ro)e that the o-nershi3 of land, that is, ground rent, !annot !hange the relati)e )alue of !o odities and that the a!!u ulation of !a3ital has only a 3assing and flu!tuating effe!t on the relati)e )alues deter ined by the !o 3arati)e 2uantity of labour ex3ended on their 3rodu!tion+ "n su33ort of this thesis, he gi)es his fa ous theory of ground rent, analyses !a3ital, and ulti ately finds nothing in it but a!!u ulated labour+ 8hen he de)elo3s a -hole theory of -ages and 3rofits, and 3ro)es that -ages and 3rofits rise and fall in in)erse ratio to ea!h other, -ithout affe!ting the relati)e )alue of the 3rodu!t+ Ee does not negle!t the influen!e that the a!!u ulation of !a3ital and its different as3e!ts *fixed !a3ital and !ir!ulating !a3ital,, as also the rate of -ages, !an ha)e on the 3ro3ortional )alue of 3rodu!ts+ "n fa!t, they are the !hief 3roble s -ith -hi!h Ci!ardo is !on!erned+

18

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

@'!ono y in the use of labour ne)er fails to redu!e the relati)e )alueN of a !o odity, -hether the sa)ing be in the labour ne!essary to the anufa!ture of the !o odity itself, or in that ne!essary to the for ation of the !a3ital, by the aid of -hi!h it is 3rodu!ed+A *Jol+ ", 3+ /8, @;nder su!h !ir!u stan!e the )alue of the deer, the 3rodu!e of the hunter6s day6s labour, -ould be exa!tly e2ual to the )alue of the fish, the 3rodu!e of the fisher an6s day6s labour+ 8he !o 3arati)e )alue of the fish and the ga e -ould be entirely regulated by the 2uantity of labour realised in ea!h, -hate)er ight be the 2uantity of 3rodu!tion, or ho-e)er high or lo- general -ages or 3rofits ight be+A *Jol+ ", 3+ /8, @"n a1ing labour the foundation of the )alue of !o odities and the !o 3arati)e 2uantity of labour -hi!h is ne!essary to their 3rodu!tion, the rule -hi!h deter ines the res3e!ti)e 2uantities of goods -hi!h shall be gi)en in ex!hange for ea!h other, -e ust not be su33osed to deny the a!!idental and te 3orary de)iations of the a!tual or ar1et 3ri!e of !o odities fro this, their 3ri ary and natural 3ri!e+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 105, l+ c+, @"t is the !ost of 3rodu!tion -hi!h ust ulti ately regulate the 3ri!e of !o odities, and not, as has been often said, the 3ro3ortion bet-een su33ly and de and+A *Jol+ "", 3+ /5G, $ord $auderdale had de)elo3ed the )ariations of ex!hange )alue a!!ording to the la- of su33ly and de and, or of s!ar!ity and abundan!e relati)ely to de and+ "n his o3inion the )alue of a thing !an in!rease -hen its 2uantity de!reases or -hen the de and for it in!reases; it !an de!rease o-ing to an in!rease of its 2uantity or o-ing to the de!rease in de and+ 8hus the )alue of a thing !an !hange through eight different !auses, na ely, four !auses that a33ly to oney or to any other !o odity -hi!h ser)es as a easure of its )alue+ Eere is Ci!ardo6s refutation> @.o odities -hi!h are ono3olised, either by an indi)idual, or by a !o 3any, )ary a!!ording to the la- -hi!h $ord $auderdale has laid do-n> they fall in 3ro3ortion as the sellers aug ent their 2uantity, and rise in 3ro3ortion to the eagerness of the buyers to 3ur!hase the ; their 3ri!e has no ne!essary !onnexion -ith their natural )alue; but the 3ri!es of !o odities, -hi!h are sub5e!t to !o 3etition, and -hose 2uantity ay be in!reased in any oderate degree, -ill ulti ately de3end, not on the state of de and and su33ly, but on the in!reased or di inished !ost of their 3rodu!tion+A *Jol+ "", 3+ /59, 9e shall lea)e it to the reader to a1e the !o 3arison bet-een this si 3le, !lear, 3re!ise language of Ci!ardo6s and M+ Proudhon6s rhetori!al atte 3ts to arri)e at the deter ination of relati)e )alue by labour ti e+ Ci!ardo sho-s us the real o)e ent of bourgeois 3rodu!tion, -hi!h !onstitutes )alue+ M+ Proudhon, lea)ing the real o)e ent out of a!!ount, @fu es and fretsA in order to in)ent ne- 3ro!esses and to a!hie)e the reorganisation of the -orld on a -ould#be ne- for ula,
N

Ci!ardo, as is -ell 1no-n, deter ines the )alue of a !o odity by the 2uantity of labour ne!essary for its 3rodu!tion+ 7-ing, ho-e)er, to the 3re)ailing for of ex!hange in e)ery ode of 3rodu!tion based on 3rodu!tion of !o odities, in!luding therefore the !a3italist ode of 3rodu!tion, this )alue is not ex3ressed dire!tly in 2uantities of labour but in 2uantities of so e other !o odity+ 8he )alue of a !o odity ex3ressed in a 2uantity of so e other !o odity *-hether oney or not, is ter ed by Ci!ardo its relati)e )alue+ R:ote by 'ngels to 1885 =er an editionS

19

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

-hi!h for ula is no ore than the theoreti!al ex3ression of the real o)e ent -hi!h exists and -hi!h is so -ell des!ribed by Ci!ardo+ Ci!ardo ta1es his starting 3oint fro 3resent#day so!iety to de onstrate to us ho- it !onstitutes )alue D M+ Proudhon ta1es !onstituted )alue as his starting 3oint to !onstru!t a ne- so!ial -orld -ith the aid of this )alue+ For hi , M+ Proudhon, !onstituted )alue ust o)e around and be!o e on!e ore the !onstituting fa!tor in a -orld already !o 3letely !onstituted a!!ording to this ode of e)aluation+ 8he deter ination of )alue by labour ti e is, for Ci!ardo, the la- of ex!hange )alue; for M+ Proudhon, it is the synthesis of use )alue and ex!hange )alue+ Ci!ardo6s theory of )alues is the s!ientifi! inter3retation of a!tual e!ono i! life; M+ Proudhon6s theory of )alues is the uto3ian inter3retation of Ci!ardo6s theory+ Ci!ardo establishes the truth of his for ula by deri)ing it fro all e!ono i! relations, and by ex3laining in this -ay all 3heno ena, e)en those li1e ground rent, a!!u ulation of !a3ital and the relation of -ages to 3rofits, -hi!h at first sight see s to !ontradi!t it; it is 3re!isely that -hi!h a1es his do!trine a s!ientifi! syste > M+ Proudhon, -ho has redis!o)ered this for ula of Ci!ardo6s by eans of 2uite arbitrary hy3otheses, is for!ed thereafter to see1 out isolated e!ono i! fa!ts -hi!h he t-ists and falsifies to 3ass the off as exa 3les, already existing a33li!ations, beginning of reali?ation of his regenerating idea+ *Bee our QG+ (33li!ation of .onstituted Jalue, :o- let us 3ass on to the !on!lusions M+ Proudhon dra-s fro )alue !onstituted *by labour ti e,+ D ( !ertain 2uantity of labour is e2ui)alent to the 3rodu!t !reated by this sa e 2uantity of labour+ D 'a!h day6s labour is -orth as u!h as another day6s labour; that is to say, if the 2uantities are e2ual, one an6s labour is -orth as u!h as another an6s labour> there is no 2ualitati)e differen!e+ 9ith the sa e 2uantity of -or1, one an6s 3rodu!t !an be gi)en in ex!hange for another an6s 3rodu!t+ (ll en are -age -or1ers getting e2ual 3ay for an e2ual ti e of -or1+ Perfe!t e2uality rules the ex!hanges+ (re these !on!lusions the stri!t, natural !onse2uen!es of )alue @!onstitutedA or deter ined by labour ti eF "f the relati)e )alue of a !o odity is deter ined by the 2uantity of labour re2uired to 3rodu!e it, it follo-s naturally that the relati)e )alue of labour, or -ages, is li1e-ise deter ined by the 2uantity of labour needed to 3rodu!e the -ages+ 9ages, that is, the relati)e )alue or the 3ri!e of labour, are thus deter ined by the labour ti e needed to 3rodu!e all that is ne!essary for the aintenan!e of the -or1er+ @Diminish the cost of pro"uction of hats, and their 3ri!e -ill ulti ately fall to their o-n ne- natural 3ri!e, although the de and should be doubled, trebled, or 2uadru3led+ Diminish the cost of su(sistence of men, by di inishing the natural 3ri!e of food and !lothing, by -hi!h life is sustained, and -ages -ill ulti ately fall, not-ithstanding the de and for labourers ay )ery greatly in!rease+A *Ci!ardo, Jol+ "", 3+ /5G, Ooubtless, Ci!ardo6s language is as !yni!al as !an be+ 8o 3ut the !ost of anufa!ture of hats and the !ost of aintenan!e of en on the sa e 3lane is to turn en into hats+ But do not a1e an out!ry at the

/0

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

!yni!is of it+ 8he !yni!is is in the fa!ts and not in the -ords -hi!h ex3ress the fa!ts+ Fren!h -riters li1e M+M+ Oro?, Blan2ui, Cossi and others ta1e an inno!ent satisfa!tion in 3ro)ing their su3eriority o)er the 'nglish e!ono ists, by see1ing to obser)e the eti2uette of a @hu anitarianA 3hraseology; if they re3roa!h Ci!ardo and his s!hool for their !yni!al language, it is be!ause it annoys the to see e!ono i! relations ex3osed in all their !rudity, to see the ysteries of the bourgeoisie un as1ed+ 8o su u3> $abour, being itself a !o odity, is easured as su!h by the labour ti e needed to 3rodu!e the labour#!o odity+ (nd -hat is needed to 3rodu!e this labour#!o odityF 4ust enough labour ti e to 3rodu!e the ob5e!ts indis3ensable to the !onstant aintenan!e of labour, that is, to 1ee3 the -or1er ali)e and in a !ondition to 3ro3agate his ra!e+ 8he natural 3ri!e of labour is no other than the ini u -age+N "f the !urrent rate of -ages rises abo)e this natural 3ri!e, it is 3re!isely be!ause the la- of )alue 3ut as a 3rin!i3le by M+ Proudhon ha33ens to be !ounterbalan!ed by the !onse2uen!es of the )arying relations of su33ly and de and+ But the ini u -age is nonetheless the !entre to-ards -hi!h the !urrent rates of -ages gra)itate+ 8hus relati)e )alue, easured by labour ti e, is ine)itably the for ula of the 3resent ensla)e ent of the -or1er, instead of being, as M+ Proudhon -ould ha)e it, the @re)olutionary theoryA of the e an!i3ation of the 3roletariat+ $et us no- see to -hat extent the a33li!ation of labour ti e as a easure of )alue is in!o 3atible -ith the existing !lass antagonis and the une2ual distribution of the 3rodu!t bet-een the i ediate -or1er and the o-ner of a!!u ulated labour+ $et us ta1e a 3arti!ular 3rodu!t> broad!loth, -hi!h has re2uired the sa e 2uantity of labour as the linen+ "f there is an ex!hange of these t-o 3rodu!ts, there is an ex!hange of e2ual 2uantities of labour+ "n ex!hanging these e2ual 2uantities of labour ti e, one does not !hange the re!i3ro!al 3osition of the 3rodu!ers, any ore than one !hanges anything in the situation of the -or1ers and anufa!turers a ong the sel)es+ 8o say that this ex!hange of 3rodu!ts easured by labour ti e results in an e2uality of 3ay ent for all the 3rodu!ers is to su33ose that e2uality of 3arti!i3ation in the 3rodu!t existed before the ex!hange+ 9hen the ex!hange of broad!loth for linen has been a!!o 3lished, the 3rodu!ers of broad!loth -ill share in the linen in a 3ro3ortion e2ual to that in -hi!h they 3re)iously shared in the broad!loth+
N

8he thesis that the @natural,A i+e+, nor al, 3ri!e of labour 3o-er !oin!ides -ith the ini u -age, i+e+, -ith the e2ui)alent in )alue of the eans of subsisten!e absolutely indis3ensable for the life and 3ro!reation of the -or1er, -as first 3ut for-ard by e in 5utlines of a &riti$ue of Political Economy 6Deutsch-7ran34sische 8ahr(9cher% Paris, 1844, and in The &on"ition of the .orking &lass in Englan" in :;<<+ (s seen here, Marx at that ti e a!!e3ted the thesis+ $assalle too1 it o)er fro both of us+ (lthough, ho-e)er, in reality -ages ha)e a !onstant tenden!y to a33roa!h the ini u , the abo)e thesis is ne)ertheless in!orre!t+ 8he fa!t that labour is regularly and on the a)erage 3aid belo- its )alue !annot alter its )alue+ "n &apital, Marx has 3ut the abo)e thesis right *Be!tion on 'uying an" Selling of La(our Po)er= and also 6&hapter >>V? The @eneral La) of &apitalist ,ccumulation= analysed the !ir!u stan!es -hi!h 3er it !a3italist 3rodu!tion to de3ress the 3ri!e of labour 3o-er ore and ore belo- its )alue+ R:ote by 'ngels to 1885 =er an editionS

/1

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

M+ Proudhon6s illusion is brought about by his ta1ing for a !onse2uen!e -hat !ould be at ost but a gratuitous su33osition+ $et us go further+ Ooes labour ti e, as the easure of )alue, su33ose at least that the days are e2ui)alent, and that one an6s day is -orth as u!h as another6sF :o+ $et us su33ose for a o ent that a 5e-eller6s day is e2ui)alent to three days of a -ea)er; the fa!t re ains that any !hange in the )alue of 5e-els relati)e to that of -o)en aterials, unless it be the transitory result of the flu!tuations of su33ly and de and, ust ha)e as its !ause a redu!tion or an in!rease in the labour ti e ex3ended in the 3rodu!tion of one or the other+ "f three -or1ing days of different -or1ers be related to one another in the ratio of 1>/>G, then e)ery !hange in the relati)e )alue of their 3rodu!ts -ill be a !hange in this sa e 3ro3ortion of 1>/>G+ 8hus )alues !an be easured by labour ti e, in s3ite of the ine2uality of )alue of different -or1ing days; but to a33ly su!h a easure -e ust ha)e a !o 3arati)e s!ale of the different -or1ing days> it is !o 3etition that sets u3 this s!ale+ "s your hour6s labour -orth ineF 8hat is a 2uestion -hi!h is de!ided by !o 3etition+ .o 3etition, a!!ording to an ( eri!an e!ono ist, deter ines hoany days of si 3le labour are !ontained in one day6s !o 3ound labour+ Ooes not this redu!tion of days of !o 3ound labour to days of si 3le labour su33ose that si 3le labour is itself ta1en as a easure of )alueF "f the ere 2uantity of labour fun!tions as a easure of )alue regardless of 2uality, it 3resu33oses that si 3le labour has be!o e the 3i)ot of industry+ "t 3resu33oses that labour has been e2uali?ed by the subordination of an to the a!hine or by the extre e di)ision of labour; that en are effa!ed by their labour; that the 3endulu of the !lo!1 has be!o e as a!!urate a easure of the relati)e a!ti)ity of t-o -or1ers as it is of the s3eed of t-o lo!o oti)es+ 8herefore, -e should not say that one an6s hour is -orth another an6s hour, but rather that one an during an hour is -orth 5ust as u!h as another an during an hour+ 8i e is e)erything, an is nothing; he is, at the ost, ti e6s !ar!ass+ Iuality no longer atters+ Iuantity alone de!ides e)erything; hour for hour, day for day; but this e2ualising of labour is not by any eans the -or1 of M+ Proudhon6s eternal 5usti!e; it is 3urely and si 3ly a fa!t of odern industry+ "n the auto ati! -or1sho3, one -or1er6s labour is s!ar!ely distinguishable in any -ay fro another -or1er6s labour> -or1ers !an only be distinguished one fro another by the length of ti e they ta1e for their -or1+ :e)ertheless, this 2uantitati)e differen!e be!o es, fro a !ertain 3oint of )ie-, 2ualitati)e, in that the ti e they ta1e for their -or1 de3ends 3artly on 3urely aterial !auses, su!h as 3hysi!al !onstitution, age and sex; 3artly on 3urely negati)e oral !auses, su!h as 3atien!e, i 3erturbability, diligen!e+ "n short, if there is a differen!e of 2uality in the labour of different -or1ers, it is at ost a 2uality of the last 1ind, -hi!h is far fro being a distin!ti)e s3e!iality+ 8his is -hat the state of affairs in odern industry a ounts to in the last analysis+ "t is u3on this e2uality, already

//

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

realised in auto ati! labour, that M+ Proudhon -ields his s oothing# 3lane of @e2ualisation,A -hi!h he eans to establish uni)ersally in @ti e to !o eHA (ll the @e2ualitarianA !onse2uen!es -hi!h M+ Proudhon dedu!es fro Ci!ardo6s do!trine are based on a funda ental error+ Ee !onfounds the )alue of !o odities easured by the 2uantity of labour e bodied in the -ith the )alue of !o odities easured by @the )alue of labour+A "f these t-o -ays of easuring the )alue of !o odities -ere e2ui)alent, it !ould be said indifferently that the relati)e )alue of any !o odity is easured by the 2uantity of labour e bodied in it; or that it is easured by the 2uantity of labour it !an buy; or again that it is easured by the 2uantity of labour -hi!h !an a!2uire it+ But this is far fro being so+ 8he )alue of labour !an no ore ser)e as a easure of )alue than the )alue of any other !o odity+ ( fe- exa 3les -ill suffi!e to ex3lain still better -hat -e ha)e 5ust stated+ "f a 2uarter of !orn !ost t-o days6 labour instead of one, it -ould ha)e t-i!e its original )alue; but it -ould not set in o3eration double the 2uantity of labour, be!ause it -ould !ontain no ore nutriti)e atter than before+ 8hus the )alue of the !orn, easured by the 2uantity of labour used to 3rodu!e it, -ould ha)e doubled; but easured either by the 2uantity of labour it !an buy or the 2uantity of labour -ith -hi!h it !an be bought, it -ould be far fro ha)ing doubled+ 7n the other hand, if the sa e labour 3rodu!ed t-i!e as any !lothes as before, their relati)e )alue -ould fall by half; but, ne)ertheless, this double 2uantity of !lothing -ould not thereby be redu!ed to dis3osing o)er only half the 2uantity of labour, nor !ould the sa e labour !o and the double 2uantity of !lothing; for half the !lothes -ould still go on rendering the -or1er the sa e ser)i!e as before+ 8hus it is going against e!ono i! fa!ts to deter ine the relati)e )alue of !o odities by the )alue of labour+ "t is o)ing in a )i!ious !ir!le, it is to deter ine relati)e )alue by a relati)e )alue -hi!h itself needs to be deter ined+ "t is beyond doubt that M+ Proudhon !onfuses the t-o easures, easure by the labour ti e needed for the 3rodu!tion of a !o odity and easure by the )alue of the labour+ @(ny an6s labour,A he says, @!an buy the )alue it re3resents+A 8hus, a!!ording to hi , a !ertain 2uantity of labour e bodied in a 3rodu!t is e2ui)alent to the -or1er6s 3ay ent, that is, to the )alue of labour+ "t is the sa e reasoning that a1es hi !onfuse !ost of 3rodu!tion -ith -ages+ @9hat are -agesF 8hey are the !ost 3ri!e of !orn, et!+, the integral 3ri!e of all things+ $et us go still further+ 9ages are the 3ro3ortionality of the ele ents -hi!h !o 3ose -ealth+A 9hat are -agesF 8hey are the )alue of labour+ (da B ith ta1es as the easure of )alue, no- the ti e of labour needed for the 3rodu!tion of a !o odity, no- the )alue of labour+ Ci!ardo ex3oses this error by sho-ing !learly the dis3arity of these t-o -ays of easuring+ M+ Proudhon goes one better than (da

/G

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

B ith in error by identifying the t-o things -hi!h the latter had erely 3ut in 5uxta3osition+ "t is in order to find the 3ro3er 3ro3ortion in -hi!h -or1ers should share in the 3rodu!ts, or, in other -ords, to deter ine the relati)e )alue of labour, that M+ Proudhon see1s a easure for the relati)e )alue of !o odities+ 8o find out the easure for the relati)e )alue of !o odities he !an thin1 of nothing better than to gi)e as the e2ui)alent of a !ertain 2uantity of labour the su total of the 3rodu!ts it has !reated, -hi!h is as good as su33osing that the -hole of so!iety !onsists erely of -or1ers -ho re!ei)e their o-n 3rodu!e as -ages+ "n the se!ond 3la!e, he ta1es for granted the e2ui)alen!e of the -or1ing days of different -or1ers+ "n short, he see1s the easure of the relati)e )alue of !o oditising order to arri)e at e2ual 3ay ent for the -or1ers, and he ta1es the e2uality of -ages as an already established fa!t, in order to go off on the sear!h for the relati)e )alue of !o odities+ 9hat ad irable diale!ti!sH @Bay and the e!ono ists after hi ha)e obser)ed that labour being itself sub5e!t to )aluation, being a !o odity li1e any other !o odity, it is o)ing in a )i!ious !ir!le to treat it as the 3rin!i3le and the deter ining !ause of )alue+ "n so doing, these e!ono ists, if they -ill allo- e to say so, sho- a 3rodigious !arelessness+ $abour is said to ha)e )alue not as a !o odity itself, but in )ie- of the )alues -hi!h it is su33osed 3otentially to !ontain+ 8he )alue of labour is a figurati)e ex3ression, an anti!i3ation of the !ause for the effe!t+ "t is a fi!tion of the sa e sta 3 as the 3rodu!ti)ity of !a3ital+ $abour 3rodu!es, !a3ital has )alue+++ By a sort of elli3sis one s3ea1s of the )alue of labour++++ $abour li1e liberty +++ is a thing )ague and indeter inate by nature, but defined 2ualitati)ely by its ob5e!t, that is to say, it be!o es a reality by the 3rodu!t+A @But is there any need to d-ell on thisF 8he o ent the e!ono ist *read M+ Proudhon, !hanges the na e of things, vera rerum voca(ula *the true na e of things,, he is i 3li!itly !onfessing his i 3oten!e and 3ro!lai ing hi self not 3ri)y to the !ause+A *Proudhon, Jol+ ", 3+ 188, 9e ha)e seen that M+ Proudhon a1es the )alue of labour the @deter ining !auseA of the )alue of 3rodu!ts to su!h an extent that for hi -ages, the offi!ial na e for the @)alue of labour,A for the integral 3ri!e of all things> that is -hy Bay6s ob5e!tion troubles hi + "n labour as a !o odity, -hi!h is a gri reality, he sees nothing but a gra ati!al elli3sis+ 8hus the -hole of existing so!iety, founded on labour as a !o odity, is hen!eforth founded on a 3oeti! li!en!e, a figurati)e ex3ression+ "f so!iety -ants to @eli inate all the dra-ba!1sA that assail it, -ell, let it eli inate all the ill#sounding ter s, !hange the language; and to this end it has only to a33ly to the (!ade y for a ne- edition of its di!tionary+ (fter all that -e ha)e 5ust seen, it is easy for us to understand -hy M+ Proudhon, in a -or1 on 3oliti!al e!ono y, has to enter u3on long dissertations on ety ology and other 3arts of gra ar+ 8hus he is still learnedly dis!ussing the anti2uated deri)ation of ser)us Ra sla)e, ser)antS fro ser)are R8o 3reser)eS+ 8hese 3hilologi!al dissertations ha)e a dee3

/4

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

eaning, an esoteri! eaning D they for an essential 3art of M+ Proudhon6s argu ent+ $abour,N inas u!h as it is bought and sold, is a !o odity li1e any other !o odity, and has, in !onse2uen!e, an ex!hange )alue+ But the )alue of labour, or labour as a !o odity, 3rodu!es as little as the )alue of -heat, or -heat as a !o odity, ser)es as food+ $abour @is -orthA ore or less, a!!ording to -hether food !o odities are ore or less dear, -hether the su33ly and de and of hands exist to su!h or su!h a degree, et!+, et!+ $abour is not a @)ague thingA; it is al-ays so e definite labour, it is ne)er labour in general that is bought and sold+ "t is not only labour that is 2ualitati)ely defined by the ob5e!t; but also the ob5e!t -hi!h is deter ined by the s3e!ifi! 2uality of labour+ $abour, in so far as it is bought and sold, is itself a !o odity+ 9hy is it boughtF @Be!ause of the )alues it is su33osed 3otentially to !ontain+A But if a !ertain thing is said to be a !o odity, there is no longer any 2uestion as to the reason -hy it is bought, that is, as to the utility to be deri)ed fro it, the a33li!ation to be ade of it+ "t is a !o odity as an ob5e!t of traffi!+ (ll M+ Proudhon6s argu ents are li ited to this> labour is not bought as an i ediate ob5e!t of !onsu 3tion+ :o, it is bought as an instru ent of 3rodu!tion, as a a!hine -ould be bought+ (s a !o odity, labour has no )alue and does not 3rodu!e+ M+ Proudhon ight 5ust as -ell ha)e said that there is no su!h thing as a !o odity, sin!e e)ery !o odity is obtained erely for so e utilitarian 3ur3ose, and ne)er as a !o odity in itself+ "n easuring the )alue of !o odities by labour, M+ Proudhon )aguely gli 3ses the i 3ossibility of ex!luding labour fro this sa e easure, in so far as labour has a )alue, as labour is a !o odity+ Ee has a isgi)ing that it is turning the -age ini u into the natural and nor al 3ri!e of i ediate labour, that it is a!!e3ting the existing state of so!iety+ Bo, to get a-ay fro this fatal !onse2uen!e, he fa!es about and asserts that labour is not a !o odity, that it !annot ha)e )alue+ Ee forgets that he hi self has ta1en the )alue of labour as a easure, he forgets that his -hole syste rests on labour as a !o odity, on labour -hi!h is bartered, bought, sold, ex!hanged for 3rodu!e, et!+, on labour, in fa!t, -hi!h is an i ediate sour!e of in!o e for the -or1er+ Ee forgets e)erything+ 8o sa)e his syste , he !onsents to sa!rifi!e its basis+ Et propter vitam viven"i per"ere causasA R(nd for the sa1e of life to lose the reasons for li)ingS 9e no- !o e to a ne- definition of @!onstituted )alue+A @Jalue is the 3ro3ortional relation of the 3rodu!ts -hi!h !onstitute -ealth+A $et us note in the first 3la!e that the single 3hrase @relati)e or ex!hange )alueA i 3lies the idea of so e relation in -hi!h 3rodu!ts are ex!hanged re!i3ro!ally+ By gi)ing the na e @3ro3ortional relationA to this relation, no !hange is ade in the relati)e )alue,
N

"n the !o3y Marx 3resented to :+ ;tina in 187< after this -ord @labourA Marx adds @labour 3o-er;A this addition is found in the 189< Fren!h edition+

/5

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

ex!e3t in the ex3ression+ :either the de3re!iation nor the enhan!e ent of the )alue of a 3rodu!t destroys its 2uality of being in so e @3ro3ortional relationA -ith the other 3rodu!ts -hi!h !onstitute -ealth+ 9hy then this ne- ter , -hi!h introdu!es no ne- ideaF @Pro3ortional relationA suggests any other e!ono i! relations, su!h as 3ro3ortionality in 3rodu!tion, the true 3ro3ortion bet-een su33ly and de and, et!+, and M+ Proudhon is thin1ing of all that -hen he for ulates this dida!ti! 3ara3hrase of ar1etable )alue+ "n the first 3la!e, the relati)e )alue of 3rodu!ts being deter ined by the !o 3arati)e a ount of labour used in the 3rodu!tion of ea!h of the , 3ro3ortional relations, a33lied to this s3e!ial !ase, stand for the res3e!ti)e 2uota of 3rodu!ts -hi!h !an be anufa!tured in a gi)en ti e, and -hi!h in !onse2uen!e are gi)en in ex!hange for one another+ $et us see -hat ad)antage M+ Proudhon dra-s fro this 3ro3ortional relation+ ')eryone 1no-s that -hen su33ly and de and are e)enly balan!ed, the relati)e )alue of any 3rodu!t is a!!urately deter ined by the 2uantity of labour e bodied in it, that is to say, that this relati)e )alue ex3resses the 3ro3ortional relation 3re!isely in the sense -e ha)e 5ust atta!hed to it+ M+ Proudhon in)erts the order of things+ Begin, he says, by easuring the relati)e )alue of a 3rodu!t by the 2uantity of labour e bodied in it, and su33ly and de and -ill infallibly balan!e one another+ Produ!tion -ill !orres3ond to !onsu 3tion, the 3rodu!t -ill al-ays be ex!hangeable+ "ts !urrent 3ri!e -ill ex3ress exa!tly its true )alue+ "nstead of saying li1e e)eryone else> -hen the -eather is fine, a lot of 3eo3le are to be seen going out for a -al1+ M+ Proudhon a1es his 3eo3le go out for a -al1 in order to be able to ensure the fine -eather+ 9hat M+ Proudhon gi)es as the !onse2uen!e of ar1etable )alue deter ined a 3riori by labour ti e !ould be 5ustified only by a la!ou!hed ore or less in the follo-ing ter s> Produ!ts -ill in future be ex!hanged in the exa!t ratio of the labour ti e they ha)e !ost+ 9hate)er ay be the 3ro3ortion of su33ly to de and, the ex!hange of !o odities -ill al-ays be ade as if they had been 3rodu!ed 3ro3ortionately to the de and+ $et M+ Proudhon ta1e it u3on hi self to for ulate and lay do-n su!h a la-, and -e shall relie)e hi of the ne!essity of gi)ing 3roofs+ "f, on the other hand, he insists on 5ustifying his theory, not as a legislator, but as an e!ono ist, he -ill ha)e to 3ro)e that the ti e needed to !reate a !o odity indi!ates exa!tly the degree of its utility and ar1s its 3ro3ortional relation to the de and, and in !onse2uen!e, to the total a ount of -ealth+ "n this !ase, if a 3rodu!t is sold at a 3ri!e e2ual to its !ost of 3rodu!tion, su33ly and de and -ill al-ays be e)enly balan!ed; for the !ost of 3rodu!tion is su33osed to ex3ress the true relation bet-een su33ly and de and+ (!tually, M+ Proudhon sets out to 3ro)e that labour ti e needed to !reate a 3rodu!t indi!ates its true 3ro3ortional relation to needs, so that the things -hose 3rodu!tion !osts the least ti e are the ost i ediately useful, and so on, ste3 by ste3+ 8he ere 3rodu!tion of a

/<

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

luxury ob5e!t 3ro)es at on!e, a!!ording to this do!trine, that so!iety has s3are ti e -hi!h allo-s it to satisfy a need for luxury+ M+ Proudhon finds the )ery 3roof of his thesis in the obser)ation that the ost useful things !ost the least ti e to 3rodu!e, that so!iety al-ays begins -ith the easiest industries and su!!essi)ely @starts on the 3rodu!tion of ob5e!ts -hi!h !ost ore labour ti e and -hi!h !orres3ond to a higher order of needs+A M+ Proudhon borro-s fro M+ Ounoyer the exa 3le of extra!ti)e industry D fruit#gathering, 3asturage, hunting, fishing, et!+ D -hi!h is the si 3lest, the least !ostly of industries, and the one by -hi!h an began @the first day of his se!ond !reation+A 8he first day of his first !reation is re!orded in =enesis, -hi!h sho-s =od as the -orld6s first anufa!turer+ 8hings ha33en in 2uite a different -ay fro -hat M+ Proudhon i agines+ 8he )ery o ent !i)ilisation begins, 3rodu!tion begins to be founded on the antagonis of orders, estates, !lasses, and finally on the antagonis of a!!u ulated labour and a!tual labour+ :o antagonis , no 3rogress+ 8his is the la- that !i)ilisation has follo-ed u3 to our days+ 8ill no- the 3rodu!ti)e for!es ha)e been de)elo3ed by )irtue of this syste of !lass antagonis s+ 8o say no- that, be!ause all the needs of all the -or1ers -ere satisfied, en !ould de)ote the sel)es to the !reation of 3rodu!ts of a higher order D to ore !o 3li!ated industries D -ould be to lea)e !lass antagonis out of a!!ount and turn all histori!al de)elo3 ent u3side do-n+ "t is li1e saying that be!ause, under the Co an e 3erors, uraena -ere fattened in artifi!ial fish3onds, therefore there -as enough to feed abundantly the -hole Co an 3o3ulation+ (!tually, on the !ontrary, the Co an 3eo3le had not enough to buy bread -ith, -hile the Co an aristo!rats had sla)es enough to thro- as fodder to the uraena+ 8he 3ri!e of food has al ost !ontinuously risen, -hile the 3ri!e of anufa!tured and luxury goods has al ost !ontinuously fallen+ 8a1e the agri!ultural industry itself; the ost indis3ensable ob5e!ts, li1e !orn, eat, et!+, rise in 3ri!e, -hile !otton, sugar, !offee, et!+, fall in a sur3rising 3ro3ortion+ (nd e)en a ong !o estibles 3ro3er, the luxury arti!les, li1e arti!ho1es, as3aragus, et!+, are today relati)ely !hea3er than foodstuffs of 3ri e ne!essity+ "n our age, the su3erfluous is easier to 3rodu!e than the ne!essary+ Finally, at different histori!al e3o!hs, the re!i3ro!al 3ri!e relations are not only different, but o33osed to one another+ "n the -hole of the Middle (ges, agri!ultural 3rodu!ts -ere relati)ely !hea3er than anufa!tured 3rodu!ts; in odern ti es they are in in)erse ratio+ Ooes this ean that the utility of agri!ultural 3rodu!ts has di inished sin!e the Middle (gesF 8he use of 3rodu!ts is deter ined by the so!ial !onditions in -hi!h the !onsu ers find the sel)es 3la!ed, and these !onditions the sel)es are based on !lass antagonis + .otton, 3otatoes and s3irits are ob5e!ts of the ost !o on use+ Potatoes ha)e engendered s!rofula; !otton has to a great extent dri)en out flax and -ool, although -ool and flax are, in any !ases, of greater utility, if only fro the 3oint of )ie- of hygiene; finally,

/7

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

s3irits ha)e got the u33er hand of beer and -ine, although s3irits used as an ali entary substan!e are e)ery-here re!ognised to be 3oison+ For a -hole !entury, go)ern ents struggled in )ain against the 'uro3ean o3iu ; e!ono i!s 3re)ailed, and di!tated its orders to !onsu 3tion+ 9hy are !otton, 3otatoes and s3irits the 3i)ots of bourgeois so!ietyF Be!ause the least a ount of labour is needed to 3rodu!e the , and, !onse2uently, they ha)e the lo-est 3ri!e+ 9hy does the ini u 3ri!e deter ine the axi u !onsu 3tionF "s it by any !han!e be!ause of the absolute utility of these ob5e!ts, their intrinsi! utility, their utility inso u!h as they !orres3ond, in the ost useful anner, in the needs of the -or1er as a an, and not to the an as a -or1erF :o, it is be!ause in a so!iety founded on 3o)erty the 3oorest 3rodu!ts ha)e the fatal 3rerogati)e of being used by the greatest nu ber+ 8o say no- that be!ause the least !ostly things are in greater use, they ust be of greater utility, is saying that the -ide use of s3irits, be!ause of their lo- !ost of 3rodu!tion, is the ost !on!lusi)e 3roof of their utility; it is telling the 3roletarian that 3otatoes are ore -holeso e for hi than eat; it is a!!e3ting the 3resent state of affairs; it is, in short, a1ing an a3ology, -ith M+ Proudhon, for a so!iety -ithout understanding it+ "n a future so!iety, in -hi!h !lass antagonis -ill ha)e !eased, in -hi!h there -ill no longer be any !lasses, use -ill no longer be deter ined by the ini u ti e of 3rodu!tion; but the ti e of 3rodu!tion de)oted to different arti!les -ill be deter ined by the degree of their so!ial utility+ 8o return to M+ Proudhon6s thesis> the o ent the labour ti e ne!essary for the 3rodu!tion of an arti!le !eases to be the ex3ression of its degree of utility, the ex!hange )alue of this sa e arti!le, deter ined beforehand by the labour ti e e bodied in it, be!o es 2uite usable to regulate the true relation of su33ly to de and, that is, the 3ro3ortional relation in the sense M+ Proudhon at the o ent attributes to it+ "t is not the sale of a gi)en 3rodu!t at the 3ri!e of its !ost of 3rodu!tion that !onstitutes the @3ro3ortional relationA of su33ly to de and, or the 3ro3ortional 2uota of this 3rodu!t relati)ely to the su total of 3rodu!tion; it is the )ariations in su33ly and de and that sho- the 3rodu!er -hat a ount of a gi)en !o odity he ust 3rodu!e in order to re!ei)e in ex!hange at least the !ost of 3rodu!tion+ (nd as these )ariations are !ontinually o!!urring, there is also a !ontinual o)e ent of -ithdra-al and a33li!ation of !a3ital in the different bran!hes of industry+ @"t is only in !onse2uen!e of su!h )ariations that !a3ital is a33ortioned 3re!isely, in the re2uisite abundan!e and no ore, to the 3rodu!tion of the different !o odities -hi!h ha33en to be in de and+ 9ith the rise or fall of 3ri!e, 3rofits are ele)ated abo)e, or de3ressed belo- their general le)el, and !a3ital is either en!ouraged to enter into, or is -arned to de3art fro , the 3arti!ular e 3loy ent in -hi!h the )ariation has ta1en 3la!e+A @9hen -e loo1 at the ar1ets of a large to-n, and obser)e horegularly they are su33lied both -ith ho e and foreign !o odities,

/8

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

in the 2uantity in -hi!h they are re2uired, under all the !ir!u stan!es of )arying de and, arising fro the !a3ri!e of taste, or a !hange in the a ount of 3o3ulation, -ithout often 3rodu!ing either the effe!ts of a glut fro a too abundant su33ly, or an enor ously high 3ri!e fro the su33ly being une2ual to the de and, -e ust !onfess that the 3rin!i3le -hi!h a33ortions !a3ital to ea!h trade in the 3re!ise a ount that is re2uired, is ore a!ti)e than is generally su33osed+A *Ci!ardo, Jol+ ", 33+ 105 and 108, "f M+ Proudhon ad its that the )alue of 3rodu!ts is deter ined by labour ti e, he should e2ually ad it that it is the flu!tuating o)e ent alone that in so!ieties founded on indi)idual ex!hanges a1e labour the easure of )alue+ 8here is no ready# ade !onstituted @3ro3ortional relation,A but only a !onstituting o)e ent+ 9e ha)e 5ust seen in -hat sense it is !orre!t to s3ea1 of @3ro3ortionA as of a !onse2uen!e of )alue deter ined by labour ti e+ 9e shall see no- ho- this easure by ti e, !alled by M+ Proudhon the @la- of 3ro3ortion,A be!o es transfor ed into a la- of "isproportion+ ')ery ne- in)ention that enables the 3rodu!tion in one hour of that -hi!h has hitherto been 3rodu!ed in t-o hours de3re!iates all si ilar 3rodu!ts on the ar1et+ .o 3etition for!es the 3rodu!er to sell the 3rodu!t of t-o hours as !hea3ly as the 3rodu!t of one hour+ .o 3etition !arries into effe!t the la- a!!ording to -hi!h the relati)e )alue of a 3rodu!t is deter ined by the labour ti e needed to 3rodu!e it+ $abour ti e ser)ing as the easure of ar1etable )alue be!o es in this -ay the la- of the !ontinual de3re!iation of labour+ 9e -ill say ore+ 8here -ill be de3re!iation not only of the !o odities brought into the ar1et, but also of the instru ents of 3rodu!tion and of -hole 3lants+ 8his fa!t -as already 3ointed out by Ci!ardo -hen he said> @By !onstantly in!reasing the fa!ility of 3rodu!tion, -e !onstantly di inish the )alue of so e of the !o odities before 3rodu!ed+A *Jol+ "", 3+ 59, Bis ondi goes further+ Ee sees in this @)alue constitute"A by labour ti e, the sour!e of all the !ontradi!tions of odern industry and !o er!e+ @Mer!antile )alue,A he says, @is al-ays deter ined in the long run by the 2uantity of labour needed to obtain the thing e)aluated> it is not -hat it has a!tually !ost, but -hat it -ould !ost in the future -ith, 3erha3s, 3erfe!ted eans; and this 2uantity, although diffi!ult to e)aluate, is al-ays faithfully established by !o 3etition++++ "t is on this basis that the de and of the seller as -ell as the su33ly of the buyer is re!1oned+ 8he for er -ill 3erha3s de!lare that the thing has !ost hi 10 days6 labour; but if the latter realises that it !an hen!eforth be 3rodu!ed -ith eight days6 labour, in the e)ent of !o 3etition 3ro)ing this to the t-o !ontra!ting 3arties, the )alue -ill be redu!ed, and the ar1et 3ri!e fixed at eight days only+ 7f !ourse, ea!h of the 3arties belie)es that the thing is useful, that it is desired, that -ithout desire there -ould be no sale; but the fixing of the 3ri!e has nothing to do -ith utility+A *'tudes, et!+, Jol+ "", 3+ /<7, "t is i 3ortant to e 3hasise the 3oint that -hat deter ines )alue is not the ti e ta1en to 3rodu!e a thing, but the ini u ti e it !ould

/9

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

3ossibly be 3rodu!ed in, and the ini u is as!ertained by !o 3etition+ Bu33ose for a o ent that there is no ore !o 3etition and !onse2uently no longer any eans to as!ertain the ini u of labour ne!essary for the 3rodu!tion of a !o odity; -hat -ill ha33enF "t -ill suffi!e to s3end six hours6 -or1 on the 3rodu!tion of an ob5e!t, in order to ha)e the right, a!!ording to M+ Proudhon, to de and in ex!hange six ti es as u!h as the one -ho has ta1en only one hour to 3rodu!e the sa e ob5e!t+ "nstead of a @3ro3ortional relation,A -e ha)e a dis3ro3ortional relation, at any rate if -e insist on sti!1ing to relations, good or bad+ 8he !ontinual de3re!iation of labour is only one side, one !onse2uen!e of the e)aluation of !o odities by labour ti e+ 8he ex!essi)e raising of 3ri!es, o)er3rodu!tion and any other features of industrial anar!hy ha)e their ex3lanation in this ode of e)aluation+ But does labour ti e used as a easure of )alue gi)e rise at least to the 3ro3ortional )ariety of 3rodu!ts that so delights M+ ProudhonF 7n the !ontrary, ono3oly in all its onotony follo-s in its -a1e and in)ades the -orld of 3rodu!ts, 5ust as to e)erybody6s 1no-ledge ono3oly in)ades the -orld of the instru ents of 3rodu!tion+ "t is only in a fe- bran!hes of industry, li1e the !otton industry, that )ery ra3id 3rogress !an be ade+ 8he natural !onse2uen!e of this 3rogress is that the 3rodu!ts of !otton anufa!ture, for instan!e, fall ra3idly in 3ri!e> but as the 3ri!e of !otton goes do-n, the 3ri!e of flax -ill be re3la!ed by !otton+ "n this -ay, flax has been dri)en out of al ost the -hole of :orth ( eri!a+ (nd -e ha)e obtained, instead of the 3ro3ortional )ariety of 3rodu!ts, the do inan!e of !otton+ 9hat is left of this @3ro3ortional relationAF :othing but the 3ious -ish of an honest an -ho -ould li1e !o odities to be 3rodu!ed in 3ro3ortions -hi!h -ould 3er it of their being sold at an honest 3ri!e+ "n all ages good#natured bourgeois and 3hilanthro3i! e!ono ists ha)e ta1en 3leasure in ex3ressing this inno!ent -ish+ $et us hear -hat old Boisguillebert says> @8he 3ri!e of !o odities,A he says, @ ust al-ays be 3ro3ortionate; for it is su!h utual understanding alone that !an enable the to exist together so as to give themselves to one another at any moment *here is M+ Proudhon6s !ontinual ex!hangeability, and re!i3ro!ally gi)e birth to one another+ +++ @(s -ealth, then, is nothing but this !ontinual inter!ourse bet-een an and an, !raft and !raft, et!+, it is a frightful blindness to go loo1ing for the !ause of isery else-here than in the !essation of su!h traffi! brought about by a disturban!e of 3ro3ortion in 3ri!es+A *Oissertation sur la nature des ri!hesses, Oaire6s ed+ R33+ 405 and 408S, RBoisguillebert6s -or1 is 2uoted fro the sy 3osiu '!ono istes#finan!iers du LJ""" sie!le+ Prefa!ed by a histori!al s1et!h on ea!h author and a!!o 3anied by !o entaries and ex3lanatory notes by 'ugene Oaire, Paris, 184G+S $et us listen also to a odern e!ono ist> @8he great la- as ne!essary to be affixed to 3rodu!tion, that is, the la- of 3ro3ortion, -hi!h alone !an 3reser)e the !ontinuity of )alue++++ 8he e2ui)alent ust be guaranteed++++ (ll nations ha)e atte 3ted, at )arious 3eriods of their history, by instituting nu erous !o er!ial

G0

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

regulations and restri!tions, to effe!t, in so e degree, the ob5e!t here ex3lained++++ But the natural and inherent selfishness of an+++ has urged hi to brea1 do-n all su!h regulations+ Pro3ortionate 3rodu!tion is the realisation of the entire truth of the B!ien!e of Bo!ial '!ono y+A *9+ (t1inson, Prin!i3les of Politi!al '!ono y, $ondon 1840, 33+ 170#95, 7uit TroBa+ R8roy is no ore+S 8his true 3ro3ortion bet-een su33ly and de and, -hi!h is beginning on!e ore to be the ob5e!t of so any -ishes, !eased long ago to exist+ "t has 3assed into the stage of senility+ "t -as 3ossible only at a ti e -hen the eans of 3rodu!tion -ere li ited, -hen the o)e ent of ex!hange too1 3la!e -ithin )ery restri!ted bounds+ 9ith the birth of large#s!ale industry this true 3ro3ortion had to !o e to an end, and 3rodu!tion is ine)itably !o 3elled to 3ass in !ontinuous su!!ession through )i!issitudes of 3ros3erity, de3ression, !risis, stagnation, rene-ed 3ros3erity, and so on+ 8hose -ho, li1e Bis ondi, -ish to return to the true 3ro3ortion of 3rodu!tion, -hile 3reser)ing the 3resent basis of so!iety, are rea!tionary, sin!e, to be !onsistent, they ust also -ish to bring ba!1 all the other !onditions of industry of for er ti es+ 9hat 1e3t 3rodu!tion in true, or ore or less true, 3ro3ortionsF "t -as de and that do inated su33ly, that 3re!eded it+ Produ!tion follo-ed !lose on the heels of !onsu 3tion+ $arge#s!ale industry, for!ed by the )ery instru ents at its dis3osal to 3rodu!e on an e)er#in!reasing s!ale, !an no longer -ait for de and+ Produ!tion 3re!edes !onsu 3tion, su33ly !o 3els de and+ "n existing so!iety, in industry based on indi)idual ex!hange, anar!hy of 3rodu!tion, -hi!h is the sour!e of so u!h isery, is at the sa e ti e the sour!e of all 3rogress+ 8hus, one or the other> 'ither you -ant the true 3ro3ortions of 3ast !enturies -ith 3resent# day eans of 3rodu!tion, in -hi!h !ase you are both rea!tionary and uto3ian+ 7r you -ant 3rogress -ithout anar!hy> in -hi!h !ase, in order to 3reser)e the 3rodu!ti)e for!es, you ust abandon indi)idual ex!hange+ "ndi)idual ex!hange is suited only to the s all#s!ale industry of 3ast !enturies -ith its !orollary of @true 3ro3ortion,A or else to large#s!ale industry -ith all its train of isery and anar!hy+ (fter all, the deter ination of )alue by labour ti e D the for ula M+ Proudhon gi)es us as the regenerating for ula of the future D is therefore erely the s!ientifi! ex3ression of the e!ono i! relations of 3resent#day so!iety, as -as !learly and 3re!isely de onstrated by Ci!ardo long before M+ Proudhon+ But does the @e2ualitarianA a33li!ation of this for ula at least belong to M+ ProudhonF 9as he the first to thin1 of refor ing so!iety by transfor ing all en into a!tual -or1ers ex!hanging e2ual a ounts of labourF "s it really for hi to re3roa!h the .o unists D these 3eo3le de)oid of all 1no-ledge of 3oliti!al e!ono y, these @obstinately foolish en,A these @3aradise drea ersA D -ith not

G1

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

ha)ing found, before hi , this @solution of the 3roble of the 3roletariatAF (nyone -ho is in any -ay fa iliar -ith the trend of 3oliti!al e!ono y in 'ngland !annot fail to 1no- that al ost all the Bo!ialists in that !ountry ha)e, at different 3eriods, 3ro3osed the e2ualitarian a33li!ation of the Ci!ardian theory+ 9e 2uote for M+ Proudhon> Eodgs1in, Politi!al '!ono y, 18/7; 9illia 8ho 3son, (n "n2uiry into the Prin!i3les of the Oistribution of 9ealth Most .ondu!i)e to Eu an Ea33iness, 18/4; 8+ C+ 'd onds, Pra!ti!al Moral and Politi!al '!ono y, 18/8 R18S, et!+, et!+, and four 3ages ore of et!+ 9e shall !ontent oursel)es -ith listening to an 'nglish .o unist, Mr+ Bray+ 9e shall gi)e the de!isi)e 3assages in his re ar1able -or1, $abour6s 9rongs and $abour6s Ce edy, $eeds, 18G9, and -e shall d-ell so e ti e u3on it, firstly, be!ause Mr+ Bray is still little 1no-n in Fran!e, and se!ondly, be!ause -e thin1 that -e ha)e dis!o)ered in hi the 1ey to the 3ast, 3resent and future -or1s of M+ Proudhon+ @8he only -ay to arri)e at truth is to go at on!e to First Prin!i3les++++ $et us+++ go at on!e to the sour!e fro -hen!e go)ern ents the sel)es ha)e arisen++++ By thus going to the origin of the thing, -e shall find that e)ery for of go)ern ent, and e)ery so!ial and go)ern ental -rong, o-es its rise to the existing so!ial syste D to the institution of 3ro3erty as it at 3resent exists D and that, therefore, if -e -ould end our -rongs and our iseries at on!e and for e)er, the 3resent arrange ents of so!iety ust be totally sub)erted++++ By thus fighting the u3on their o-n ground, and -ith their o-n -ea3ons, -e shall a)oid that senseless !latter res3e!ting K)isionaries6 and Ktheorists6, -ith -hi!h they are so ready to assail all -ho dare o)e one ste3 fro that beaten tra!1 -hi!h Kby authority6, has been 3ronoun!ed to be the right one+ Before the !on!lusions arri)ed at by su!h a !ourse of 3ro!eeding !an be o)erthro-n, the e!ono ists ust unsay or dis3ro)e those established truths and 3rin!i3les on -hi!h their o-n argu ents are founded+A *Bray, 33+ 17 and 41, @"t is labour alone -hi!h besto-s )alue++++ ')ery an has an undoubted right to all that his honest labour !an 3ro!ure hi + 9hen he thus a33ro3riates the fruits of his labour, he !o its no in5usti!e u3on any other hu an being; for he interferes -ith no other an6s right of doing the sa e -ith the 3rodu!e of his labour++++ (ll these ideas of su3erior and inferior D of aster and an D ay be tra!ed to the negle!t of First Prin!i3les, and to the !onse2uent rise of ine2uality of 3ossessions; and su!h ideas -ill ne)er be sub)erted, so long as this ine2uality is aintained+ Men ha)e hitherto blindly ho3ed to re edy the 3resent unnatural state of things+++ by destroying existing ine2uality; but it -ill be shortly seen+++ that isgo)ern ent is not a !ause, but a !onse2uen!e D that it is not the !reator, but the !reated D that is the offs3ring of ine2uality of 3ossessions; and that the ine2uality of 3ossessions is inse3arably !onne!ted -ith our 3resent so!ial syste +A *Bray, 33+ GG, G< and G7, @:ot only are the greatest ad)antages, but stri!t 5usti!e also, on the side of a syste of e2uality++++ ')ery an is a lin1, in the !hain of effe!ts D the beginning of -hi!h is but an idea, and the end, 3erha3s,

G/

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

the 3rodu!tion of a 3ie!e of !loth+ 8hus, although -e ay entertain different feelings to-ards the se)eral 3arties, it does not follo- that one should be better 3aid for his labour than another+ 8he in)entor -ill e)er re!ei)e, in addition to his 5ust 3e!uniary re-ard, that -hi!h genius only !an obtain fro us D the tribune of our ad iration++++ @Fro the )ery nature of labour and ex!hange, stri!t 5usti!e not only re2uires that all ex!hangers should be utually, but that they should li1e-ise be e2ually, benefited+ Men ha)e only t-o things -hi!h they !an ex!hange -ith ea!h other, na ely, labour, and the 3rodu!e of labour++++ "f a 5ust syste of ex!hanges -ere a!ted u3on, the )alue of arti!les -ould be deter ined by the entire !ost of 3rodu!tion; and e2ual )alues should al-ays ex!hange for e2ual )alues+ "f, for instan!e, it ta1es a hatter one day to a1e a hat, and a shoe a1er the sa e ti e to a1e a 3air of shoes D su33osing the aterial used by ea!h to be of the sa e )alue D and they ex!hange these arti!les -ith ea!h other, they are not only utually but e2ually benefited> the ad)antage deri)ed by either 3arty !annot be a disad)antage to the other, as ea!h has gi)en the sa e a ount of labour, and the aterials ade use of by ea!h -ere of e2ual )alue+ But if the hatter should obtain t)o 3air of shoes for one hat D ti e and )alue of aterial being as before D the ex!hange -ould !learly be an un5ust one+ 8he hatter -ould defraud the shoe a1er of one day6s labour; and -ere the for er to a!t thus in all his ex!hanges, he -ould re!ei)e, for the labour of half a year, the 3rodu!t of so e other 3erson6s )hole year+ 9e ha)e heretofore a!ted u3on no other than this ost un5ust syste of ex!hanges D the -or1 en ha)e gi)en the !a3italist the labour of a -hole year, in ex!hange for the )alue of only half a year D and fro this, and not fro the assu ed ine2uality of bodily and ental 3o-ers in indi)iduals, has arisen the ine2uality of -ealth and 3o-er -hi!h at 3resent exists around us+ "t is an ine)itable !ondition of ine2uality of ex!hanges D of buying at one 3ri!e and selling at another D that !a3italists shall !ontinue to be !a3italists, and -or1ing en to be -or1ing en D the one a !lass of tyrants and the other a !lass of sla)es D to eternity++++ @8he -hole transa!tion, therefore, 3lainly she-s that the !a3italists and 3ro3rietors do no ore than gi)e the -or1ing an, for his labour of one -ee1, a 3art of the -ealth -hi!h they obtained fro hi the -ee1 beforeH D -hi!h a ounts to gi)ing hi nothing for something++++ 8he -hole transa!tion, therefore, bet-een the 3rodu!er and the !a3italist is a 3al3able de!e3tion, a ere far!e> it is, in fa!t, in thousands of instan!es, no other than a barefa!ed though legali3e" ro((ery+A *Bray, 33+ 45, 48, 49 and 50, +A++ the gain of the e 3loyer -ill ne)er !ease to be the loss of the e 3loyed D until the ex!hanges bet-een the 3arties are e2ual; and ex!hanges ne)er !an be e2ual -hile so!iety is di)ided into !a3italists and 3rodu!ers D the last li)ing u3on their labour and the first bloating u3on the 3rofit of that labour+ @"t is 3lain that, establish -hate)er for of go)ern ent -e -ill+++ -e ay tal1 of orality and brotherly lo)e+++ no re!i3ro!ity !an exist -here there are une2ual ex!hanges+ "ne2uality of ex!hanges, as being

GG

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

the !ause of ine2uality of 3ossessions, is the se!ret ene y that de)ours us+A *Bray, 33+ 51 and 5/, @"t has been dedu!ed, also, fro a !onsideration of the intention and end of so!iety, not only that all en should labour, and thereby be!o e ex!hangers, but that e2ual )alues should al-ays ex!hange for e2ual )alues D and that, as the gain of one an ought ne)er to be the loss of another, )alue should be deter ined by !ost of 3rodu!tion+ But -e ha)e seen, that, under the 3resent arrange ents of so!iety+++ the gain of the !a3italist and the ri!h an is al-ays the loss of the -or1 an D that this result -ill in)ariably ta1e 3la!e, and the 3oor an be left entirely at the er!y of the ri!h an, under any and e)ery for of go)ern ent, so long as there is ine2uality of ex!hanges D and that e2uality of ex!hanges !an be ensured only under so!ial arrange ents in -hi!h labour is uni)ersal++++ "f ex!hanges -ere e2ual, -ould the -ealth of the 3resent !a3italists gradually go fro the to the -or1ing !lasses+A *Bray, 33+ 5G#55, @Bo long as this syste of une2ual ex!hanges is tolerated, the 3rodu!ers -ill be al ost as 3oor and as ignorant and as hard-or1ed as they are at 3resent, e)en if e)ery go)ern ental burthen be s-e3t a-ay and all taxes be abolished+++ nothing but a total !hange of this syste D an e2uality of labour and ex!hanges D !an alter this state of rights++++ 8he 3rodu!ers ha)e but to a1e an effort D and by the ust e)ery effort for their o-n rede 3tion be ade D and their !hains -ill be sna33ed asunder fore)er++++ (s an end, the 3oliti!al e2uality is there a failure, as a eans, also, it is there a failure+ @9here e2ual ex!hanges are aintained, the gain of one an !annot be the loss of another; for e)ery ex!hange is then si 3ly a transfer, and not a sa!rifi!e of labour and -ealth+ 8hus, although under a so!ial syste based on e2ual ex!hanges, a 3arsi onious an ay be!o e ri!h, his -ealth -ill be no ore than the a!!u ulated 3rodu!e of his o-n labour+ Ee ay ex!hange his -ealth, or he ay gi)e it to others+++ but a ri!h an !annot !ontinue -ealthy for any length of ti e after he has !eased to labour+ ;nder e2uality of ex!hanges, -ealth !annot ha)e, as it no- has, a 3ro!reati)e and a33arently self#generating 3o-er, su!h as re3lenishes all -aste fro !onsu 3tion; for, unless it be rene-ed by labour, -ealth, -hen on!e !onsu ed, is gi)en u3 for e)er+ 8hat -hi!h is no- !alled 3rofit and interest !annot exist as su!h in !onne!tion -ith e2uality of ex!hanges; for 3rodu!er and distributor -ould be ali1e re unerated, and the su total of their labour -ould deter ine the )alue of the arti!le !reated and brought to the hands of the !onsu er+ @8he 3rin!i3le of e2ual ex!hanges, therefore, ust fro its )ery nature ensure universal la(our+A *Bray, 33+ <7, 88, 89, 94, 109 and 10, (fter ha)ing refuted the ob5e!tions of the e!ono ists to !o unis , Mr+ Bray goes on to say> @"f, then a !hanged !hara!ter be essential to the su!!ess of the so!ial syste of !o unity in its ost 3erfe!t for D and if, li1e-ise, the 3resent syste affords no !ir!u stan!es and no fa!ilities for effe!ting the re2uisite !hange of !hara!ter and 3re3aring an for the higher and better state desired D it is e)ident that these things ust

G4

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

ne!essarily re ain as they are++++ or else so e 3re3aratory ste3 ust be dis!o)ered and ade use of D so e o)e ent 3arta1ing 3artly of the 3resent and 3artly of the desired syste D so e inter ediate resting 3la!e, to -hi!h so!iety ay go -ith all its faults and its follies, and fro -hi!h it ay o)e for-ard, i bued -ith those 2ualities and attributes -ithout -hi!h the syste of !o unity and e2uality !annot as su!h ha)e existen!e+A *Bray, 3+ 1G4, @8he -hole o)e ent -ould re2uire only !o#o3eration in its si 3lest for ++++ .ost of 3rodu!tion -ould in e)ery instan!e deter ine )alue; and e2ual )alues -ould al-ays ex!hange for e2ual )alues+ "f one 3erson -or1ed a -hole -ee1, and another -or1ed only half a -ee1, the first -ould re!ei)e double the re uneration of the last; but this extra 3ay of the one -ould not be at the ex3ense of the other, nor -ould the loss in!urred by the last an fall in any -ay u3on the first+ 'a!h 3erson -ould ex!hange the -ages he indi)idually re!ei)ed for !o odities of the sa e )alue as his res3e!ti)e -ages; and in no !ase !ould the gain of one an or one trade be a loss to another an or another trade+ 8he labour of e)ery indi)idual -ould alone deter ine his gains of his losses++++ +A++By eans of general and lo!al boards of trade+++ the 2uantities of the )arious !o odities re2uired for !onsu 3tion D the relati)e )alue of ea!h in regard to ea!h other D the nu ber of hands re2uired in )arious trades and des!ri3tions of labour D and all other atters !onne!ted -ith 3rodu!tion and distribution, !ould in a short ti e be as easily deter ined for a nation as for an indi)idual !o 3any under the 3resent arrange ents++++ (s indi)iduals !o 3ose fa ilies, and fa ilies to-ns, under the existing syste , so li1e-ise -ould they after the 5oint#sto!1 !hange had been effe!ted+ 8he 3resent distribution of 3eo3le in to-ns and )illages, bad as it is, -ould not be dire!tly interfered -ith++++ ;nder this 5oint#sto!1 syste , the sa e as under that no- existing, e)ery indi)idual -ould be at liberty to a!!u ulate as u!h as he 3leased, and to en5oy su!h a!!u ulations -hen and -here he ight thin1 3ro3er++++ 8he great 3rodu!ti)e se!tion of the !o unity+++ is di)ided into an indefinite nu ber of s aller se!tions, all -or1ing, 3rodu!ing and ex!hanging their 3rodu!ts on a footing of the ost 3erfe!t e2uality++++ (nd the 5oint# sto!1 odifi!ation *-hi!h is nothing but a !on!ession to 3resent#day so!iety in order to obtain !o unis ,, by being so !onstituted as to ad it of indi)idual 3ro3erty in 3rodu!tions in !onne!tion -ith a !o on 3ro3erty in 3rodu!ti)e 3o-ers D a1ing e)ery indi)idual de3endent on his o-n exertions, and at the sa e ti e allo-ing hi an e2ual 3arti!i3ation in e)ery ad)antage afforded by nature and art D is fitted to ta1e so!iety as it is, and to 3re3are the -ay for other and better !hanges+A *Bray, 33+ 158, 1<0, 1</, 1<8 and 194, 9e no- only need to re3ly in a fe- -ords to Mr+ Bray -ho -ithout us and in s3ite of us had anaged to su33lant M+ Proudhon, ex!e3t that Mr+ Bray, far fro !lai ing the last -ord on behalf of hu anity, 3ro3oses erely easures -hi!h he thin1s good for a 3eriod of transition bet-een existing so!iety and a !o unity regi e+ 7ne hour of Peter6s labour ex!hanges for one hour of Paul6s labour+ 8hat is Mr+ Bray6s funda ental axio +

G5

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

$et us su33ose Peter has 1/ hours6 labour before hi , and Paul only six+ Peter -ill !onse2uently ha)e six hours6 labour left o)er+ 9hat -ill he do -ith these six hours6 labourF 'ither he -ill do nothing -ith the D in -hi!h !ase he -ill ha)e -or1ed six hours for nothing; or else he -ill re ain idle for another six hours to get e)en; or else, as a last resour!e, he -ill gi)e these six hours6 labour, -hi!h he has no use for, to Paul into the bargain+ 9hat in the end -ill Peter ha)e earned ore than PaulF Bo e hours of labourF :oH Ee -ill ha)e gained only hours of leisure; he -ill be for!ed to 3lay the loafer for six hours+ (nd in order that this ne- right to loaf ight be not only relished but sought after in the ne- so!iety, this so!iety -ould ha)e to find in idleness its highest bliss, and to loo1 u3on labour as a hea)y sha!1le fro -hi!h it ust brea1 free at all !osts+ (nd indeed, to return to our exa 3le, if only these hours of leisure that Peter had gained in ex!ess of Paul -ere really a gainH :ot in the least+ Paul, beginning by -or1ing only six hours, attains by steady and regular -or1 a result that Peter se!ures only by beginning -ith an ex!ess of -or1+ ')eryone -ill -ant to be Paul, there -ill be a !o 3etition to o!!u3y Paul6s 3osition, a !o 3etition in idleness+ 9ell, thenH 9hat has the ex!hange of e2ual 2uantities of labour brought usF 7)er3rodu!tion, de3re!iation, ex!ess of labour follo-ed by une 3loy ent; in short, e!ono i! relations su!h as -e see in 3resent#day so!iety, inus the !o 3etition of labour+ :oH 9e are -rongH 8here is still an ex3edient -hi!h ay sa)e this ne- so!iety of Peters and Pauls+ Peter -ill !onsu e by hi self the 3rodu!t of the six hours6 labour -hi!h he has left+ But sin!e he has no longer to ex!hange be!ause he has 3rodu!ed, he has no need to 3rodu!e for ex!hange; and the -hole hy3othesis of a so!iety founded on the ex!hange and di)ision of labour -ill fall to the ground+ '2uality of ex!hange -ill ha)e been sa)ed by the si 3le fa!t that ex!hange -ill ha)e !eased to be> Paul and Peter -ould arri)e at the 3osition of Cobinson+ 8hus, if all the e bers of so!iety are su33osed to be a!tual -or1ers, the ex!hange of e2ual 2uantities of hours of labour is 3ossible only on !ondition that the nu ber of hours to be s3ent on aterial 3rodu!tion is agreed on before hand+ But su!h an agree ent negates indi)idual ex!hange+ 9e still !o e to the sa e result, if -e ta1e as our starting 3oint not the distribution of the 3rodu!ts !reated but the a!t of 3rodu!tion+ "n large#s!ale industry, Peter is not free to fix for hi self the ti e of his labour, for Peter6s labour is nothing -ithout the !o#o3eration of all the Peters and all the Pauls -ho a1e u3 the -or1sho3+ 8his ex3lains )ery -ell the dogged resistan!e -hi!h the 'nglish fa!tory o-ners 3ut u3 to the 8en Eours6 Bill+1 8hey 1ne- only too -ell that a t-o#hours6 redu!tion of labour granted to -o en and !hildren -ould !arry -ith it an e2ual redu!tion of -or1ing hours for adult en+ "t is in the nature of large#s!ale industry that -or1ing hours should be e2ual for all+ 9hat is today the result of !a3ital and the !o 3etition of -or1ers
1

8he 8en Eours6 Bill, -hi!h a33lied only to -o en and !hildren, -as 3assed by the British Parlia ent on 4une 8, 1847+ Many anufa!turers, ho-e)er, ignored the la- in 3ra!ti!e+ D 'd+

G<

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

a ong the sel)es -ill be to orro-, if you se)er the relation bet-een labour and !a3ital, an a!tual agree ent based u3on the relation bet-een the su of 3rodu!ti)e for!es and the su of existing needs+ But su!h an agree ent is a !onde nation of indi)idual ex!hange, and -e are ba!1 again at our first !on!lusionH "n 3rin!i3le, there is no ex!hange of 3rodu!ts D but there is the ex!hange of the labour -hi!h !o#o3erates in 3rodu!tion+ 8he ode of ex!hange of 3rodu!ts de3ends u3on the ode of ex!hange of the 3rodu!ti)e for!es+ "n general, the for of ex!hange of 3rodu!ts !orres3onds to the for of 3rodu!tion+ .hange the latter, and the for er -ill !hange in !onse2uen!e+ 8hus in the history of so!iety -e see that the ode of ex!hanging 3rodu!ts is regulated by the ode of 3rodu!ing the + "ndi)idual ex!hange !orres3onds also to a definite ode of 3rodu!tion -hi!h itself !orres3onds to !lass antagonis + 8here is thus no indi)idual ex!hange -ithout the antagonis of !lasses+ But the res3e!table !ons!ien!e refuses to see this ob)ious fa!t+ Bo long as one is a bourgeois, one !annot but see in this relation of antagonis a relation of har ony and eternal 5usti!e, -hi!h allo-s no one to gain at the ex3ense of another+ For the bourgeois, indi)idual ex!hange !an exist -ithout any antagonis of !lasses+ For hi , these are t-o 2uite un!onne!ted things+ "ndi)idual ex!hange, as the bourgeois !on!ei)es it, is far fro rese bling indi)idual ex!hange as it is 3ra!tised+ Mr+ Bray turns the illusion of the res3e!table bourgeois into an ideal he -ould li1e to attain+ "n a 3urified indi)idual ex!hange, freed fro all the ele ents of antagonis he finds in it, he sees an @e2ualitarianA relation -hi!h he -ould li1e so!iety to ado3t generally+ Mr+ Bray does not see that this e2ualitarian relation, this !orre!ti)e ideal that he -ould li1e to a33ly to the -orld, is itself nothing but the refle!tion of the a!tual -orld; and that therefore it is totally i 3ossible to re!onstitute so!iety on the basis of -hat is erely an e bellished shado- of it+ "n 3ro3ortion as this shado- ta1es on substan!e again, -e 3er!ei)e that this substan!e, far fro being the transfiguration drea t of, is the a!tual body of existing so!iety+ N 2 /. Appli"ation of the 6aw of the Proportionality of 4alue (, Money @=old and sil)er -ere the first !o odities to ha)e their )alue !onstituted+A *Jol+ ", 3+ <9, 8hus, gold and sil)er are the first a33li!ations of @)alue !onstitutedA +++ by M+ Proudhon+ (nd as M+ Proudhon !onstitutes the )alue of 3rodu!ts deter ining it by the !o 3arati)e a ount of labour e bodied in the , the only thing he had to do -as to 3ro)e that
N

Mr+ Bray6s theory, li1e all theories, has found su33orters -ho ha)e allo-ed the sel)es to be deluded by a33earan!es+ '2uitable labour#ex!hange ba?aars ha)e been set u3 in $ondon, Bheffield, $eeds and any other to-ns in 'ngland+ 8hese ba?aars ha)e all ended in s!andalous failures after ha)ing absorbed !onsiderable !a3ital+ 8he taste for the has gone for e)er+ Tou are -arned, M+ ProudhonH R:ote by MarxS "t is 1no-n that Proudhon did not ta1e this -arning to heart+ "n 1849 he hi self ade an atte 3t -ith a ne'x!hange Ban1 in Paris+ 8he ban1, ho-e)er, failed before it had got going 3ro3erly; a !ourt !ase against Proudhon had to ser)e to !o)er its !olla3se+ R:ote by F+ 'ngels to the =er an edition of 1885S

G7

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

)ariations in the )alue of gold and sil)er are al-ays ex3lained by )ariations in the labour ti e ta1en to 3rodu!e the + M+ Proudhon has no intention of doing so+ Ee s3ea1s of gold and sil)er not as !o odities, but as oney+ Eis only logi!, if logi! it be, !onsists in 5uggling -ith the !a3a!ity of gold and sil)er to be used as oney for the benefit of all the !o odities -hi!h ha)e the 3ro3erty of being e)aluated by labour ti e+ Oe!idedly there is ore nai)etM than ali!e in this 5ugglery+ ( useful 3rodu!t, on!e it has been e)aluated by the labour ti e needed to 3rodu!e it, is al-ays a!!e3table in ex!hange; -itness, !ries M+ Proudhon, gold and sil)er, -hi!h exist in y desired !onditions of @ex!hangeabilityAH =old and sil)er, then, are )alue -hi!h has rea!hed a state of !onstitution> they are the in!or3oration of M+ Proudhon6s idea+ Ee !ould not ha)e been ha33ier in his !hoi!e of an exa 3le+ =old and sil)er, a3art fro their !a3a!ity of being !o odities, e)aluated li1e other !o odities, in labour ti e, ha)e also the !a3a!ity of being the uni)ersal agents of ex!hange, of being oney+ By no- !onsidering gold and sil)er as an a33li!ation of @)alue !onstitutedA by labour ti e, nothing is easier than to 3ro)e that all !o odities -hose )alue is !onstituted by labour ti e -ill al-ays be ex!hangeable, -ill be oney+ ( )ery si 3le 2uestion o!!urs to M+ Proudhon+ 9hy ha)e gold and sil)er the 3ri)ilege of ty3ifying @!onstituted )alueFA @8he s3e!ial fun!tion -hi!h usage has de)ol)ed u3on the 3re!ious etal, that of ser)ing as a ediu for trade, is 3urely !on)entional, and any other !o odity !ould, less !on)eniently 3erha3s, but 5ust as reliably, fulfil this fun!tion+ '!ono ists re!ogni?e this, and !ite ore than one exa 3le+ 9hat then is the reason for this uni)ersal 3referen!e for etals as oneyF (nd -hat is the ex3lanation of this s3e!iali?ation of the fun!tion of oney D -hi!h has no analogy in 3oliti!al e!ono yF+++ "s it 3ossible to re!onstru!t the series fro -hi!h oney see s to ha)e bro1en a-ay, and hen!e to tra!e it ba!1 to its true 3rin!i3leFA *Jol+ ", 33+ <8#<9, Btraight a-ay, by for ulating the 2uestion in these ter s, M+ Proudhon has 3resu33osed the existen!e of oney+ 8he first 2uestion he should ha)e as1ed hi self -as, -hy, in ex!hanges as they are a!tually !onstituted, it has been ne!essary to indi)iduali?e ex!hangeable )alue, so to s3ea1, by the !reation of a s3e!ial agent of ex!hange+ Money is not a thing, it is a so!ial relation+ 9hy is the oney relation a 3rodu!tion relation li1e any other e!ono i! relation, su!h as the di)ision of labour, et!+F "f M+ Proudhon had 3ro3erly ta1en a!!ount of this relation, he -ould not ha)e seen in oney an ex!e3tion, an ele ent deta!hed fro a series un1no-n or needing re!onstru!tion+ Ee -ould ha)e reali?ed, on the !ontrary, that this relation is a lin1, and, as su!h, !losely !onne!ted -ith a -hole !hain of other e!ono i! relations; that this relation !orres3onds to a definite ode of 3rodu!tion neither ore nor less than does indi)idual ex!hange+ 9hat does he doF Ee starts off by deta!hing oney fro the a!tual ode of 3rodu!tion as a -hole, and then a1es it the first e ber of an i aginary series, of a series to be re!onstru!ted+

G8

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

7n!e the ne!essity for a s3e!ifi! agen!y of ex!hange, that is, for oney, has been re!ogni?ed, all that re ains to be ex3lained is -hy this 3arti!ular fun!tion has de)elo3ed u3on gold and sil)er rather than u3on any !o odity+ 8his is a se!ondary 2uestion, -hi!h is ex3lained not by the !hain of 3rodu!tion relations, but by the s3e!ifi! 2ualities inherent in gold and sil)er as substan!es+ "f all this has ade e!ono ists for on!e @go outside the do ains of their o-n s!ien!e, to dabble in 3hysi!s, e!hani!s, history and so on,A as M+ Proudhon re3roa!hes the -ith doing, they ha)e erely done -hat they -ere !o 3elled to do+ 8he 2uestion -as no longer -ithin the do ain of 3oliti!al e!ono y+ @9hat no e!ono ist,A says M+ Proudhon, @has either seen or understood is the e!ono i! reason -hi!h has deter ined, in fa)our of the 3re!ious etals, the fa)our they en5oy+A *Jol+ ", 3+ <9, 8his e!ono i! reason -hi!h nobody D -ith good ground indeed D has seen or understood, M+ Proudhon has seen, understood and be2ueathed to 3osterity+ @9hat nobody else has noti!ed is that, of all !o odities, gold and sil)er -ere the first to ha)e their )alue attain !onstitution+ "n the 3atriar!hal 3eriod, gold and sil)er -ere still bartered and ex!hanged in ingots but e)en then they sho-ed a )isible tenden!y to be!o e do inant and re!ei)ed a ar1ed degree of 3referen!e+ $ittle by little the so)ereigns too1 3ossession of the and affixed their seal to the > and of this so)ereign !onse!ration -as born oney, that is, the !o odity 3ar ex!ellen!e, -hi!h, not-ithstanding all the sho!1s of !o er!e, retains a definite 3ro3ortional )alue and a1es itself a!!e3ted for all 3ay ents++++ 8he distinguishing !hara!teristi! of gold and sil)er is due, " re3eat, to the fa!t that, than1s to their etalli! 3ro3erties, to the diffi!ulties of their 3rodu!tion, and abo)e all to the inter)ention of state authority, they early -on stability and authenti!ity as !o odities+A 8o say that, of all !o odities, gold and sil)er -ere the first to ha)e their )alue !onstituted, is to say, after all that has gone before, that gold and sil)er -ere the first to attain the status of oney+ 8his is M+ Proudhon6s great re)elation, this is the truth that none had dis!o)ered before hi + "f, by these -ords, M+ Proudhon eans that of all !o odities, gold and sil)er are the ones -hose ti e of 3rodu!tion -as 1no-n the earliest, this -ould be yet another of the su33ositions -ith -hi!h he is so ready to regale his readers+ "f -e -ished to har3 on this 3atriar!hal erudition, -e -ould infor M+ Proudhon that it -as the ti e needed to 3rodu!e ob5e!ts of 3ri e ne!essity, su!h as iron, et!+, -hi!h -as the first to be 1no-n+ 9e shall s3are hi (da B ith6s !lassi! bo-+ But, after all that, ho- !an M+ Proudhon go on tal1ing about the !onstitution of a )alue, sin!e a )alue is ne)er !onstituted by itselfF "t is !onstituted, not by the ti e needed to 3rodu!e it by itself, but in relation to the 2uota of ea!h and e)ery other 3rodu!t -hi!h !an be !reated in the sa e ti e+ 8hus the !onstitution of the )alue of gold and sil)er 3resu33oses an already !o 3leted !onstitution of a nu ber of other 3rodu!ts+

G9

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

"t is then not the !o odity that has attained, in gold and sil)er, the status of @!onstituted )alue,A it is M+ Proudhon6s @!onstituted )alueA that has attained, in gold and sil)er, the status of oney+ $et us no- a1e a !loser exa ination of these @e!ono i! reasonsA -hi!h, a!!ording to M+ Proudhon, ha)e besto-ed u3on gold and sil)er the ad)antage of being raised to the status of oney sooner than other 3rodu!ts, than1s to their ha)ing 3assed through the !onstituti)e 3hase of )alue+ 8hese e!ono i! reasons are> the @)isible tenden!y to be!o e do inant,A the @ ar1ed 3referen!esA e)en in the @3atriar!hal 3eriod,A and other !ir!u lo!utions about the a!tual fa!t D -hi!h in!rease the diffi!ulty, sin!e they ulti3ly the fa!t by ulti3lying the in!idents -hi!h M+ Proudhon brings in to ex3lain the fa!t+ M+ Proudhon has not yet exhausted all the so#!alled e!ono i! reasons+ Eere is one of so)ereign, irresistible for!e> @Money is born of so)ereign !onse!ration> the so)ereigns ta1e 3ossession of gold and sil)er and affix their seal to the +A *Jol+ ", 3+ <9, 8hus, the -hi of so)ereigns is for M+ Proudhon the highest reason in 3oliti!al e!ono y+ 8ruly, one ust be destitute of all histori!al 1no-ledge not to 1nothat it is the so)ereigns -ho in all ages ha)e been sub5e!t to e!ono i! !onditions, but they ha)e ne)er di!tated la-s to the + $egislation, -hether 3oliti!al or !i)il, ne)er does ore than 3ro!lai , ex3ress in -ords, the -ill of e!ono i! relations+ 9as it the so)ereign -ho too1 3ossession of gold and sil)er to a1e the the uni)ersal agents of ex!hange by affixing his seal to the F 7r -as it not, rather, these uni)ersal agents of ex!hange -hi!h too1 3ossession of the so)ereign and for!ed hi to affix his seal to the and thus gi)e the a 3oliti!al !onse!rationF 8he i 3ress -hi!h -as and is still gi)en to oney is not that of its )alue but of its -eight+ 8he stability and authenti!ity M+ Proudhon s3ea1s of a33ly only to the standard of the oney; and this standard indi!ates ho- u!h etalli! atter there is in a !oined 3ie!e of oney+ @8he sole intrinsi! )alue of a sil)er ar1,A says Joltaire, -ith his habitual good sense, @is a ar1 of sil)er, half a 3ound -eighing eight oun!es+ 8he -eight and the standard alone for this intrinsi! )alue+A *Joltaire, Syst#me "e La), RMarx 2uotes a !ha3ter fro Joltaire6s Eistorie de 3arle ent+ "t is entitled @Fran!e in the Period of the Cegen!y and $a-6s Byste +AS But the 2uestion> ho- u!h is an oun!e of gold or sil)er -orth, re ains nonetheless+ "f a !ash ere fro the =rand .olbert stores bore the trade ar1 3ure -ool, this trade ar1 -ould not tell you the )alue of the !ash ere+ 8here -ould still re ain the 2uestion> hou!h is -ool -orthF @Phili3 ", King of Fran!e,A says M+ Proudhon, @ ixes -ith .harle agne6s gold 3ound a third of alloy, i agining that, ha)ing the ono3oly of the anufa!ture of oney, he !ould do -hat is done by e)ery trades an -ho has the ono3oly of a 3rodu!t+ 9hat -as a!tually this debase ent of the !urren!y fro -hi!h Phili3 and his

40

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

su!!essors ha)e been so u!h bla edF "t -as 3erfe!tly sound reasoning fro the 3oint of )ie- of !o er!ial 3ra!ti!e, but )ery unsound e!ono i! s!ien!e, )i?+, to su33ose that, as su33ly and de and regulate )alue, it is 3ossible, either by 3rodu!ing an artifi!ial s!ar!ity or by ono3oli?ing anufa!ture, to in!rease the esti ation and !onse2uently the )alue of things; and that this is true of gold and sil)er as of !orn, -ine, oil or toba!!o+ But Phili36s fraud -as no sooner sus3e!ted than his oney -as redu!ed to its true )alue, and he hi self lost -hat he had thought to gain fro his sub5e!ts+ 8he sa e thing has ha33ened as a result of e)ery si ilar atte 3t+A *Jol+ ", 33+ 70#71, "t has been 3ro)ed ti es -ithout nu ber that, if a 3rin!e ta1es into his head to debase the !urren!y, it is he -ho loses+ 9hat he gains on!e at the first issue he loses e)ery ti e the falsified !oinage returns to hi in the for of taxes, et!+ But Phili3 and his su!!essors -ere able to 3rote!t the sel)es ore or less against this loss, for, on!e the debased !oinage -as 3ut into !ir!ulation, they hastened to order a general re# inting of oney on the old footing+ (nd besides, if Phili3 " had really reasoned li1e M+ Proudhon, he -ould not ha)e reasoned -ell @fro the !o er!ial 3oint of )ie-+A :either Phili3 " nor M+ Proudhon dis3lays any er!antile genius in i agining that it is 3ossible to alter the )alue of gold as -ell as that of e)ery other !o odity erely be!ause their )alue is deter ined by the relation bet-een su33ly and de and+ "f King Phili3 had de!reed that one 2uarter of !orn -as in future to be !alled t-o 2uarters of -heat, he -ould ha)e been a s-indler+ Ee -ould ha)e de!ei)ed all the rentiers% all the 3eo3le -ho -ere entitled to re!ei)e 100 2uarters of !orn+ Ee -ould ha)e been the !ause of all these 3eo3le re!ei)ing only 50 2uarters of !orn; he -ould ha)e had to 3ay only 50+ But in !o er!e 100 su!h 2uarters -ould ne)er ha)e been -orth ore than 50+ By !hanging the na e -e do not !hange the thing+ 8he 2uantity of !orn, -hither su33lied or de anded, -ill be neither de!reased nor in!reased by this ere !hange of na e+ 8hus, the relation bet-een su33ly and de and being 5ust the sa e in s3ite of this !hange of na e, the 3ri!e of !orn -ill undergo no real !hange+ 9hen -e s3ea1 of the su33ly and de and of things, -e do not s3ea1 of the su33ly and de and of the na e of things+ Phili3 " -as not a a1er of gold and sil)er, as M+ Proudhon says; he -as a a1er of na es for !oins+ Pass off your Fren!h !ash eres as (siati! !ash eres, and you ay de!ei)e a buyer or t-o; but on!e the fraud be!o es 1no-n, your so#!alled (siati! !ash eres -ill dro3 to the 3ri!e of Fren!h !ash eres+ 9hen he 3ut a false label on gold and sil)er, King Phili3 !ould de!ei)e only so long as the fraud -as not 1no-n+ $i1e any other sho31ee3er, he de!ei)ed his !usto ers by a false des!ri3tion of his -ares, -hi!h !ould not last for long+ Ee -as bound sooner or later to suffer the rigour of !o er!ial la-s+ "s this -hat M+ Proudhon -anted to 3ro)eF :o+ (!!ording to hi , it is fro the so)ereign and not fro !o er!e that oney gets its )alue+ (nd -hat has he really 3ro)edF 8hat !o er!e is ore so)ereign than the so)ereign+ $et the so)ereign de!ree that one ar1 shall in future be

41

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

t-o ar1s, !o er!e -ill 1ee3 on saying that these t-o ar1s are -orth no ore than one ar1 -as for erly+ But, for all that, the 2uestion of )alue deter ined by the 2uantity of labour has not been ad)an!ed a ste3+ "t still re ains to be de!ided -hether the )alue of these t-o ar1s *-hi!h ha)e be!o e -hat one ar1 -as on!e, is deter ined by the !ost of 3rodu!tion or by the laof su33ly and de and+ M+ Proudhon !ontinues> @"t should e)en be borne in ind that if, instead of debasing the !urren!y, it had been in the 1ing6s 3o-er to double its bul1, the ex!hange )alue of gold and sil)er -ould i ediately ha)e dro33ed by half, al-ays fro reasons of 3ro3ortion and e2uilibriu +A *Jol+ ", 3+ 71, "f this o3inion, -hi!h M+ Proudhon shares -ith the other e!ono ists, is )alid, it argues in fa)our of the latter6s do!trine of su33ly and de and, and in no -ay in fa)our of M+ Proudhon6s 3ro3ortionality+ For, -hate)er the 2uantity of labour e bodied in the doubled bul1 of gold and sil)er, its )alue -ould ha)e dro33ed by half, the de and ha)ing re ained the sa e and the su33ly ha)ing doubled+ 7r !an it be, by any !han!e, that the @la- of 3ro3ortionalityA -ould ha)e be!o e !onfused this ti e -ith the so u!h disdained la- of su33ly and de andF 8his true 3ro3ortion of M+ Proudhon6s is indeed so elasti!, is !a3able of so any )ariations, !o binations and 3er utations, that it ight -ell !oin!ide for on!e -ith the relation bet-een su33ly and de and+ 8o a1e @e)ery !o odity a!!e3table in ex!hange, if not in 3ra!ti!e then at least by right,A on the basis of the role of gold and sil)er is, then, to isunderstand this role+ =old and sil)er are a!!e3table by la- only be!ause they are a!!e3table in 3ra!ti!e; and they are a!!e3table in 3ra!ti!e be!ause the 3resent organi?ation of 3rodu!tion needs a uni)ersal ediu of ex!hange+ $a- is only the offi!ial re!ognition of fa!t+ 9e ha)e seen that the exa 3le of oney as an a33li!ation of )alue -hi!h has attained !onstitution -as !hosen by M+ Proudhon only to s uggle through his -hole do!trine of ex!hangeability, that is to say, to 3ro)e that e)ery !o odity assessed by its !ost of 3rodu!tion ust attain the status of oney+ (ll this -ould be )ery fine, -ere it not for the a-1-ard fa!t that 3re!isely gold and sil)er, as oney, are of all !o odities the only ones not deter ined by their !ost of 3rodu!tion; and this is so true that in !ir!ulation they !an be re3la!ed by 3a3er+ Bo long as there is a !ertain 3ro3ortion obser)ed bet-een the re2uire ents of !ir!ulation and the a ount of oney issued, be it 3a3er, gold, 3latinu , or !o33er oney, there !an be no 2uestion of a 3ro3ortion to be obser)ed bet-een the intrinsi! )alue *!ost of 3rodu!tion, and the no inal )alue of oney+ Ooubtless, in international trade, oney is deter ined, li1e any other !o odity, by labour ti e+ But it is also true that gold and sil)er in international trade are eans of ex!hange as 3rodu!ts and not as oney+ "n other -ords, they lose this !hara!teristi! of @stability and authenti!ity,A of @so)ereign !onse!ration,A -hi!h, for M+ Proudhon, for s their s3e!ifi! !hara!teristi!+ Ci!ardo understood the truth so -ell that, after

4/

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

basing his -hole syste on )alue deter ined by labour ti e, and after saying> @@ol" an" silver, li1e all other !o odities, are )aluable only in 3ro3ortion to the 2uantity of labour ne!essary to 3rodu!e the , and bring the to ar1et,A Ee adds, ne)ertheless, that the )alue of oney is not deter ined by the labour ti e its substan!e e bodies, but by the la- of su33ly and de and only+ @8hough it R3a3er oneyS has no intrinsi! )alue, yet, by li iting its 2uantity, its )alue in ex!hange is as great as an e2ual deno ination of !oin, or of bullion in that !oin+ 7n the sa e 3rin!i3le, too, na ely, by li itation of its 2uantity, a debased !oin -ould !ir!ulate at the )alue it should bear, if it -ere of the legal -eight and fineness, and not at the )alue of the 2uantity of etal -hi!h it a!tually !ontained+ "n the history of the British !oinage, -e find, a!!ordingly, that the !urren!y -as ne)er de3re!iated in the sa e 3ro3ortion that it -as debased; the reason of -hi!h -as, that it ne)er -as in!reased in 2uantity, in 3ro3ortion to its di inished intrinsi! )alue+A *Ci!ardo, lo!+ !it+, 33+ /0<#07, 8his is -hat 4+ B+ Bay obser)es on this 3assage of Ci!ardo6s> @8his exa 3le should suffi!e, " thin1, to !on)in!e the author that the basis of all )alue is not the a ount of labour needed to a1e a !o odity, but the need felt for that !o odity, balan!ed by its s!ar!ity+A R8he referen!e is to Bay6s note on the Fren!h edition of Ci!ardo6s boo1, Jol+ "", 33+ /0<#07+S 8hus oney, -hi!h for Ci!ardo is no longer a )alue deter ined by labour ti e, and -hi!h 4+ B+ Bay therefore ta1es as an exa 3le to !on)in!e Ci!ardo that the other )alues !ould not be deter ined by labour ti e either, this oney, " say, ta1en by 4+ B+ Bay as an exa 3le of a )alue deter ined ex!lusi)ely by su33ly and de and, be!o es for M+ Proudhon the exa 3le 3ar ex!ellen!e of the a33li!ation of )alue !onstituted+++ by labour ti e+ 8o !on!lude, if oney is not a )alue @!onstitutedA by labour ti e, it is all the less li1ely that it !ould ha)e anything in !o on -ith M+ Proudhon6s true @3ro3ortion+A =old and sil)er are al-ays ex!hangeable, be!ause they ha)e the s3e!ial fun!tion of ser)ing as the uni)ersal agent of ex!hange, and in no -ise be!ause they exist in a 2uantity 3ro3ortional to the su total of -ealth; or, to 3ut it still better, they are al-ays 3ro3ortional be!ause, alone of all !o odities, they ser)e as oney, the uni)ersal agent of ex!hange, -hate)er their 2uantity in relation to the su total of -ealth+ @( !ir!ulation !an ne)er be so abundant as to o)erflo-; for by di inishing its )alue, in the sa e 3ro3ortion you -ill in!rease its 2uantity, and by in!reasing its )alue, di inish its 2uantity+A *Ci!ardo, Jol+ "", 3+ /05, @9hat an i broglio this 3oliti!al e!ono y isHA !ries M+ Proudhon+ *Jol+ ", 3+ 7/, @.ursed goldHA !ries a .o unist fli33antly Rthrough the outh of M+ ProudhonS+ Tou ight as -ell say> @.ursed -heat, !ursed )ines, !ursed shee3H D for 5ust li1e gold and sil)er, e)ery !o er!ial )alue ust attain its stri!tly exa!t deter ination+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 7G,

4G

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

8he idea of a1ing shee3 and )ines attain the status of oney is not ne-+ "n Fran!e, it belongs to the age of $ouis L"J+ (t that 3eriod, oney ha)ing begun to establish its o ni3oten!e, the de3re!iation of all other !o odities -as being !o 3lained of, and the ti e -hen @e)ery !o er!ial )alueA ight attain its stri!tly exa!t deter ination, the status of oney, -as being eagerly in)o1ed+ ')en in the -ritings of Boisguillebert, one of the oldest of Fren!h e!ono ists, -e find> @Money, then, by the arri)al of innu erable !o 3etitors in the for of !o odities the sel)es, re#established in their true )alues, -ill be thrust ba!1 again -ithin its natural li its+A *U!ono istes finan!iers du dix#huitiV e siV!le, Oaire edition, 3+ 4//, 7ne sees that the first illusions of the bourgeoisie are also their last+ B, Bur3lus $abour @"n -or1s on 3oliti!al e!ono y -e read this absurd hy3othesis> -f the price of everything )ere "ou(le" ++++ (s if the 3ri!e of e)erything -ere not the 3ro3ortion of things D and one !ould double a 3ro3ortion, a relation, a la-HA *Proudhon, Jol+ ", 3+ 81, '!ono ists ha)e fallen into this error through not 1no-ing ho- to a33ly the @la- of 3ro3ortionalityA and of @!onstituted )alue+A ;nfortunately in the )ery sa e -or1 by M+ Proudhon, Jolu e ", 3+ 110, -e read the absurd hy3othesis that, @if -ages rose generally, the 3ri!e of e)erything else -ould rise+A Further ore, if -e find the 3hrase in 2uestion in -or1s on 3oliti!al e!ono y, -e also find as ex3lanation of it+ @9hen one s3ea1s of the 3ri!e of all !o odities going u3 or do-n, one al-ays ex!ludes so e one !o odity going u3 or do-n+ 8he ex!luded !o odity is, in general, oney or labour+A *'n!y!lo3edia Metro3olitana or ;ni)ersal Oi!tionary of Kno-ledge, Jol+ "J, (rti!le @Politi!al '!ono y,A by :+ 9+ Benior, $ondon, 18G<+ Cegarding the 3hrase under dis!ussion, see also 4+ Bt+ Mill> 'ssays on Bo e ;nsettled Iuestions of Politi!al '!ono y, $ondon, 1844, and 8oo1e> ( Eistory of Pri!es, et!+, $ondon, 18G8+, RFull referen!e is 8h+ 8oo1e, ( Eistory of Pri!es, and of the Btate of the .ir!ulation, fro 179G to 18G7, Jols+ "#"", $ondon, 18G8S $et us 3ass no- to the se!ond a33li!ation of @!onstituted )alue,A and of other 3ro3ortions D -hose only defe!t is their la!1 of 3ro3ortion+ (nd let us see -hether M+ Proudhon is ha33ier here than in the onetari?ation of shee3+ @(n axio generally ad itted by e!ono ists is that all labour ust lea)e a sur3lus+ "n y o3inion this 3ro3osition is uni)ersally and absolutely true> it is the !orollary of the la- of 3ro3ortion, -hi!h ay be regarded as the su ary of the -hole of e!ono i! s!ien!e+ But, if the e!ono ists -ill 3er it e to say so, the 3rin!i3le that all labour ust lea)e a sur3lus is eaningless a!!ording to their theory, and is not sus!e3tible of any de onstration+A *Proudhon, Jol+ ", 3+ 7G, 8o 3ro)e that all labour ust lea)e a sur3lus, M+ Proudhon 3ersonifies so!iety; he turns it into a 3erson, Bo!iety D a so!iety -hi!h is not by any eans a so!iety of 3ersons, sin!e it has its laa3art, -hi!h ha)e nothing in !o on -ith the 3ersons of -hi!h so!iety is !o 3osed, and its @o-n intelligen!e,A -hi!h is not the

44

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

intelligen!e of !o on en, but an intelligen!e de)oid of !o on sense+ M+ Proudhon re3roa!hes the e!ono ists -ith not ha)ing understood the 3ersonality of this !olle!ti)e being+ 9e ha)e 3leasure in !onfronting hi -ith the follo-ing 3assage fro an ( eri!an e!ono ist, -ho a!!uses the e!ono ists of 5ust the o33osite> @8he oral entity D the gra ati!al being !alled a nation, has been !lothed in attributes that ha)e no real existen!e ex!e3t in the i agination of those -ho eta or3hose a -ord into a thing++++ 8his has gi)en rise to any diffi!ulties and to so e de3lorable isunderstanding in 3oliti!al e!ono y+A *8h+ .oo3er, $e!tures on the 'le ents of Politi!al '!ono y, .olo bia,18/<, R8he first edition of the boo1 -as 3ublished in .olo bia in 18/<+ ( se!ond, enlarged edition a33eared in $ondon in 18G1+S @8his 3rin!i3le of sur3lus labour,A !ontinues M+ Proudhon, @is true of indi)iduals only be!ause it e anates fro so!iety, -hi!h thus !onfers on the the benefit of its o-n la-s+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 75, Ooes M+ Proudhon ean thereby erely that the 3rodu!tion of the so!ial indi)idual ex!eeds that of the isolated indi)idualF "s M+ Proudhon referring to this ex!ess of the 3rodu!tion of asso!iated indi)iduals o)er that of non#asso!iated indi)idualsF "f so, -e !ould 2uote for hi a hundred e!ono ists -ho ha)e ex3ressed this si 3le truth -ithout any of the ysti!is -ith -hi!h M+ Proudhon surrounds hi self+ 8his, for exa 3le, is -hat Mr+ Badler says> @.o bined labour 3rodu!es results -hi!h indi)idual exertion !ould ne)er a!!o 3lish+ (s an1ind, therefore, ulti3ly in nu ber, the 3rodu!ts of their united industry -ould greatly ex!eed the a ount of any ere arith eti!al addition !al!ulated on su!h an in!rease++++ "n the e!hani!al arts, as -ell as in 3ursuits of s!ien!e, a an ay a!hie)e ore in a day+++ than a solitary+++ indi)idual !ould 3erfor in his -hole life++++ =eo etry says+++ that the -hole is only e2ual to the su of all its 3arts; as a33lied to the sub5e!t before us, this axio -ould be false+ Cegarding labour, the great 3illar of hu an existen!e, it ay be said that the entire 3rodu!t of !o bined exertion al ost infinitely ex!eeds all -hi!h indi)idual and dis!onne!ted efforts !ould 3ossibly a!!o 3lish+A *8+ Badler, 8he $a- of Po3ulation, Jol+ ", 33+ 8G and 84, $ondon, 18G0, 8o return to M+ Proudhon+ Bur3lus labour, he says, is ex3lained by the 3erson, Bo!iety+ 8he life of this 3erson is guided by la-s, the o33osite of those -hi!h go)ern the a!ti)ities of an as an indi)idual+ Ee desires to 3ro)e this by @fa!ts+A @8he dis!o)ery of an e!ono i! 3ro!ess !an ne)er 3ro)ide the in)entor -ith a 3rofit e2ual to that -hi!h he 3ro!ures for so!iety++++ "t has been re ar1ed that rail-ay enter3rises are u!h less a sour!e of -ealth for the !ontra!tors than for the state++++ 8he a)erage !ost of trans3orting !o odities by road is 18 !enti es 3er ton 3er 1ilo etre, fro the !olle!tion of the goods to their deli)ery+ "t has been !al!ulated that at this rate an ordinary rail-ay enter3rise -ould not obtain 10 3er !ent net 3rofit, a result a33roxi ately e2ual to that of a road#trans3ort enter3rise+ But let us su33ose that the s3eed of rail trans3ort !o 3ared -ith that of road trans3ort is as 4 is to 1+ Bin!e in so!iety ti e is )alue itself, the rail-ay -ould, 3ri!es being e2ual,

45

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

3resent an ad)antage of 400 3er !ent o)er road#trans3ort+ Tet this enor ous ad)antage, )ery real for so!iety, is far fro being reali?ed in the sa e 3ro3ortion for the !arrier, -ho, -hile besto-ing u3on so!iety an extra )alue of 400 3er !ent, does not for his o-n 3art dra10 3er !ent+ 8o bring the atter ho e still ore 3ointedly, let us su33ose, in fa!t, that the rail-ay 3uts u3 its rate to /5 !enti es, the !ost of road trans3ort re aining at 18> it -ould instantly lose all its !onsign ents+ Benders, re!ei)ers, e)erybody -ould return to the )an, to the 3ri iti)e -aggon if ne!essary+ 8he lo!o oti)e -ould be abandoned+ ( so!ial ad)antage of 400 3er !ent -ould be sa!rifi!ed to a 3ri)ate loss of G5 3er !ent+ 8he reason for this is easily gras3ed> the ad)antage resulting fro the s3eed of the rail-ay is entirely so!ial, and ea!h indi)idual 3arti!i3ates in it only in a inute 3ro3ortion *it ust be re e bered that at the o ent -e are dealing only -ith the trans3ort of goods,, -hile the loss stri1es the !onsu er dire!tly and 3ersonally+ ( so!ial 3rofit e2ual to 400 re3resents for the indi)idual, if so!iety is !o 3osed only of a illion en, four ten#thousandths; -hile a loss of GG 3er !ent for the !onsu er -ould su33ose a so!ial defi!it of GG illion+A *Proudhon Jol+ ", 3+ 75#7<, :o-, -e ay e)en o)erloo1 the fa!t that M+ Proudhon ex3resses a 2uadru3led s3eed as 400 3er !ent of the original s3eed; but that he should bring into relation the 3er!entage of s3eed and the 3er!entage of 3rofit and establish a 3ro3ortion bet-een t-o relations -hi!h, although easured se3arately by 3er!entages, are ne)ertheless in!o ensurate -ith ea!h other, is to establish a 3ro3ortion bet-een the 3er!entages -ithout referen!e to deno inations+ Per!entages are al-ays 3er!entages, 10 3er !ent and 400 3er !ent are !o ensurable; they are to ea!h other as 10 is to 400+ 8herefore, !on!ludes M+ Proudhon, a 3rofit of 10 3er !ent is -orth 40 ti es less than a 2uadru3led s3eed+ 8o sa)e a33earan!es, he says that, for so!iety, ti e is oney+ 8his error arises fro his re!olle!ting )aguely that there is a !onnexion bet-een labour )alue and labour ti e, and he hastens to identify labour ti e -ith trans3ort ti e; that is, he identifies the fe- fire en, dri)ers and others, -hose labour ti e is a!tually trans3ort ti e, -ith the -hole of so!iety+ 8hus at one blo-, s3eed has be!o e !a3ital, and in this !ase he is fully right in saying> @( 3rofit of 400 3er !ent -ill be sa!rifi!ed to a loss of G5 3er !ent+A (fter establishing this strange 3ro3osition as a athe ati!ian, he gi)es us the ex3lanation of it as an e!ono ist+ @( so!ial 3rofit e2ual to 400 re3resents for the indi)idual, in a so!iety of only a illion en, four ten#thousandths+A (greed; but -e are dealing not -ith 400, but -ith 400 3er !ent, and a 3rofit of 400 3er !ent re3resents for the indi)idual 400 3er !ent, neither ore nor less+ 9hate)er be the !a3ital, the di)idends -ill al-ays be in the ratio of 400 3er !ent+ 9hat does M+ Proudhon doF Ee ta1es 3er!entages for !a3ital, and, as if he -ere afraid of his !onfusion not being anifest enough, @3ointedA enough, he !ontinues> @( loss of GG 3er !ent for the !onsu er -ould su33ose a so!ial defi!it of GG illion+A ( loss of GG 3er !ent for the !onsu er re ains a loss of GG 3er !ent for a illion !onsu ers+ Eo- then !an M+ Proudhon say 3ertinently that the so!ial defi!it in the !ase of a GG 3er

4<

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

!ent loss a ounts to GG illion, -hen he 1no-s neither the so!ial !a3ital nor e)en the !a3ital of a single one of the 3ersons !on!ernedF 8hus it -as not enough for M+ Proudhon to ha)e !onfused !a3ital -ith 3er!entage; he sur3asses hi self by identifying the !a3ital sun1 in an enter3rise -ith the nu ber of interested 3arties+ @8o bring the atter ho e still ore 3ointedly let us su33ose in fa!tA a gi)en !a3ital+ ( so!ial 3rofit of 400 3er !ent di)ided a ong a illion 3arti!i3ants, ea!h of the interested to the extent of one fran!, -ould gi)e 4 fran!s 3rofit 3er head D and not 0+0004, as M+ Proudhon alleges+ $i1e-ise a loss of GG 3er !ent for ea!h of the 3arti!i3ants re3resents a so!ial defi!it of GG0,000 fran!s and not of GG illion *100>GG W 1,000,000>GG0,000,+ M+ Proudhon, 3reo!!u3ied -ith his theory of the 3erson, Bo!iety, forgets to di)ide by 100, -hi!h entails a loss of GG0,000 fran!s; but 4 fran!s 3rofit 3er head a1e 4 illion fran!s 3rofit for so!iety+ 8here re ains for so!iety a net 3rofit of G,<70,000 fran!s+ 8his a!!urate !al!ulation 3ro)es 3re!isely the !ontrary of -hat M+ Proudhon -anted to 3ro)e> na ely, that the 3rofits and losses of so!iety are not in in)erse ratio to the 3rofits and losses of indi)iduals+ Ea)ing re!tified these si 3le errors of 3ure !al!ulation, let us ta1e a loo1 at the !onse2uen!es -hi!h -e -ould arri)e at, if -e ad itted this relation bet-een s3eed and !a3ital in the !ase of rail-ays, as M+ Proudhon gi)es it D inus the ista1es in !al!ulation+ $et us su33ose that a trans3ort four ti es as ra3id !osts four ti es as u!h; this trans3ort -ould not yield less 3rofit than !artage, -hi!h is four ti es slo-er and !osts a 2uarter the a ount+ 8hus, if !artage ta1es 18 !enti es, rail trans3ort !ould ta1e 7/ !enti es+ 8his -ould be, a!!ording to @the rigor of athe ati!s,A the !onse2uen!e of M+ Proudhon6s su33ositions D al-ays inus his ista1es in !al!ulation+ But here he is all of a sudden telling us that if, instead of 7/ !enti es, rail trans3ort ta1es only /5, it -ould instantly lose all its !onsign ents+ Oe!idedly -e should ha)e to go ba!1 to the )an, to the 3ri iti)e -aggon e)en+ 7nly, if -e ha)e any ad)i!e to gi)e M+ Proudhon, it is not to forget, in his Progra e of the Progressi)e (sso!iation, to di)ide by 100+ But, alasH it is s!ar!ely to be ho3ed that our ad)i!e -ill be listened to, for M+ Proudhon is so delighted -ith his @3rogressi)e asso!iation,A that he !ries ost e 3hati!ally> @" ha)e already sho-n in .ha3ter "", by the solution of the antino y of )alue, that the ad)antage of e)ery useful dis!o)ery is in!o 3arably less for the in)entor, -hate)er he ay do, than for so!iety+ " ha)e !arried the de onstration in regard to this 3oint in the rigor of athe ati!sHA $et us return to the fi!tion of the 3erson, Bo!iety, a fi!tion -hi!h has no other ai than that of 3ro)ing this si 3le truth D that a nein)ention -hi!h enables a gi)en a ount of labour to 3rodu!e a greater nu ber of !o odities, lo-ers the ar1etable )alue of the 3rodu!t+ Bo!iety, then, a1es a 3rofit, not by obtaining ore ex!hange )alues, but by obtaining ore !o odities for the sa e )alue+ (s for the in)entor, !o 3etition a1es his 3rofit fall su!!essi)ely to the general le)el of 3rofits+ Eas M+ Proudhon 3ro)ed this 3ro3osition as he -anted toF :o+ 8his does not 3re)ent hi fro

47

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

re3roa!hing the e!ono ists -ith failure to 3ro)e it+ 8o 3ro)e to hi on the !ontrary that they ha)e 3ro)ed it, -e shall !ite only Ci!ardo and $auderdale D Ci!ardo, the head of the s!hool -hi!h deter ines )alue by labour ti e, and $auderdale, one of the ost un!o 3ro ising defenders of the deter ination of )alue by su33ly and de and+ Both ha)e ex3ounded the sa e 3ro3osition> @By !onstantly in!reasing the fa!ility of 3rodu!tion, -e !onstantly di inish the )alue of so e of the !o odities before 3rodu!ed, though by the sa e eans -e not only add to the national ri!hes, but also to the 3o-er of future 3rodu!tion++++ (s soon as by the aid of a!hinery, or by the 1no-ledge of natural 3hiloso3hy, you oblige natural agents to do the -or1 -hi!h -as before done by an, the ex!hangeable )alue of su!h -or1 falls a!!ordingly+ "f 10 en turned a !orn ill, and it be dis!o)ered that by the assistan!e of -ind, or of -ater, the labour of these 10 en ay be s3ared, the flour -hi!h is the 3rodu!e 3artly of the -or1 3erfor ed by the ill, -ould i ediately fall in )alue, in 3ro3ortion to the 2uantity of labour sa)ed; and the so!iety -ould be ri!her by the !o odities -hi!h the labour of the 10 en !ould 3rodu!e, the funds destined for their aintenan!e being in no degree i 3aired+A *Ci!ardo Jol+ "", 3+ 59, $auderdale, in his turn, says> @"n e)ery instan!e -here !a3ital is so e 3loyed as to 3rodu!e a 3rofit, it unifor ly arises, either D fro its su33lanting a 3ortion of labour, -hi!h -ould other-ise be 3erfor ed by the hand of an; or D fro its 3erfor ing a 3ortion of labour, -hi!h is beyond the rea!h of the 3ersonal exertion of an to a!!o 3lish+ 8he s all 3rofit -hi!h the 3ro3rietors of a!hinery generally a!2uire, -hen !o 3ared -ith the -ages of labour, -hi!h the a!hine su33lants, ay 3erha3s !reate a sus3i!ion of the re!titude of this o3inion+ Bo e fire#engines, for instan!e, dra- ore -ater fro a !oal3it in one day than !ould be !on)eyed on the shoulder of G00 en, e)en assisted by the a!hinery of bu!1ets; and a fire#engine undoubtedly 3erfor s its labour at a u!h s aller ex3ense than the a ount of the -ages of those -hose labour it thus su33lants+ 8his is, in truth, the !ase -ith all a!hinery+ (ll a!hines ust exe!ute the labour that -as ante!edently 3erfor ed at a !hea3er rate than it !ould be done by the hand of an++++ "f su!h a 3ri)ilege is gi)en for the in)ention of a a!hine, -hi!h 3erfor s, by the labour of one an, a 2uantity of -or1 that used to ta1e the labour of four; as the 3ossession of the ex!lusi)e 3ri)ilege 3re)ents any !o 3etition in doing the -or1, but -hat 3ro!eeds fro the labour of the -or1 en, their -ages, as long as the 3atent !ontinues, ust ob)iously for the easure of the 3atentee6s !harge; that is to se!ure e 3loy ent, he has only to !harge a little less than the -ages of the labour -hi!h the a!hine su33lants+ But -hen the 3atent ex3ires, other a!hines of the sa e nature are brought into !o 3etition; and then his !harge ust be regulated on the sa e 3rin!i3le as e)ery other, a!!ording to the abundan!e of a!hines++++ 8he 3rofit of !a3ital e 3loyed+++, though it arises fro su33lanting labour, !o es to be regulated, not by the )alue of the labour it su33lants but, as in all other !ases, by the !o 3etition

48

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

a ong the 3ro3rietors of !a3ital that 3resents itself for 3erfor ing the duty, and the de and for it+A *P3+ 119, 1/G, 1/4, 1/5, 1G4, Finally, then, so long as the 3rofit is greater than in other industries, !a3ital -ill be thro-n into the ne- industry until the rate of 3rofit falls to the general le)el+ 9e ha)e 5ust seen that the exa 3le of the rail-ay -as s!ar!ely suited to thro- any light on his fi!tion of the 3erson, Bo!iety+ :e)ertheless, M+ Proudhon boldly resu es his dis!ourse> @9ith these 3oints !leared u3, nothing is easier than to ex3lain holabour ust lea)e a sur3lus for ea!h 3rodu!er+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 77, 9hat no- follo-s belongs to !lassi!al anti2uity+ "t is a 3oeti!al narrati)e intended to refresh the reader after the fatigue -hi!h the rigor of the 3re!eding athe ati!al de onstrations ust ha)e !aused hi + M+ Proudhon gi)es the 3erson, Bo!iety, the na e of Pro etheus, -hose high deeds he glorifies in these ter s> @First of all, Pro etheus e erging fro the boso of nature a-a1ens to life, in a delightful inertia, et!+, et!+ Pro etheus sets to -or1, and on this first day, the first day of the se!ond !reation, Pro etheus6 3rodu!t, that is, his -ealth, his -ell#being, is e2ual to 10+ 7n the se!ond day, Pro etheus di)ides his labour, and his 3rodu!t be!o es e2ual to 100+ 7n the third day and on ea!h of the follo-ing days, Pro etheus in)ents a!hines, dis!o)ers ne- utilities in bodies, nefor!es in nature++++ 9ith e)ery ste3 of his industrial a!ti)ity, there is an in!rease in the nu ber of his 3rodu!ts, -hi!h ar1s an enhan!e ent of ha33iness for hi + (nd sin!e, after all, to !onsu e is for hi to 3rodu!e, it is !lear that e)ery day6s !onsu 3tion, using u3 only the 3rodu!t of the day before, lea)es a sur3lus 3rodu!t for the next day+A *Jol+ ", 33+ 77#78, 8his Pro etheus of M+ Proudhon6s is a 2ueer !hara!ter, as -ea1 in logi! as in 3oliti!al e!ono y+ Bo long as Pro etheus erely tea!hes us the di)ision of labour, the a33li!ation of a!hinery, the ex3loitation of natural for!es and s!ientifi! 3o-er, ulti3lying the 3rodu!ti)e for!es of en and gi)ing a sur3lus !o 3ared -ith the 3rodu!e of labour in isolation, this ne- Pro etheus has the isfortune only of !o ing too late+ But the o ent Pro etheus starts tal1ing about 3rodu!tion and !onsu 3tion he be!o es really ludi!rous+ 8o !onsu e, for hi , is to 3rodu!e; he !onsu es the next day -hat he 3rodu!ed the day before, so that he is al-ays one day in ad)an!e; this day in ad)an!e is his @sur3lus labour+A But, if he !onsu es the next day -hat he has 3rodu!ed the day before, he ust, on the first day, -hi!h had no day before, ha)e done t-o days6 -or1 in order to be one day in ad)an!e later on+ Eo- did Pro etheus earn this sur3lus on the first day, -hen there -as neither di)ision of labour, nor a!hinery, nor e)en any 1no-ledge of 3hysi!al for!es other than fireF 8hus the 2uestion, for all its being !arried ba!1 @to the first day of the se!ond !reation,A has not ad)an!ed a single ste3 for-ard+ 8his -ay of ex3laining things sa)ours both of =ree1 and of Eebre-, it is at on!e ysti!al and allegori!al+ "t gi)es M+ Proudhon a 3erfe!t right to say> @" ha)e 3ro)ed by theory and by fa!ts the 3rin!i3le that all labour ust ha)e a sur3lus+A

49

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

8he @fa!tsA are the fa ous 3rogressi)e !al!ulation; the theory is the yth of Pro etheus+ @But,A !ontinues M+ Proudhon, @this 3rin!i3le, -hile being as !ertain as an arith eti!al 3ro3osition, is as yet far fro being reali?ed by e)eryone+ 9hereas, -ith the 3rogress of !olle!ti)e industry, e)ery day6s indi)idual labour 3rodu!es a greater and greater 3rodu!t, and -hereas therefore, by a ne!essary !onse2uen!e, the -or1er -ith the sa e -age ought to be!o e ri!her e)ery day, there a!tually exist estates in so!iety -hi!h 3rofit and others -hi!h de!ay+A *Jol+ ", 33+ 79#80, "n 1770 the 3o3ulation of the ;nited Kingdo of =reat Britain -as 15 illion, and the 3rodu!ti)e 3o3ulation -as G illion+ 8he s!ientifi! 3o-er of 3rodu!tion e2ualled a 3o3ulation of about 1/ illion indi)iduals ore+ 8herefore there -ere, altogether, 15 illion of 3rodu!ti)e for!es+ 8hus the 3rodu!ti)e 3o-er -as to the 3o3ulation as 1 is to 1; and the s!ientifi! 3o-er -as to the anual 3o-er as 4 is to 1+ "n 1840 the 3o3ulation did not ex!eed G0 illion> the 3rodu!ti)e 3o3ulation -as < illion+ But the s!ientifi! 3o-er a ounted to <50 illion; that is, it -as to the -hole 3o3ulation as /1 is to 1, and to anual 3o-er as 108 is to 1+ "n 'nglish so!iety the -or1ing day thus a!2uired in 70 years a sur3lus of /,700 3er !ent 3rodu!ti)ity; that is, in 1840 it 3rodu!ed /7 ti es as u!h as in 1770+ (!!ording to M+ Proudhon, the follo-ing 2uestion should be raised> -hy -as not the 'nglish -or1er of 1840 /7 ti es as ri!h as the one of 1770F "n raising su!h a 2uestion one -ould naturally be su33osing that the 'nglish !ould ha)e 3rodu!ed this -ealth -ithout the histori!al !onditions in -hi!h it -as 3rodu!ed, su!h as> 3ri)ate a!!u ulation of !a3ital, odern di)ision of labour, auto ati! -or1sho3s, anar!hi!al !o 3etition, the -age syste D in short, e)erything that is based u3on !lass antagonis + :o-, these -ere 3re!isely the ne!essary !onditions of existen!e for the de)elo3 ent of 3rodu!ti)e for!es and of sur3lus labour+ 8herefore, to obtain this de)elo3 ent of 3rodu!ti)e for!es and this sur3lus labour, there had to be !lasses -hi!h 3rofited and !lasses -hi!h de!ayed+ 9hat then, ulti ately, is this Pro etheus resus!itated by M+ ProudhonF "t is so!iety, so!ial relations based on !lass antagonis + 8hese relations are not relations bet-een indi)idual and indi)idual, but bet-een -or1er and !a3italist, bet-een far er and landlord, et!+ 9i3e out these relations and you annihilate all so!iety, and your Pro etheus is nothing but a ghost -ithout ar s or legs; that is, -ithout auto ati! -or1sho3s, -ithout di)ision of labour D in a -ord, -ithout e)erything that you ga)e hi to start -ith in order to a1e hi obtain this sur3lus labour+ "f then, in theory, it suffi!ed to inter3ret, as M+ Proudhon does, the for ula of sur3lus labour in the e2ualitarian sense, -ithout ta1ing into a!!ount the a!tual !onditions of 3rodu!tion, it should suffi!e, in 3ra!ti!e, to share out e2ually a ong the -or1ers all the -ealth at 3resent a!2uired, -ithout !hanging in any -ay the 3resent !onditions of 3rodu!tion+ Bu!h a distribution -ould !ertainly not assure a high degree of !o fort to the indi)idual 3arti!i3ants+

50

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

But M+ Proudhon is not so 3essi isti! as one ight thin1+ (s 3ro3ortion is e)erything for hi , he has to see in his fully e2ui33ed Pro etheus, that is, in 3resent#day so!iety, the beginnings of a reali?ation of his fa)ourite idea+ @But e)ery-here, too, the 3rogress of -ealth, that is, the 3ro3ortion of )alues, is the do inant la-; and -hen e!ono ists hold u3 against the !o 3laints of the so!ial 3arty the 3rogressi)e gro-th of the 3ubli! -ealth, and the i 3ro)ed !onditions of e)en the ost unfortunate !lasses, they un-ittingly 3ro!lai a truth -hi!h is the !onde nation of their theories+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 80, 9hat is, exa!tly, !olle!ti)e -ealth, 3ubli! fortuneF "t is the -ealth of the bourgeoisie D not that of ea!h bourgeois in 3arti!ular+ 9ell, the e!ono ists ha)e done nothing but sho- ho-, in the existing relations of 3rodu!tion, the -ealth of the bourgeoisie has gro-n and ust gro- still further+ (s for the -or1ing !lasses, it still re ains a )ery debatable 2uestion -hether their !ondition has i 3ro)ed as a result of the in!rease in so#!alled 3ubli! -ealth+ "f e!ono ists, in su33ort of their o3ti is , !ite the exa 3le of the 'nglish -or1ers e 3loyed in the !otton industry, they see the !ondition of the latter only in the rare o ents of trade 3ros3erity+ 8hese o ents of 3ros3erity are to the 3eriods of !risis and stagnation in the @true 3ro3ortionA of G to 10+ But 3erha3s also, in s3ea1ing of i 3ro)e ent, the e!ono ists -ere thin1ing of the illions of -or1ers -ho had to 3erish in the 'ast "ndies so as to 3ro!ure for the illion and a half -or1ers e 3loyed in 'ngland in the sa e industry three years6 3ros3erity out of ten+ (s for the te 3orary 3arti!i3ation in the in!rease of 3ubli! -ealth, that is a different atter+ 8he fa!t of te 3orary 3arti!i3ation is ex3lained by the theory of the e!ono ists+ "t is the !onfir ation of this theory and not its @!onde nation,A as M+ Proudhon !alls it+ "f there -ere anything to be !onde ned, it -ould surely be the syste of M+ Proudhon, -ho -ould redu!e the -or1er, as -e ha)e sho-n, to the ini u -age, in s3ite of the in!rease of -ealth+ "t is only by redu!ing the -or1er to the ini u -age that he -ould be able to a33ly the true 3ro3ortion of )alues, of @)alue !onstitutedA by labour ti e+ "t is be!ause -ages, as a result of !o 3etition, os!illate noabo)e, no- belo-, the 3ri!e of food ne!essary for the sustenan!e of the -or1er, that he !an 3arti!i3ate to a !ertain extent in the de)elo3 ent of !olle!ti)e -ealth, and !an also 3erish fro -ant+ 8his is the -hole theory of the e!ono ists -ho ha)e no illusions on the sub5e!t+ (fter his lengthy digressions on rail-ays, on Pro etheus, and on the ne- so!iety to be re!onstituted on @!onstituted )alue,A M+ Proudhon !olle!ts hi self; e otion o)er3o-ers hi and he !ries in fatherly tones> @" (eseech the e!ono ists to as1 the sel)es for one o ent, in the silen!e of their hearts D far fro the 3re5udi!es that trouble the and regardless of the e 3loy ent they are engaged in or ho3e to obtain, of the interests they subser)e, or the a33robation to -hi!h they as3ire, of the honours -hi!h nurse their )anity D let the say -hether before this day the 3rin!i3le that all labour ust lea)e a sur3lus a33eared to

51

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 7ne

the -ith this !hain of 3re ises and !onse2uen!es that -e ha)e re)ealed+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 80,

.ha3ter 8-o>

5G

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

8he Meta3hysi!s of Politi!al '!ono y

2 1. The Method Eere -e are, right in =er anyH 9e shall no- ha)e to tal1 eta3hysi!s -hile tal1ing 3oliti!al e!ono y+ (nd in this again -e shall but follo- M+ Proudhon6s @!ontradi!tions+A 4ust no- he for!ed us to s3ea1 'nglish, to be!o e 3retty -ell 'nglish oursel)es+ :o- the s!ene is !hanging+ M+ Proudhon is trans3orting us to our dear fatherland and is for!ing us, -hether -e li1e it or not, to be!o e =er an again+ "f the 'nglish an transfor s en into hats, the =er an transfor s hats into ideas+ 8he 'nglish an is Ci!ardo, ri!h ban1er and distinguished e!ono ist; the =er an is Eegel, si 3le 3rofessor at the ;ni)ersity of Berlin+ $ouis LJ, the last absolute onar!h and re3resentati)e of the de!aden!e of Fren!h royalty, had atta!hed to his 3erson a 3hysi!ian -ho -as hi self Fran!e6s first e!ono ist+ 8his do!tor, this e!ono ist, re3resented the i inent and !ertain triu 3h of the Fren!h bourgeoisie+ Oo!tor Iuesnay ade a s!ien!e out of 3oliti!al e!ono y; he su ari?ed it in his fa ous 8ableau M!ono i2ue+ Besides the thousand and one !o entaries on this table -hi!h ha)e a33eared, -e 3ossess one by the do!tor hi self+ "t is the ,nalysis of the Economic Ta(le follo-ed by @se)en important o(servations+A M+ Proudhon is another Or+ Iuesnay+ Ee is the Iuesnay of the eta3hysi!s of 3oliti!al e!ono y+ :o- eta3hysi!s D indeed all 3hiloso3hy D !an be su ed u3, a!!ording to Eegel, in ethod+ 9e ust, therefore, try to elu!idate the ethod of M+ Proudhon, -hi!h is at least as foggy as the Economic Ta(le+ "t is for this reason that -e are a1ing se)en ore or less i 3ortant obser)ations+ "f Or+ Proudhon is not 3leased -ith our obser)ations, -ell, then, he -ill ha)e to be!o e an (bbe Baydeau and gi)e the @ex3lanation of the e!ono i!o# eta3hysi!al ethodA hi self+ #irst 7bservation @9e are not gi)ing a history a!!ording to the order in ti e, but a!!ording to the se2uen!e of ideas+ '!ono i! 3hases or !ategories are in their anifestation so eti es !onte 3orary, so eti es in)erted++++ '!ono i! theories ha)e nonetheless their logi!al se2uen!e and their serial relation in the understanding> it is this order that -e flatter our# sel)es to ha)e dis!o)ered+A *Proudhon, Jol+ ", 3+ 14<, M+ Proudhon ost !ertainly -anted to frighten the Fren!h by flinging 2uasi#Eegelian 3hrases at the + Bo -e ha)e to deal -ith t-o en> firstly -ith M+ Proudhon, and then -ith Eegel+ Eodoes M+ Proudhon distinguish hi self fro other e!ono istsF (nd -hat 3art does Eegel 3lay in M+ Proudhon6s 3oliti!al e!ono yF '!ono ists ex3ress the relations of bourgeois 3rodu!tion, the di)ision of labour, !redit, oney, et!+, as fixed, i utable, eternal !ategories+ M+ Proudhon, -ho has these ready# ade !ategories before hi , -ants to ex3lain to us the a!t of for ation, the genesis of these !ategories, 3rin!i3les, la-s, ideas, thoughts+ '!ono ists ex3lain ho- 3rodu!tion ta1es 3la!e in the abo)e# entioned relations, but -hat they do not ex3lain is ho- these relations the sel)es are 3rodu!ed, that is, the histori!al o)e ent -hi!h ga)e the birth+ M+ Proudhon, ta1ing these relations for 3rin!i3les, !ategories, abstra!t thoughts, has erely to 3ut into order these thoughts, -hi!h are to be found al3habeti!ally arranged at the end of e)ery treatise on 3oliti!al e!ono y+ 8he e!ono ists6 aterial is the a!ti)e, energeti! life of an; M+ Proudhon6s aterial is the dog as of the e!ono ists+ But the o ent -e !ease to 3ursue the histori!al o)e ent of 3rodu!tion relations, of -hi!h the !ategories are but the theoreti!al ex3ression, the o ent -e -ant to see in these !ategories no ore than ideas, s3ontaneous thoughts, inde3endent of real relations, -e are for!ed to attribute the origin of these thoughts to the o)e ent of 3ure reason+ Eo- does 3ure, eternal, i 3ersonal reason gi)e rise to these thoughtsF Eo- does it 3ro!eed in order to 3rodu!e the F

54

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

"f -e had M+ Proudhon6s intre3idity in the atter of Eegelianis -e should say> it is distinguished in itself fro itself+ 9hat does this eanF " 3ersonal reason, ha)ing outside itself neither a base on -hi!h it !an 3ose itself, nor an ob5e!t to -hi!h it !an o33ose itself, nor a sub5e!t -ith -hi!h it !an !o 3ose itself, is for!ed to turn head o)er heels, in 3osing itself, o33osing itself and !o 3osing itself D 3osition, o33osition, !o 3osition+ 7r, to s3ea1 =ree1 D -e ha)e thesis, antithesis, and synthesis+ For those -ho do not 1no- the Eegelian for ula> affir ation, negation and negation of the negation+ 8hat is -hat language eans+ "t is !ertainly not Eebre- *-ith due a3ologies M+ Proudhon,; but it is the language of this 3ure reason, se3arate fro the indi)idual+ "nstead of the ordinary indi)idual -ith his ordinary anner of s3ea1ing and thin1ing -e ha)e nothing but this ordinary anner in itself D -ithout the indi)idual+ "s it sur3rising that e)erything, in the final abstra!tion D for -e ha)e here an abstra!tion, and not an analysis D 3resents itself as a logi!al !ategoryF "s it sur3rising that, if you let dro3 little by little all that !onstitutes the indi)iduality of a house, lea)ing out first of all the aterials of -hi!h it is !o 3osed, then the for that distinguishes it, you end u3 -ith nothing but a body; that, if you lea)e out of a!!ount the li its of this body; you soon ha)e nothing but a s3a!e D that if, finally, you lea)e out of the a!!ount the di ensions of this s3a!e, there is absolutely nothing left but 3ure 2uantity, the logi!al !ategoryF "f -e abstra!t thus fro e)ery sub5e!t all the alleged a!!idents, ani ate or inani ate, en or things, -e are right in saying that in the final abstra!tion, the only substan!e left is the logi!al !ategory+ 8hus the eta3hysi!ians -ho, in a1ing these abstra!tions, thin1 they are a1ing analyses, and -ho, the ore they deta!h the sel)es fro things, i agine the sel)es to be getting all the nearer to the 3oint of 3enetrating to their !ore D these eta3hysi!ians in turn are right in saying that things here belo- are e broideries of -hi!h the logi!al !ategories !onstitute the !an)as+ 8his is -hat distinguishes the 3hiloso3her fro the .hristian+ 8he .hristian, in s3ite of logi!, has only one in!arnation of the $ogos; the 3hiloso3her has ne)er finished -ith in!arnations+ "f all that exists, all that li)es on land, and under -ater, !an be redu!ed by abstra!tion to a logi!al !ategory D if the -hole real -orld !an be dro-ned thus in a -orld of abstra!tions, in the -orld of logi!al !ategories D -ho need be astonished at itF (ll that exists, all that li)es on land and under -ater, exists and li)es only by so e 1ind of o)e ent+ 8hus, the o)e ent of history 3rodu!es so!ial relations; industrial o)e ent gi)es us industrial 3rodu!ts, et!+ 4ust as by eans of abstra!tion -e ha)e transfor ed e)erything into a logi!al !ategory, so one has only to a1e an abstra!tion of e)ery !hara!teristi! distin!ti)e of different o)e ents to attain o)e ent in its abstra!t !ondition D 3urely for al o)e ent, the 3urely logi!al for ula of o)e ent+ "f one finds in logi!al !ategories the substan!e of all things, one i agines one has found in the logi!al for ula of o)e ent the a(solute ethod, -hi!h not only ex3lains all things, but also i 3lies the o)e ent of things+ "t is of this absolute ethod that Eegel s3ea1s in these ter s> @Method is the absolute, uni2ue, su3re e, infinite for!e, -hi!h no ob5e!t !an resist; it is the tenden!y of reason to find itself again, to re!ogni?e itself in e)ery ob5e!t+A *$ogi!, Jol+ """, 3+ /9, (ll things being redu!ed to a logi!al !ategory, and e)ery o)e ent, e)ery a!t of 3rodu!tion, to ethod, it follo-s naturally that e)ery aggregate of 3rodu!ts and 3rodu!tion, of ob5e!ts and of o)e ent, !an be redu!ed to a33lied eta3hysi!s+ 9hat Eegel has done for religion, la-, et!+, M+ Proudhon see1s to do for 3oliti!al e!ono y+ Bo -hat is this absolute ethodF 8he abstra!tion of o)e ent+ 9hat is the abstra!tion of o)e entF Mo)e ent in abstra!t !ondition+ 9hat is o)e ent in abstra!t !onditionF 8he 3urely logi!al for ula of o)e ent or the o)e ent of 3ure reason+ 9herein does the o)e ent of 3ure reason !onsistF "n 3osing itself, o33osing itself, !o 3osing itself; in for ulating itself as thesis, antithesis, synthesis; or, yet, in affir ing itself, negating itself, and negating its negation+ Eo- does reason anage to affir itself, to 3ose itself in a definite !ategoryF 8hat is the business of reason itself and of its a3ologists+

55

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

But on!e it has anaged to 3ose itself as a thesis, this thesis, this thought, o33osed to itself, s3lits u3 into t-o !ontradi!tory thoughts D the 3ositi)e and the negati)e, the yes and no+ 8he struggle bet-een these t-o antagonisti! ele ents !o 3rised in the antithesis !onstitutes the diale!ti!al o)e ent+ 8he yes be!o ing no, the no be!o ing yes, the yes be!o ing both yes and no, the no be!o ing both no and yes, the !ontraries balan!e, neutrali?e, 3aralyse ea!h other+ 8he fusion of these t-o !ontradi!tory thoughts !onstitutes a ne- thought, -hi!h is the synthesis of the + 8his thought s3lits u3 on!e again into t-o !ontradi!tory thoughts, -hi!h in turn fuse into a nesynthesis+ 7f this tra)ail is born a grou3 of thoughts+ 8his grou3 of thoughts follo-s the sa e diale!ti! o)e ent as the si 3le !ategory, and has a !ontradi!tory grou3 as antithesis+ 7f these t-o grou3s of thoughts is born a ne- grou3 of thoughts, -hi!h is the antithesis of the + 4ust as fro the diale!ti! o)e ent of the si 3le !ategories is born the grou3, so fro the diale!ti! o)e ent of the grou3s is born the series, and fro the diale!ti! o)e ent of the series is born the entire syste + (33ly this ethod to the !ategories of 3oliti!al e!ono y and you ha)e the logi! and eta3hysi!s of 3oliti!al e!ono y, or, in other -ords, you ha)e the e!ono i! !ategories that e)erybody 1no-s, translated into a little#1no-n language -hi!h a1es the loo1 as if they had ne)er blosso ed forth in an intelle!t of 3ure reason; so u!h do these !ategories see to engender one another, to be lin1ed u3 and intert-ined -ith one another by the )ery -or1ing of the diale!ti! o)e ent+ 8he reader ust not get alar ed at these eta3hysi!s -ith all their scaffol"ing of !ategories, grou3s, series, and syste s+ M+ Proudhon, in s3ite of all the trouble he has ta1en to s!ale the heights of the syste of !ontradi!tions, has ne)er been able to raise hi self abo)e the first t-o rungs of si 3le thesis and antithesis; and e)en these he has ounted only t-i!e, and on one of these t-o o!!asions he fell o)er ba!1-ards+ ;3 to no- -e ha)e ex3ounded only the diale!ti!s of Eegel+ 9e shall see later ho- M+ Proudhon has su!!eeded in redu!ing it to the eanest 3ro3ortions+ 8hus, for Eegel, all that has ha33ened and is still ha33ening is only 5ust -hat is ha33ening in his o-n ind+ 8hus the 3hiloso3hy of history is nothing but the history of 3hiloso3hy, of his o-n 3hiloso3hy+ 8here is no longer a @history a!!ording to the order in ti e,A there is only @the se2uen!e of ideas in the understanding+A Ee thin1s he is !onstru!ting the -orld by the o)e ent of thought, -hereas he is erely re!onstru!ting syste ati!ally and !lassifying by the absolute ethod of thoughts -hi!h are in the inds of all+ !e"ond 7bservation '!ono i! !ategories are only the theoreti!al ex3ressions, the abstra!tions of the so!ial relations of 3rodu!tion, M+ Proudhon, holding this u3side do-n li1e a true 3hiloso3her, sees in a!tual relations nothing but the in!arnation of the 3rin!i3les, of these !ategories, -hi!h -ere slu bering D so M+ Proudhon the 3hiloso3her tells us D in the boso of the @i 3ersonal reason of hu anity+A M+ Proudhon the e!ono ist understands )ery -ell that en a1e !loth, linen, or sil1 aterials in definite relations of 3rodu!tion+ But -hat he has not understood is that these definite so!ial relations are 5ust as u!h 3rodu!ed by en as linen, flax, et!+ Bo!ial relations are !losely bound u3 -ith 3rodu!ti)e for!es+ "n a!2uiring ne- 3rodu!ti)e for!es en !hange their ode of 3rodu!tion; and in !hanging their ode of 3rodu!tion, in !hanging the -ay of earning their li)ing, they !hange all their so!ial relations+ 8he hand# ill gi)es you so!iety -ith the feudal lord; the stea # ill, so!iety -ith the industrial !a3italist+ 8he sa e en -ho establish their so!ial relations in !onfor ity -ith the aterial 3rodu!ti)ity, 3rodu!e also 3rin!i3les, ideas, and !ategories, in !onfor ity -ith their so!ial relations+ 8hus the ideas, these !ategories, are as little eternal as the relations they ex3ress+ 8hey are histori!al and transitory 3rodu!ts+ 8here is a !ontinual o)e ent of gro-th in 3rodu!ti)e for!es, of destru!tion in so!ial relations, of for ation in ideas; the only i utable thing is the abstra!tion of o)e ent D mors immortalis+

5<

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

RMarx 2uotes these -ords fro the follo-ing 3assage of $u!retius6s 3oe 5n The ature of Things *Boo1 """, line 8<9,> @mortalem vitam mors cum immortalis a"emitC *@-hen ortal life has been ta1en a-ay by i ortal deathA,+S Third 7bservation 8he 3rodu!tion relations of e)ery so!iety for a -hole+ M+ Proudhon !onsiders e!ono i! relations as so any so!ial 3hases, engendering one another, resulting one fro the other li1e the antithesis fro the thesis, and reali?ing in their logi!al se2uen!e the i 3ersonal reason of hu anity+ 8he only dra-ba!1 to this ethod is that -hen he !o es to exa ine a single one of these 3hases, M+ Proudhon !annot ex3lain it -ithout ha)ing re!ourse to all the other relations of so!iety; -hi!h relations, ho-e)er, he has not yet ade his diale!ti! o)e ent engender+ 9hen, after that, M+ Proudhon, by eans of 3ure reason, 3ro!eeds to gi)e birth to these other 3hases, he treats the as if they -ere ne-#born babes+ Ee forgets that they are of the sa e age as the first+ 8hus, to arri)e at the !onstitution of )alue, -hi!h for hi is the basis of all e!ono i! e)olutions, he !ould not do -ithout di)ision of labour, !o 3etition, et!+ Tet in the series, in the understanding of M+ Proudhon, in the logi!al se2uen!e, these relations did not yet exist+ "n !onstru!ting the edifi!e of an ideologi!al syste by eans of the !ategories of 3oliti!al e!ono y, the li bs of the so!ial syste are dislo!ated+ 8he different li bs of so!iety are !on)erted into so any se3arate so!ieties, follo-ing one u3on the other+ Eo-, indeed, !ould the single logi!al for ula of o)e ent, of se2uen!e, of ti e, ex3lain the stru!ture of so!iety, in -hi!h all relations !oexist si ultaneously and su33ort one anotherF #ourth 7bservation $et us see no- to -hat odifi!ations M+ Proudhon sub5e!ts Eegel6s diale!ti!s -hen he a33lies it to 3oliti!al e!ono y+ For hi , M+ Proudhon, e)ery e!ono i! !ategory has t-o sides D one good, the other bad+ Ee loo1s u3on these !ategories as the 3etty bourgeois loo1s u3on the great en of history> apoleon -as a great an; he did a lot of good; he also did a lot of har + 8he goo" si"e and the (a" si"e, the a"vantages and "ra)(acks, ta1en together for for M+ Proudhon the contra"iction in e)ery e!ono i! !ategory+ 8he 3roble to be sol)ed> to 1ee3 the good side, -hile eli inating the bad+ Slavery is an e!ono i! !ategory li1e any other+ 8hus it also has its t-o sides+ $et us lea)e alone the bad side and tal1 about the good side of sla)ery+ :eedless to say, -e are dealing only -ith dire!t sla)ery, -ith :egro sla)ery in Burina , in Bra?il, in the Bouthern Btates of :orth ( eri!a+ Oire!t sla)ery is 5ust as u!h the 3i)ot of bourgeois industry as a!hinery, !redits, et!+ 9ithout sla)ery you ha)e no !otton; -ithout !otton you ha)e no odern industry+ "t is sla)ery that ga)e the !olonies their )alue; it is the !olonies that !reated -orld trade, and it is -orld trade that is the 3re!ondition of large#s!ale industry+ 8hus sla)ery is an e!ono i! !ategory of the greatest i 3ortan!e+ 9ithout sla)ery :orth ( eri!a, the ost 3rogressi)e of !ountries, -ould be transfor ed into a 3atriar!hal !ountry+ 9i3e :orth ( eri!a off the a3 of the -orld, and you -ill ha)e anar!hy D the !o 3lete de!ay of odern !o er!e and !i)ili?ation+ .ause sla)ery to disa33ear and you -ill ha)e -i3ed ( eri!a off the a3 of nations+ N

8his -as 3erfe!tly !orre!t for the year 1847+ (t that ti e the -orld trade of the ;nited Btates -as li ited ainly to i 3ort of i igrants and industrial 3rodu!ts, and ex3ort of !otton and toba!!o, i+e+, of the 3rodu!ts of southern sla)e labour+ 8he :orthern Btates 3rodu!ed ainly !orn and eat for the sla)e states+ "t -as only -hen the :orth 3rodu!ed !orn and eat for ex3ort and also be!a e an industrial !ountry, and -hen the ( eri!an !otton ono3oly had to fa!e 3o-erful !o 3etition, in "ndia, 'gy3t, Bra?il, et!+, that the abolition of sla)ery be!a e 3ossible+ (nd e)en then this led to the ruin of the Bouth, -hi!h did not su!!eed in re3la!ing the o3en :egro sla)ery by the disguised sla)ery of "ndian and .hinese !oolies+ R:ote by 'ngels to the 1885 =er an editionS

57

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

8hus sla)ery, be!ause it is an e!ono i! !ategory, has al-ays existed a ong the institutions of the 3eo3les+ Modern nations ha)e been able only to disguise sla)ery in their o-n !ountries, but they ha)e i 3osed it -ithout disguise u3on the :e- 9orld+ 9hat -ould M+ Proudhon do to sa)e sla)eryF Ee -ould for ulate the 3roble thus> 3reser)e the good side of this e!ono i! !ategory, eli inate the bad+ Eegel has no 3roble s to for ulate+ Ee has only diale!ti!s+ M+ Proudhon has nothing of Eegel6s diale!ti!s but the language+ For hi the diale!ti! o)e ent is the dog ati! distin!tion bet-een good and bad+ $et us for a o ent !onsider M+ Proudhon hi self as a !ategory+ $et us exa ine his good and bad side, his ad)antages and his dra-ba!1s+ "f he has the ad)antage o)er Eegel of setting 3roble s -hi!h he reser)es the right of sol)ing for the greater good of hu anity, he has the dra-ba!1 of being stri!1en -ith sterility -hen it is a 2uestion of engendering a ne- !ategory by diale!ti!al birth#throes+ 9hat !onstitutes diale!ti!al o)e ent is the !oexisten!e of t-o !ontradi!tory sides, their !onfli!t and their fusion into a ne!ategory+ 8he )ery setting of the 3roble of eli inating the bad side !uts short the diale!ti! o)e ent+ "t is not the !ategory -hi!h is 3osed and o33osed to itself, by its !ontradi!tory nature, it is M+ Proudhon -ho gets ex!ited, 3er3lexed and frets and fu es bet-een the t-o sides of the !ategory+ .aught thus in a blind alley, fro -hi!h it is diffi!ult to es!a3e by legal eans, M+ Proudhon ta1es a real flying lea3 -hi!h trans3orts hi at one bound into a ne- !ategory+ 8hen it is that, to his astonished ga?e, is re)ealed the serial relation in the understanding+ Ee ta1es the first !ategory that !o es handy and attributes to it arbitrarily the 2uality of su33lying a re edy for the dra-ba!1s of the !ategory to be 3urified+ 8hus, if -e are to belie)e M+ Proudhon, taxes re edy the dra-ba!1s of ono3oly; the balan!e of trade, the dra-ba!1s of taxes; landed 3ro3erty, the dra-ba!1s of !redit+ By ta1ing the e!ono i! !ategories thus su!!essi)ely, one by one, and a1ing one the antidote to the other, M+ Proudhon anages to a1e -ith this ixture of !ontradi!tions and antidotes to !ontradi!tions, t-o )olu es of !ontradi!tions, -hi!h he rightly entitles> Le Syst#me "es contra"ictions conomi$ues+ R8he Byste of '!ono i! .ontradi!tionsS #ifth 7bservation @"n the absolute reason all these ideas+++ are e2ually si 3le, and general++++ "n fa!t, -e attain 1no-ledge only by a sort of scaffol"ing of our ideas+ But truth in itself is inde3endent of these diale!ti!al sy bols and freed fro the !o binations of our inds+A *Proudhon, Jol+ "", 3+ 97, Eere all of a sudden, by a 1ind of s-it!h#o)er of -hi!h -e no- 1no- the se!ret, the eta3hysi!s of 3oliti!al e!ono y has be!o e an illusionH :e)er has M+ Proudhon s3o1en ore truly+ "ndeed, fro the o ent the 3ro!ess of the diale!ti! o)e ent is redu!ed to the si 3le 3ro!ess of o33osing good to bad, and of ad inistering one !ategory as an antidote to another, the !ategories are de3ri)ed of all s3ontaneity; the idea @!eases to fun!tionA; there is no life left in it+ "t is no longer 3osed or de!o 3osed into !ategories+ 8he se2uen!e of !ategories has be!o e a sort of scaffol"ing+ Oiale!ti!s has !eased to be the o)e ent of absolute reason+ 8here is no longer any diale!ti!s but only, at the ost, absolutely 3ure orality+ 9hen M+ Proudhon s3o1e of the serial relation in un"erstan"ing, of the logical se$uence of categories, he de!lared 3ositi)ely that he did not -ant to gi)e history accor"ing to the or"er in time, that is, in M+ Proudhon6s )ie-, the histori!al se2uen!e in -hi!h the !ategories ha)e anifested the sel)es+ 8hus for hi e)erything ha33ened in the 3ure ether of reason+ ')erything -as to be deri)ed fro this ether by eans of diale!ti!s+ :o- that he has to 3ut this diale!ti!s into 3ra!ti!e, his reason is in default+ M+ Proudhon6s diale!ti!s runs !ounter to Eegel6s diale!ti!s, and no- -e ha)e M+ Proudhon redu!ed to saying that the order in -hi!h he gi)es the e!ono i! !ategories is no longer the order in -hi!h they engender one another+ '!ono i! e)olutions are no longer the e)olutions of reason itself+

58

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

9hat then does M+ Proudhon gi)e usF Ceal history, -hi!h is, a!!ording to M+ Proudhon6s understanding, the se2uen!e in -hi!h the !ategories ha)e anifested the sel)es in order of ti eF :oH Eistory as it ta1es 3la!e in the idea itselfF Btill lessH 8hat is, neither the 3rofane history of !ategories, nor their sa!red historyH 9hat history does he gi)e us thenF 8he history of his o-n !ontradi!tions+ $et us see ho- they go, and ho- they drag M+ Proudhon in their train+ Before entering u3on this exa ination, -hi!h gi)es rise to the sixth i 3ortant obser)ation, -e ha)e yet another, less i 3ortant obser)ation to a1e+ $et us ad it -ith M+ Proudhon that real history, history a!!ording to the order in ti e, is the histori!al se2uen!e in -hi!h ideas, !ategories and 3rin!i3les ha)e anifested the sel)es+ 'a!h 3rin!i3le has had its o-n !entury in -hi!h to anifest itself+ 8he 3rin!i3le of authority, for exa 3le, had the 11th !entury, 5ust as the 3rin!i3le of indi)idualis had the 18th !entury+ "n logi!al se2uen!e, it -as the !entury that belonged to the 3rin!i3le, and not the 3rin!i3le -hi!h belonged to the !entury+ 9hen, !onse2uently, in order to sa)e 3rin!i3les as u!h as to sa)e history, -e as1 oursel)es -hy a 3arti!ular 3rin!i3le -as anifested in the 11th !entury or in the 18th !entury rather than in any other, -e are ne!essarily for!ed to exa ine inutely -hat en -ere li1e in the 11th !entury, -hat they -ere li1e in the 18th, -hat -ere their res3e!ti)e needs, their 3rodu!ti)e for!es, their ode of 3rodu!tion, the ra- aterials of their 3rodu!tion D in short, -hat -ere the relations bet-een an and an -hi!h resulted fro all these !onditions of existen!e+ 8o get to the botto of all these 2uestions D -hat is this but to dra- u3 the real, 3rofane history of en in e)ery !entury and to 3resent these en as both the authors and the a!tors of their o-n dra aF But the o ent you 3resent en as the a!tors and authors of their o-n history, you arri)e D by detour D at the real starting 3oint, be!ause you ha)e abandoned those eternal 3rin!i3les of -hi!h you s3o1e at the outset+ M+ Proudhon has not e)en gone far enough along the !rossroad -hi!h an ideologist ta1es to rea!h the ain road of history+ !ixth 7bservation $et us ta1e the sideroad -ith M+ Proudhon+ 9e shall !on!ede that e!ono i! relations, )ie-ed as immuta(le la)s% eternal principles% i"eal categories, existed before a!ti)e and energeti! en did; -e shall !on!ede further that these la-s, 3rin!i3les and !ategories had, sin!e the beginning of ti e, slu bered @in the i 3ersonal reason of hu anity+A 9e ha)e already seen that, -ith all these !hangeless and otionless eternities, there is no history left; there is at ost history in the idea, that is, history refle!ted in the diale!ti! o)e ent of 3ure reason+ M+ Proudhon, by saying that, in the diale!ti! o)e ent ideas are no longer @differentiated,A has done a-ay -ith both the shado- of o)e ent and the o)e ent of shado-s, by eans of -hi!h one !ould still ha)e !reated at least a se blan!e of history+ "nstead of that, he i 3utes to history his o-n i 3oten!e+ Ee lays the bla e on e)erything, e)en the Fren!h language+ @"t is not !orre!t then,A says M+ Proudhon, the 3hiloso3her, @to say that so ething a33ears, that so ething is 3rodu!ed> in !i)ili?ation as in the uni)erse, e)erything has existed, has a!ted, fro eternity+ 8his a33lies to the -hole of so!ial e!ono y+A *Jol+ "", 3+ 10/, Bo great is the 3rodu!ti)e for!e of the !ontradi!tions -hi!h fun!tion and -hi!h ade M+ Proudhon fun!tion, that, in trying to ex3lain history, he is for!ed to deny it; in trying to ex3lain the su!!essi)e a33earan!e of so!ial relations, he denies that anything !an a33ear> in trying to ex3lain 3rodu!tion, -ith all its 3hases, he 2uestions -hether anything !an be 3rodu!edH 8hus, for M+ Proudhon, there is no longer any history> no longer any se2uen!e of ideas+ (nd yet his boo1 still exists; and it is 3re!isely that boo1 -hi!h is, to use his o-n ex3ression, @history a!!ording to the se2uen!e of ideas+A Eo- shall -e find a for ula, for M+ Proudhon is a an of for ulas, to hel3 hi to !lear all these !ontradi!tions in one lea3F 8o this end he has in)ented a ne- reason, -hi!h is neither the 3ure and )irgin absolute reason, nor the !o on reason of en li)ing and a!ting in different 3eriods, but a reason 2uite a3art D the reason of the 3erson, Bo!iety D of the sub5e!t, Eu anity D -hi!h under the 3en of M+

59

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

Proudhon figures at ti es also as @so!ial genius,A @general reason,A or finally as @hu an reason+A 8his reason, de!1ed out under so any na es, betrays itself ne)ertheless, at e)ery o ent, as the indi)idual reason of M+ Proudhon, -ith its good and its bad side, its antidotes and its 3roble s+ @Eu an reason does not !reate truth,A hidden in the de3ths of absolute, eternal reason+ "t !an only un)eil it+ But su!h truths as it has un)eiled u3 to no- are in!o 3lete, insuffi!ient, and !onse2uently !ontradi!tory+ Een!e, e!ono i! !ategories, being the sel)es truths dis!o)ered, re)ealed by hu an reason, by so!ial genius, are e2ually in!o 3lete and !ontain -ithin the sel)es the ger of !ontradi!tions+ Before M+ Proudhon, so!ial genius sa- only the antagonistic elements, and not the synthetic formula, both hidden si ultaneously in absolute reason+ '!ono i! relations, -hi!h erely reali?e on earth these insuffi!ient truths, these in!o 3lete ideas, are !onse2uently !ontradi!tory in the sel)es, and 3resent t-o sides, one good, the other bad+ 8o find !o 3lete truth, the idea, in all its fullness, the syntheti! for ula that is to annihilate the !ontradi!tion, this is the 3roble of so!ial genius+ 8his again is -hy, in M+ Proudhon6s illusion, this sa e so!ial genius has been harried fro one !ategory to another -ithout e)er ha)ing been able, des3ite all its battery of !ategories, to snat!h fro =od or fro absolute reason, a syntheti! for ula+ @(t first, so!ietyA *so!ial genius, @states a 3ri ary fa!t, 3uts for-ard a hy3othesis+++ a )eritable antino y, -hose antagonisti! results de)elo3 in the so!ial e!ono y in the sa e -ay as its !onse2uen!es !ould ha)e been dedu!ed in the ind; so that industrial o)e ent, follo-ing in all things the dedu!tion of ideas, s3lits u3 into t-o !urrents, one of useful effe!ts, the other of sub)ersi)e results+ 8o bring har ony into the !onstitution of this t-o#side 3rin!i3le, and to sol)e this antino y, so!iety gi)es rise to a se!ond, -hi!h -ill soon be follo-ed by a third; and 3rogress of so!ial genius -ill ta1e 3la!e in this anner, until, ha)ing exhausted all its !ontradi!tions D " su33ose, but it is not 3ro)ed that there is a li it to hu an !ontradi!tions D it returns in one lea3 to all its for er 3ositions and -ith a single for ula sol)es all its 3roble s+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 1GG, 4ust as the antithesis -as before turned into an anti"ote, so no- the thesis be!o es a hypothesis+ 8his !hange of ter s, !o ing fro M+ Proudhon, has no longer anything sur3rising for usH Eu an reason, -hi!h is anything but 3ure, ha)ing only in!o 3lete )ision, en!ounters at e)ery ste3 ne- 3roble s to be sol)ed+ ')ery ne- thesis -hi!h it dis!o)ers in absolute reason and -hi!h is the negation of the first thesis, be!o es for it a synthesis, -hi!h it a!!e3ts rather nai)ely as the solution of the 3roble in 2uestion+ "t is thus that this reason frets and fu es in e)er rene-ing !ontradi!tions until, !o ing to the end of the !ontradi!tions, it 3er!ei)es that all its theses and syntheses are erely !ontradi!tory hy3otheses+ "n its 3er3lexity, @hu an reason, so!ial genius, returns in one lea3 to all its for er 3ositions, and in a single for ula, sol)es all its 3roble s+A 8his uni2ue for ula, by the -ay, !onstitutes M+ Proudhon6s true dis!o)ery+ "t is constitute" value+ Ey3otheses are ade only in )ie- of a !ertain ai + 8he ai that so!ial genius, s3ea1ing through the outh of M+ Proudhon, set itself in the first 3la!e, -as to eli inate the bad in e)ery e!ono i! !ategory, in order to ha)e nothing left but the good+ For it, the good, the su3re e -ell#being, the real 3ra!ti!al ai , is e2uality+ (nd -hy did the so!ial genius ai at e2uality rather than ine2uality, fraternity, .atholi!is , or any other 3rin!i3leF Be!ause @hu anity has su!!essi)ely reali?ed so any se3arate hy3otheses only in )ie- of a su3erior hy3othesis,A -hi!h 3re!isely is e2uality+ "n other -ords> be!ause e2uality is M+ Proudhon6s ideal+ Ee i agines that the di)ision of labour, !redit, the -or1sho3 D all e!ono i! relations D -ere in)ented erely for the benefit of e2uality, and yet they al-ays ended u3 by turning against it+ Bin!e history and the fi!tion of M+ Proudhon !ontradi!t ea!h other at e)ery ste3, the latter !on!ludes that there is a !ontradi!tion+ "f there is a !ontradi!tion, it exists only bet-een his fixed idea and real o)e ent+ Een!eforth, the good side of an e!ono i! relation is that -hi!h affir s e2uality; the bad side, that -hi!h negates it and affir s ine2uality+ ')ery ne- !ategory is a hy3othesis of the so!ial

<0

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

genius to eli inate the ine2uality engendered by the 3re!eding hy3othesis+ "n short, e2uality is the 3ri ordial intention, the ysti!al tenden!y, the 3ro)idential ai that the so!ial genius has !onstantly before its eyes as it -hirls in the !ir!le of e!ono i! !ontradi!tions+ 8hus, Pro)iden!e is the lo!o oti)e -hi!h a1es the -hole of M+ Proudhon6s e!ono i! baggage o)e better than his 3ure and )olati?ed reason+ Ee has de)oted to Pro)iden!e a -hole !ha3ter, -hi!h follo-s the one on taxes+ Pro)iden!e, 3ro)idential ai , this is the great -ord used today to ex3lain the o)e ent of history+ "n fa!t, this -ord ex3lains nothing+ "t is at ost a rhetori!al for , one of the )arious -ays of 3ara3hrasing fa!ts+ "t is a fa!t that in B!otland landed 3ro3erty a!2uired a ne- )alue by the de)elo3 ent of 'nglish industry+ 8his industry o3ened u3 ne- outlets for -ool+ "n order to 3rodu!e -ool on a large s!ale, arable land had to be transfor ed into 3asturage+ 8o effe!t this transfor ation, the estates had to be !on!entrated+ 8o !on!entrate the estates, s all holdings had first to be abolished, thousands of tenants had to be dri)en fro their nati)e soil and a fe- she3herds in !harge of illions of shee3 to be installed in their 3la!e+ 8hus, by su!!essi)e transfor ations, landed 3ro3erty in B!otland has resulted in the dri)ing out of en by shee3+ :o- say that the 3ro)idential ai of the institution of landed 3ro3erty in B!otland -as to ha)e en dri)en out by shee3, and you -ill ha)e ade 3ro)idential history+ 7f !ourse, the tenden!y to-ards e2uality belongs to our !entury+ 8o say no- that all for er !enturies, -ith entirely different needs, eans of 3rodu!tion, et!+, -or1ed 3ro)identially for the reali?ation of e2uality is, firstly, to substitute the eans and the en of our !entury for the en and the eans of earlier !enturies and to isunderstand the histori!al o)e ent by -hi!h the su!!essi)e generations transfor ed the results a!2uired by the generations that 3re!eded the + '!ono ists 1no- )ery -ell that the )ery thing that -as for the one a finished 3rodu!t -as for the other but the ra- aterial for ne- 3rodu!tion+ Bu33ose, as M+ Proudhon does, that so!ial genius 3rodu!ed, or rather i 3ro)ised, the feudal lords -ith the 3ro)idential ai of transfor ing the settlers into res3onsible and e2ually#3la!ed -or1ers> and you -ill ha)e effe!ted a substitution of ai s and of 3ersons -orthy of the Pro)iden!e that instituted landed 3ro3erty in B!otland, in order to gi)e itself the ali!ious 3leasure of dri)ing out en by shee3+ But sin!e M+ Proudhon ta1es su!h a tender interest in Pro)iden!e, -e refer hi to the 0istoire "e leconomie politi$ue of M+ de Jilleneu)e#Barge ont, -ho li1e-ise goes in 3ursuit of a 3ro)idential ai + 8his ai , ho-e)er, is not e2uality, but .atholi!is + !eventh and 6ast 7bservation '!ono ists ha)e a singular ethod of 3ro!edure+ 8here are only t-o 1inds of institutions for the , artifi!ial and natural+ 8he institutions of feudalis are artifi!ial institutions, those of the bourgeoisie are natural institutions+ "n this, they rese ble the theologians, -ho li1e-ise establish t-o 1inds of religion+ ')ery religion -hi!h is not theirs is an in)ention of en, -hile their o-n is an e anation fro =od+ 9hen the e!ono ists say that 3resent#day relations D the relations of bourgeois 3rodu!tion D are natural, they i 3ly that these are the relations in -hi!h -ealth is !reated and 3rodu!ti)e for!es de)elo3ed in !onfor ity -ith the la-s of nature+ 8hese relations therefore are the sel)es natural la-s inde3endent of the influen!e of ti e+ 8hey are eternal la-s -hi!h ust al-ays go)ern so!iety+ 8hus, there has been history, but there is no longer any+ 8here has been history, sin!e there -ere the institutions of feudalis , and in these institutions of feudalis -e find 2uite different relations of 3rodu!tion fro those of bourgeois so!iety, -hi!h the e!ono ists try to 3ass off as natural and as su!h, eternal+ Feudalis also had its 3roletariat D serfdo , -hi!h !ontinued all the ger s of the bourgeoisie+ Feudal 3rodu!tion also had t-o antagonisti! ele ents -hi!h are li1e-ise designated by the na e of the goo" si"e and the (a" si"e of feudalis , irres3e!ti)e of the fa!t that it is al-ays the bad side that in the end triu 3hs o)er the good side+ "t is the bad side that 3rodu!es the o)e ent -hi!h a1es history, by 3ro)iding a struggle+ "f, during the e3o!h of the do ination of

<1

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

feudalis , the e!ono ists, enthusiasti! o)er the 1nightly )irtues, the beautiful har ony bet-een rights and duties, the 3atriar!hal life of the to-ns, the 3ros3erous !ondition of do esti! industry in the !ountryside, the de)elo3 ent of industry organi?ed into !or3orations, guilds and fraternities, in short, e)erything that !onstitutes the good side of feudalis , had set the sel)es the 3roble of eli inating e)erything that !ast a shado- on the 3i!ture D serfdo , 3ri)ileges, anar!hy D -hat -ould ha)e ha33enedF (ll the ele ents -hi!h !alled forth the struggle -ould ha)e been destroyed, and the de)elo3 ent of the bourgeoisie ni33ed in the bud+ 7ne -ould ha)e set oneself the absurd 3roble of eli inating history+ (fter the triu 3h of the bourgeoisie, there -as no longer any 2uestion of the good or the bad side of feudalis + 8he bourgeoisie too1 3ossession of the 3rodu!ti)e for!es it had de)elo3ed under feudalis + (ll the old e!ono i! for s, the !orres3onding !i)il relations, the 3oliti!al state -hi!h -as the offi!ial ex3ression of the old !i)il so!iety, -ere s ashed+ 8hus, feudal 3rodu!tion, to be 5udged 3ro3erly, ust be !onsidered as a ode of 3rodu!tion founded on antagonis + "t ust be sho-n ho- -ealth -as 3rodu!ed -ithin this antagonis , hothe 3rodu!ti)e for!es -ere de)elo3ed at the sa e ti e as !lass antagonis s, ho- one of the !lasses, the bad side, the dra-ba!1 of so!iety, -ent on gro-ing until the aterial !onditions for its e an!i3ation had attained full aturity+ "s not this as good as saying that the ode of 3rodu!tion, the relations in -hi!h 3rodu!ti)e for!es are de)elo3ed, are anything but eternal la-s, but that they !orres3ond to a definite de)elo3 ent of en and of their 3rodu!ti)e for!es, and that a !hange in en6s 3rodu!ti)e for!es ne!essarily brings about a !hange in their relations of 3rodu!tionF (s the ain thing is not to be de3ri)ed of the fruits of !i)ili?ation, of the a!2uired 3rodu!ti)e for!es, the traditional for s in -hi!h they -ere 3rodu!ed ust be s ashed+ Fro this o ent, the re)olutionary !lass be!o es !onser)ati)e+ 8he bourgeoisie begins -ith a 3roletariat -hi!h is itself a reli! of the 3roletariat R"n the !o3y 3resented by Marx to :+ ;tina, the -ords @-or1ing !lassA are -ritten here+ # 'd+S of feudal ti es+ "n the !ourse of its histori!al de)elo3 ent, the bourgeoisie ne!essarily de)elo3s its antagonisti! !hara!ter, -hi!h at first is ore or less disguised, existing only in a latent state+ (s the bourgeoisie de)elo3s, there de)elo3s in its boso a ne- 3roletariat, a odern 3roletariat; there de)elo3s a struggle bet-een the 3roletarian !lass and the bourgeoisie !lass, a struggle -hi!h, before being felt, 3er!ei)ed, a33re!iated, understood, a)o-ed, and 3ro!lai ed aloud by both sides, ex3resses itself, to start -ith, erely in 3artial and o entary !onfli!ts, in sub)ersi)e a!ts+ 7n the other hand, if all the e bers of the odern bourgeoisie ha)e the sa e interests inas u!h as they for a !lass as against another !lass, they ha)e o33osite, antagonisti! interests inas u!h as they stand fa!e#to#fa!e -ith one another+ 8his o33osition of interests results fro the e!ono i! !onditions of their bourgeois life+ Fro day to day it thus be!o es !learer that the 3rodu!tion relations in -hi!h the bourgeoisie o)es ha)e not a si 3le, unifor !hara!ter, but a dual !hara!ter; that in the selfsa e relations in -hi!h -ealth is 3rodu!ed, 3o)erty is also 3rodu!ed; that in the selfsa e relations in -hi!h there is a de)elo3 ent of the 3rodu!ti)e for!es, there is also a for!e 3rodu!ing re3ression; that these relations 3rodu!e bourgeois -ealth D i+e+, the -ealth of the bourgeois !lass D only by !ontinually annihilating the -ealth of the indi)idual e bers of this !lass and by 3rodu!ing an e)er#gro-ing 3roletariat+ 8he ore the antagonisti! !hara!ter !o es to light, the ore the e!ono ists, the s!ientifi! re3resentati)es of bourgeois 3rodu!tion, find the sel)es in !onfli!t -ith their o-n theory; and different s!hools arise+ 9e ha)e the fatalist e!ono ists, -ho in their theory are as indifferent to -hat they !all the dra-ba!1s of bourgeois 3rodu!tion as the bourgeois the sel)es are in 3ra!ti!e to the sufferings of the 3roletarians -ho hel3 the to a!2uire -ealth+ "n this fatalist s!hool, there are .lassi!s and Co anti!s+ 8he .lassi!s, li1e (da B ith and Ci!ardo, re3resent a bourgeoisie -hi!h, -hile still struggling -ith the reli!s of feudal so!iety, -or1s only to 3urge e!ono i! relations of feudal taints, to in!rease the 3rodu!ti)e for!es and to gi)e a ne- u3surge to industry and !o er!e+ 8he 3roletariat that ta1es 3art in this struggle and is absorbed in this fe)erish labour ex3erien!es only

</

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

3assing, a!!idental sufferings, and itself regards the as su!h+ '!ono ists li1e (da B ith and Ci!ardo, -ho are the historians of this e3o!h, ha)e no other ission than that of sho-ing ho-ealth is a!2uired in bourgeois 3rodu!tion relations, of for ulating these relations into !ategories, into la-s, and of sho-ing ho- su3erior these la-s, these !ategories, are for the 3rodu!tion of -ealth to the la-s and !ategories of feudal so!iety+ Po)erty is in their eyes erely the 3ang -hi!h a!!o 3anies e)ery !hildbirth, in nature as in industry+ 8he Co anti!s belong to our o-n age, in -hi!h the bourgeoisie is in dire!t o33osition to the 3roletariat; in -hi!h 3o)erty is engendered in as great abundan!e as -ealth+ 8he e!ono ists no3ose as blasM fatalists, -ho, fro their ele)ated 3osition, !ast a 3roudly disdainful glan!e at the hu an a!hines -ho anufa!ture -ealth+ 8hey !o3y all the de)elo3 ents gi)en by their 3rede!essors, and the indifferen!e -hi!h in the latter -as erely nai)etM be!o es in the !o2uetry+ :ext !o es the humanitarian school, -hi!h sy 3athi?es -ith the bad side of 3resent#day 3rodu!tion relations+ "t see1s, by -ay of easing its !ons!ien!e, to 3alliate e)en if slightly the real !ontrasts; it sin!erely de3lores the distress of the 3roletariat, the unbridled !o 3etition of the bourgeois a ong the sel)es; it !ounsels the -or1ers to be sober, to -or1 hard and to ha)e fe!hildren; it ad)ises the bourgeois to 3ut a reasoned ardour into 3rodu!tion+ 8he -hole theory of this s!hool rests on inter inable distin!tions bet-een theory and 3ra!ti!e, bet-een 3rin!i3les and results, bet-een ideas and a33li!ation, bet-een for and !ontent, bet-een essen!e and reality, bet-een right and fa!t, bet-een the good side and the bad side+ 8he philanthropic school is the hu anitarian s!hool !arried to 3erfe!tion+ "t denies the ne!essity of antagonis ; it -ants to turn all en into bourgeois; it -ants to reali?e theory in so far as it is distinguished fro 3ra!ti!e and !ontains no antagonis + "t goes -ithout saying that, in theory, it is easy to a1e an abstra!tion of the !ontradi!tions that are et -ith at e)ery o ent in a!tual reality+ 8his theory -ould therefore be!o e ideali?ed reality+ 8he 3hilanthro3ists, then, -ant to retain the !ategories -hi!h ex3ress bourgeois relations, -ithout the antagonis -hi!h !onstitutes the and is inse3arable fro the + 8hey thin1 they are seriously fighting bourgeois 3ra!ti!e, and they are ore bourgeois than the others+ 4ust as the economists are the s!ientifi! re3resentati)es of the bourgeois !lass, so the socialists and communists are the theoreti!ians of the 3roletarian !lass+ Bo long as the 3roletariat is not yet suffi!iently de)elo3ed to !onstitute itself as a !lass, and !onse2uently so long as the struggle itself of the 3roletariat -ith the bourgeoisie has not yet assu ed a 3oliti!al !hara!ter, and the 3rodu!ti)e for!es are not yet suffi!iently de)elo3ed in the boso of the bourgeoisie itself to enable us to !at!h a gli 3se of the aterial !onditions ne!essary for the e an!i3ation of the 3roletariat and for the for ation of a ne- so!iety, these theoreti!ians are erely uto3ians -ho, to eet the -ants of the o33ressed !lasses, i 3ro)ise syste s and go in sear!h of a regenerating s!ien!e+ But in the easure that history o)es for-ard, and -ith it the struggle of the 3roletariat assu es !learer outlines, they no longer need to see1 s!ien!e in their inds; they ha)e only to ta1e note of -hat is ha33ening before their eyes and to be!o e its outh3ie!e+ Bo long as they loo1 for s!ien!e and erely a1e syste s, so long as they are at the beginning of the struggle, they see in 3o)erty nothing but 3o)erty, -ithout seeing in it the re)olutionary, sub)ersi)e side, -hi!h -ill o)erthro- the old so!iety+ Fro this o ent, s!ien!e, -hi!h is a 3rodu!t of the histori!al o)e ent, has asso!iated itself !ons!iously -ith it, has !eased to be do!trinaire and has be!o e re)olutionary+ $et us return to M+ Proudhon+ ')ery e!ono i! relation has a good and a bad side; it is the one 3oint on -hi!h M+ Proudhon does not gi)e hi self the lie+ Ee sees the good side ex3ounded by the e!ono ists; the bad side he sees denoun!ed by the so!ialists+ Ee borro-s fro the e!ono ists the ne!essity of eternal relations; he borro-s fro the so!ialists the illusion of seeing in 3o)erty nothing but 3o)erty+ Ee is in agree ent -ith both in -anting to fall ba!1 u3on the authority of s!ien!e+ B!ien!e for hi redu!es itself to the slender 3ro3ortions of a s!ientifi! for ula; he is the an in sear!h of

<G

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

for ulas+ 8hus it is that M+ Proudhon flatters hi self on ha)ing gi)en a !riti!is of both 3oliti!al e!ono y and !o unis > he is beneath the both+ Beneath the e!ono ists, sin!e, as a 3hiloso3her -ho has at his elbo- a agi! for ula, he thought he !ould dis3ense -ith going into 3urely e!ono i! details; beneath the so!ialists, be!ause he has neither !ourage enough nor insight enough to rise, be it e)en s3e!ulati)ely, abo)e the bourgeois hori?on+ Ee -ants to be the synthesis D he is a !o 3osite error+ Ee -ants to soar as the an of s!ien!e abo)e the bourgeois and 3roletarians; he is erely the 3etty bourgeois, !ontinually tossed ba!1 and forth bet-een !a3ital and labour, 3oliti!al e!ono y and !o unis + 2 ,. 8ivision of 6abour and Ma"hinery 8he di)ision of labour, a!!ording to M+ Proudhon, o3ens the series of e!ono i! e)olutions+ =ood side of the di)ision of labour @.onsidered in its essen!e, the di)ision of labour is the anner in -hi!h e2uality of !onditions and intelligen!e is reali?ed+A *8o e ", 3+ 9G+,

@8he di)ision of labour has be!o e for us an instru ent of 3o)erty+A *8o e ", 3+ 94+, Bad side of the di)ision of labour @$abour, by di)iding itself a!!ording to the la- -hi!h is 3e!uliar to it, and -hi!h is the 3ri ary !ondition of its fruitfulness, ends in the negation of its ai s and destroys itself+A *8o e ", 3+ 94+,

8o find the @re!o 3osition -hi!h -i3es out the dra-ba!1s of the di)ision, -hile retaining its useful effe!ts+A 8he di)ision of labour is, a!!ording to M+ Proudhon, an eternal la-, a si 3le, abstra!t !ategory+ 8herefore the abstra!tion, the idea, the -ord ust suffi!e for hi to ex3lain the di)ision of labour at different histori!al e3o!hs+ .astes, !or3orations, anufa!ture, large#s!ale industry, ust be ex3lained by the single -ord di)ide+ First study !arefully the eaning of @di)ide,A and you -ill ha)e no need to study the nu erous influen!es -hi!h gi)e the di)ision of labour a definiti)e !hara!ter in e)ery e3o!h+ .ertainly, things -ould be ade u!h too easy if they -ere redu!ed to M+ Proudhon6s !ategories+ Eistory does not 3ro!eed so !ategori!ally+ "t too1 three -hole !enturies in =er any to establish the first big di)ision of labour, the se3aration of the to-ns fro the !ountry+ "n 3ro3ortion, as this one relation of to-n and !ountry -as odified, the -hole of so!iety -as odified+ 8o ta1e only this one as3e!t of the di)ision of labour, you ha)e the old re3ubli!s, and you ha)e .hristian feudalis ; you ha)e old 'ngland -ith its barons and you ha)e odern 'ngland -ith its !otton lords+ "n the 14th and 15th !enturies, -hen there -ere as yet no !olonies, -hen ( eri!a did not yet exist for 'uro3e, -hen (sia existed only through the inter ediary of .onstantino3le, -hen the Mediterranean -as the !entre of !o er!ial a!ti)ity, the di)ision of labour had a )ery different for , a )ery different as3e!t fro that of the 17th !entury, -hen the B3anish, the Portuguese, the Out!h, the 'nglish, and the Fren!h had !olonies established in all 3arts of the -orld+ 8he extent of the ar1et, its 3hysiogno y, gi)e to the di)ision of labour at different 3eriods a 3hysiogno y, a !hara!ter, -hi!h it -ould be diffi!ult to dedu!e fro the single -ord di)ide, fro the idea, fro the !ategory+ Proble to be sol)ed

<4

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

@(ll e!ono ists sin!e (da B ith,A says M+ Proudhon, @ha)e 3ointed out the ad)antages and dra-ba!1s of the la- of di)ision, but insist u!h ore on the first than on the se!ond, be!ause that -as ore ser)i!eable for their o3ti is , and none of the has e)er -ondered -hat !ould be the dra-ba!1s to a la-++++ Eo- does the sa e 3rin!i3le, 3ursued )igorously to its !onse2uen!es, lead to dia etri!ally o33osite resultsF :ot one e!ono ist before or sin!e (+ B ith has e)en 3er!ei)ed that here -as a 3roble to elu!idate+ Bay goes to the length of re!ogni?ing that in the di)ision of labour the sa e !ause that 3rodu!es the good engenders the bad+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 95#9<, (da B ith goes further than M+ Proudhon thin1s+ Ee sa- !learly that @the differen!e of natural talents in different en is, in reality, u!h less than -e are a-are of; and the )ery different genius -hi!h a33ears to distinguish en of different 3rofessions, -hen gro-n u3 to aturity, is not so u!h the !ause as the effe!t of the di)ision of labour+A *Jol+ ", 3+ /0, "n 3rin!i3le, a 3orter differs less fro a 3hiloso3her than a astiff fro a greyhound+ "t is the di)ision of labour -hi!h has set a gulf bet-een the + (ll this does not 3re)ent M+ Proudhon fro saying else-here that (da B ith has not the slightest idea of the dra-ba!1s 3rodu!ed by the di)ision of labour+ "t is this again that a1es hi say that 4+ B+ Bay -as the first to re!ogni?e @that in the di)ision of labour the sa e !ause that 3rodu!es the good engenders the bad+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 9<, But let us listen to $e ontey; Suum cui$ue+ R8o ea!h his o-n+S @M+ 4+ B+ Bay has done e the honour of ado3ting in his ex!ellent treatise on 3oliti!al e!ono y the 3rin!i3le that " brought to light in this frag ent on the oral influen!e of the di)ision of labour+ 8he so e-hat fri)olous title of y boo1 N doubtless 3re)ented hi fro !iting e+ "t is only to this oti)e that " !an attribute the silen!e of a -riter too ri!h in his o-n sto!1 to disa)oso odest a loan+A *$e ontey, 7eu)res !o 3letes, Jol+ ", 3+ /45, Paris, 1840, $et us do hi this 5usti!e> $e ontey -ittily ex3osed the un3leasant !onse2uen!es of the di)ision of labour as it is !onstituted today, and M+ Proudhon found nothing to add to it+ But no- that, through the fault of M+ Proudhon, -e ha)e been dra-n into this 2uestion of 3riority, let us say again, in 3assing, that long before M+ $e ontey, and 17 years before (da B ith, -ho -as a 3u3il of (+ Ferguson, the last#na ed ga)e a !lear ex3osition of the sub5e!t in a !ha3ter -hi!h deals s3e!ifi!ally -ith the di)ision of labour+ @"t ay e)en be doubted, -hether the easure of national !a3a!ity in!reases -ith the ad)an!e ent of arts+ Many e!hani!al arts+++ su!!eed best under a total su33ression of senti ent and reason; and ignoran!e is the other of industry as -ell as su3erstition+ Cefle!tion and fan!y are sub5e!t to err; but a habit of o)ing the hand, or the foot, is inde3endent of either+ Manufa!tures, a!!ordingly, 3ros3er ost, -here the ind is least !onsulted, and -here the -or1sho3 ay, -ithout any great effort of i agination, be !onsidered as an engine, the 3arts of -hi!h are en++++ 8he general offi!er ay be a great 3rofi!ient in the 1no-ledge of -ar, -hile the s1ill of the soldier is !onfined to a fe- otions of the hand and the foot+ 8he for er ay ha)e gained -hat the latter has lost++++ (nd thin1ing itself, in this age of se3arations, ay be!o e a 3e!uliar !raft+A *(+ Ferguson, (n 'ssay on the Eistory of .i)il Bo!iety, 'dinburgh, 178G *Jol+ "", 33+ 108, 109, 110, 8o bring this literary sur)ey to a !lose, -e ex3ressly deny that @all e!ono ists ha)e insisted far ore on the ad)antages than on the dra-ba!1s of the di)ision of labour+A "t suffi!es to ention Bis ondi+ 8hus, as far as the ad)antages of the di)ision of labour are !on!erned, M+ Proudhon had nothing further to do than to 3ara3hrase the general 3hrases 1no-n to e)erybody+

$e ontey alludes to his boo1> Caison, folie, !ha!un son ot; 3etit !ours de orale is X la 3ortMe des )ieux enfants *Ceason, Folly, to 'a!h Eis 7-n 9ord; a Bhort .ourse in Morality 9ithin the Mental Cea!h of 7ld .hildren,, Paris, 1801+ Marx 2uotes $e ontey6s -or1 "nfluen!e orale de la di)ision du tra)ail *8he Moral "nfluen!e

of the Oi)ision of $abour,, in -hi!h $e ontey refers to the abo)e boo1+

<5

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

$et us no- see ho- he deri)es fro the di)ision of labour, ta1en as a general la-, as a !ategory, as a thought, the dra-ba!1s -hi!h are atta!hed to it+ Eo- is it that this !ategory, this la- i 3lies an une2ual distribution of labour to the detri ent of M+ Proudhon6s e2ualitarian syste F @(t this sole n hour of the di)ision of labour, the stor -inds begin to blo- o)er hu anity+ Progress does not ta1e 3la!e for all in an e2ual and unifor anner++++ "t begins by ta1ing 3ossession of a s all nu ber of the 3ri)ileged++++ "t is this 3referen!e for 3erson on the 3art of 3rogress that has for so long 1e3t u3 the belief in the natural and 3ro)idential ine2uality of !onditions, has gi)en rise to !astes, and hierar!hi!ally !onstituted all so!ieties+A *Proudhon, Jol+ ", 3+ 94, 8he di)ision of labour !reated !astes+ :o-, !astes are the dra-ba!1s of the di)ision of labour; thus, it is the di)ision of labour that has engendered the dra-ba!1s+ Duo" erat "emonstran"um+ R9hi!h -as the thing to be 3ro)ed+S 9ill you go further and as1 -hat ade the di)ision of labour !reate !astes, hierar!hi!al !onstitutions and 3ri)ileged 3ersonsF M+ Proudhon -ill tell you> Progress+ (nd -hat ade 3rogressF $i itation+ $i itation, for M+ Proudhon, is a!!e3tan!e of 3ersons on the 3art of 3rogress+ (fter 3hiloso3hy !o es history+ "t is no longer either des!ri3ti)e history or diale!ti!al history, it is !o 3arati)e history+ M+ Proudhon establishes a 3arallel bet-een the 3resent#day 3rinting -or1er and the 3rinting -or1er of the Middle (ges; bet-een the an of letters of today and the an of letters of the Middle (ges, and he -eighs do-n the balan!e on the side of those -ho belong ore or less to the di)ision of labour as the Middle (ges !onstituted or trans itted it+ Ee o33oses the di)ision of labour of one histori!al e3o!h+ 9as that -hat M+ Proudhon had to 3ro)eF :o+ Ee should ha)e sho-n us the dra-ba!1s of the di)ision of labour in general, of the di)ision of labour as a !ategory+ Besides, -hy stress this 3art of M+ Proudhon6s -or1, sin!e a little later -e shall see hi for ally retra!t all these alleged de)elo3 entsF @8he first effe!t of fra!tional labour,A !ontinues M+ Proudhon, @after the de3ra)ation of the soul, is the 3rolongation of the shifts, -hi!h gro- in in)erse ratio to the su total of intelligen!e ex3ended++++ But as the length of the shifts !annot ex!eed 1< to 18 hours 3er day, the o ent the !o 3ensation !annot be ta1en out of the ti e, it -ill be ta1en out of the 3ri!e, and the -ages -ill di inish++++ 9hat is !ertain, and the only thing for us to note, is that the uni)ersal !ons!ien!e does not assess at the sa e rate the -or1 of a fore an and the labour of a e!hani!6s assistant+ "t is therefore ne!essary to redu!e the 3ri!e of the day6s -or1; so that the -or1er, after ha)ing been affli!ted in his soul by a degrading fun!tion, !annot es!a3e being stru!1 in his body by the eagreness of his re uneration+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 97#98, 9e 3ass o)er the logi!al )alue of these syllogis s, -hi!h Kant -ould !all 3aralogis s -hi!h lead astray+ 8his is the substan!e of it> 8he di)ision of labour redu!es the -or1er to a degrading fun!tion; to this degrading fun!tion !orres3onds a de3ra)ed soul; to the de3ra)ation of the soul is befitting an e)er#in!reasing -age redu!tion+ (nd to 3ro)e that this redu!tion is befitting to a de3ra)ed soul, M+ Proudhon says, to relie)e his !ons!ien!e, that the uni)ersal !ons!ien!e -ills it thus+ "s M+ Proudhon6s soul to be re!1oned as a 3art of the uni)ersal !ons!ien!eF /achinery is, for M+ Proudhon, @the logi!al antithesis of the di)ision of labour,A and -ith the hel3 of his diale!ti!s, he begins by transfor ing a!hinery into the -or1sho3+ (fter 3resu33osing the odern -or1sho3, in order to a1e 3o)erty the out!o e of the di)ision of labour, M+ Proudhon 3resu33oses 3o)erty engendered by the di)ision of labour, in order to !o e to the -or1sho3 and be able to re3resent it as the diale!ti!al negation of that 3o)erty+ (fter stri1ing the -or1er orally by a degrading fun!tion, 3hysi!ally by the eagreness of the -age; after 3utting the -or1er under the de3enden!e of the fore an, and debasing his -or1 to the labour of a e!hani!6s assistant, he lays the bla e again on the -or1sho3 and the a!hinery for degrading the -or1er @by gi)ing hi a aster,A and he !o 3letes his abase ent by a1ing hi @sin1 fro the ran1 of artisan to that of !o on labourer+A 'x!ellent diale!ti!sH (nd if he only

<<

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

sto33ed thereH But no, he has to ha)e a ne- history of the di)ision of labour, not any longer to deri)e the !ontradi!tions fro it, but to re!onstru!t the -or1sho3 after his o-n fashion+ 8o attain this end he finds hi self !o 3elled to forget all he has 5ust said about di)ision+ $abour is organised, is di)ided differently a!!ording to the instru ents it dis3oses o)er+ 8he hand# ill 3resu33oses a different di)ision of labour fro the stea # ill+ 8hus, it is sla33ing history in the fa!e to -ant to begin by the di)ision of labour in general, in order to get subse2uently to a s3e!ifi! instru ent of 3rodu!tion, a!hinery+ Ma!hinery is no ore an e!ono i! !ategory than the bullo!1 that drags the 3lough+ Ma!hinery is erely a 3rodu!ti)e for!e+ 8he odern -or1sho3, -hi!h de3ends on the a33li!ation of a!hinery, is a so!ial 3rodu!tion relation, an e!ono i! !ategory+ $et us see no- ho- things ha33en in M+ Proudhon6s brilliant i agination+ @"n so!iety, the in!essant a33earan!e of a!hinery is the antithesis, the in)erse for ula of the di)ision of labour> it is the 3rotest of the industrial genius against fra!tional and ho i!idal labour+ 9hat, a!tually, is a a!hineF ( -ay of uniting different 3ortions of labour -hi!h had been se3arated by the di)ision of labour+ ')ery a!hine !an be defined as a su ary of se)eral o3erations++++ 8hus, through the a!hine there -ill be a restoration of the -or1er++++ Ma!hinery, -hi!h in 3oliti!al e!ono y 3la!es itself in !ontradi!tion to the di)ision of labour, re3resents synthesis, -hi!h in the hu an ind is o33osed to analysis++++ Oi)ision erely se3arated the different 3arts of labour, letting ea!h one de)ote hi self to the s3e!iality -hi!h ost suited hi ; the -or1sho3 grou3s the -or1ers a!!ording to the relation of ea!h 3art to the -hole++++ "t introdu!es the 3rin!i3le of authority in labour++++ But this is not all; the a!hine or the -or1sho3, after degrading the -or1er by gi)ing hi a aster, !o 3letes his abase ent by a1ing hi sin1 fro the ran1 of artisan to that of !o on labourer++++ 8he 3eriod -e are going through at the o ent, that of a!hinery, is distinguished by a s3e!ial !hara!teristi!, the -age -or1er+ 8he -age -or1er is subse2uent to the di)ision of labour and to ex!hange+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 1G5, 1G<, 1<1, 4ust a si 3le re ar1 to M+ Proudhon+ 8he se3aration of the different 3arts of labour, lea)ing to ea!h one the o33ortunity of de)oting hi self to the s3e!iality best suited to hi D a se3aration -hi!h M+ Proudhon dates fro the beginning of the -orld D exists only in odern industry under the rule of !o 3etition+ M+ Proudhon goes on to gi)e us a ost @interesting genealogy,A to sho- ho- the -or1sho3 arose fro the di)ision of labour and the -age -or1er fro the -or1sho3+ 1, Ee su33oses a an -ho @noti!ed that by di)iding u3 3rodu!tion into its different 3arts and ha)ing ea!h one 3erfor ed by a se3arate -or1er,A the for!es of 3rodu!tion -ould be ulti3lied+ /, 8his an, @gras3ing the thread of this idea, tells hi self that, by for ing a 3er anent grou3 of -or1ers sele!ted for the s3e!ial 3ur3ose he sets hi self, he -ill obtain a ore sustained 3rodu!tion, et!+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 1<1, G, 8his an a1es a 3ro3osal to other en, to a1e the gras3 his idea and the thread of his idea+ 4, 8his an, at the beginning of industry, deals on ter s of e2uality -ith his !o 3anions -ho later be!o e his -or1 en+ 5, @7ne realises, in fa!t, that this original e2uality had ra3idly to disa33ear in )ie- of the ad)antageous 3osition of the aster and the de3enden!e of the -age#earner+A *Jol+ ", 3+1<G, 8hat is another exa 3le of M+ Proudhon6s histori!al and des!ri3ti)e ethod+ $et us no- exa ine, fro the histori!al and e!ono i! 3oint of )ie-, -hether the -or1sho3 of the a!hine really introdu!ed the principle of authority in so!iety subse2uently to the di)ision of labour; -hether it rehabilitated the -or1er on the one hand, -hile sub itting hi to authority on the other; -hether the a!hine is the re!o 3osition of di)ided labour, the synthesis of labour as o33osed to its analysis+ Bo!iety as a -hole has this in !o on -ith the interior of a -or1sho3, that it too has its di)ision of labour+ "f one too1 as a odel the di)ision of labour in a odern -or1sho3, in order to a33ly it to a -hole so!iety, the so!iety best organi?ed for the 3rodu!tion of -ealth -ould undoubtedly be

<7

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

that -hi!h had a single !hief e 3loyer, distributing tas1s to different e bers of the !o unity a!!ording to a 3re)iously fixed rule+ But this is by no eans the !ase+ 9hile inside the odern -or1sho3 the di)ision of labour is eti!ulously regulated by the authority of the e 3loyer, odern so!iety has no other rule, no other authority for the distribution of labour than free !o 3etition+ ;nder the 3atriar!hal syste , under the !aste syste , under the feudal and !or3orati)e syste , there -as di)ision of labour in the -hole of so!iety a!!ording to fixed rules+ 9ere these rules established by a legislatorF :o+ 7riginally born of the !onditions of aterial 3rodu!tion, they -ere raised to the status of la-s only u!h later+ "n this -ay, these different for s of the di)ision of labour be!a e so any bases of so!ial organi?ation+ (s for the di)ision in the -or1sho3, it -as )ery little de)elo3ed in all these for s of so!iety+ "t !an e)en be laid do-n as a general rule that the less authority 3resides o)er the di)ision of labour inside so!iety, the ore the di)ision of labour de)elo3s inside the -or1sho3, and the ore it is sub5e!ted there to the authority of a single 3erson+ 8hus authority in the -or1sho3 and authority in so!iety, in relation to the di)ision of labour, are in in)erse ratio to ea!h other+ 8he 2uestion no- is -hat 1ind of -or1sho3 it is in -hi!h the o!!u3ations are )ery u!h se3arated, -here ea!h -or1er6s tas1 is redu!ed to a )ery si 3le o3eration, and -here the authority, !a3ital, grou3s and dire!ts the -or1+ Eo- -as this -or1sho3 brought into existen!eF "n order to ans-er this 2uestion, -e shall ha)e to exa ine ho- anufa!turing industry, 3ro3erly so# !alled, has de)elo3ed+ " a s3ea1ing here of that industry -hi!h is not yet industry, -ith its a!hinery, but -hi!h is already no longer the industry of the artisans of the Middle (ges, nor do esti! industry+ 9e shall not go into great detail> -e shall erely gi)e a fe- ain 3oints to sho- that history is not to be ade -ith for ulas+ 7ne of the ost indis3ensable !onditions for the for ation of anufa!turing industry -as the a!!u ulation of !a3ital, fa!ilitated by the dis!o)ery of ( eri!a and the i 3ort of its 3re!ious etals+ "t is suffi!iently 3ro)ed that the in!rease in the eans of ex!hange resulted in the de3re!iation of -ages and land rents, on the one hand, and the gro-th of industrial 3rofits on the other+ "n other -ords> to the extent that the 3ro3ertied !lass and the -or1ing !lass, the feudal lords and the 3eo3le, san1, to that extent the !a3italist !lass, the bourgeoisie, rose+ 8here -ere yet other !ir!u stan!es -hi!h !ontributed si ultaneously to the de)elo3 ent of anufa!turing industry> the in!rease of !o odities 3ut into !ir!ulation fro the o ent that trade had 3enetrated to the 'ast "ndies by -ay of the .a3e of =ood Eo3e; the !olonial syste ; the de)elo3 ent of ariti e trade+ (nother 3oint -hi!h has not yet been suffi!iently a33re!iated in the history of anufa!turing industry is the disbanding of the nu erous retinues of feudal lords, -hose subordinate ran1s be!a e )agrants before entering the -or1sho3+ 8he !reation of the -or1sho3 -as 3re!eded by an al ost uni)ersal )agran!y in the 15th and 1<th !enturies+ 8he -or1sho3 found, besides, a 3o-erful su33ort in the any 3easants -ho, !ontinually dri)en fro the !ountry o-ing to the transfor ation of the fields into 3astures and to the 3rogress in agri!ulture -hi!h ne!essitated fe-er hands for the tillage of the soil, -ent on !ongregating in the to-ns during -hole !enturies+ 8he gro-th of the ar1et, the a!!u ulation of !a3ital, the odifi!ation in the so!ial 3osition of the !lasses, a large nu ber of 3ersons being de3ri)ed of their sour!es of in!o e, all these are histori!al 3re!onditions for the for ation of anufa!ture+ "t -as not, as M+ Proudhon says, friendly agree ents bet-een e2uals that brought en into the -or1sho3+ "t -as not e)en in the boso of the old guilds that anufa!ture -as born+ "t -as the er!hant that be!a e head of the odern -or1sho3, and not the old guild aster+ (l ost e)ery-here there -as a des3erate struggle bet-een anufa!ture and !rafts+ 8he a!!u ulation and !on!entration of instru ents and -or1ers 3re!eded the de)elo3 ent of the di)ision of labour inside the -or1sho3+ Manufa!ture !onsisted u!h ore in the bringing

<8

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

together of any -or1ers and any !rafts in one 3la!e, in one roo under the !o and of one !a3ital, than in the analysis of labour and the ada3tation of a s3e!ial -or1er to a )ery si 3le tas1+ 8he utility of a -or1sho3 !onsisted u!h less in the di)ision of labour as su!h than in the !ir!u stan!es that -or1 -as done on a u!h larger s!ale, that any unne!essary ex3enses -ere sa)ed, et!+ (t the end of the 1<th and at the beginning of the 17th !entury, Out!h anufa!ture s!ar!ely 1ne- any di)ision of labour+ 8he de)elo3 ent of the di)ision of labour su33oses the asse blage of -or1ers in a -or1sho3+ 8here is not one single exa 3le, -hether in the 1<th or in the 17th !entury, of the different bran!hes of one and the sa e !raft being ex3loited se3arately to su!h an extent that it -ould ha)e suffi!ed to asse ble the all in one 3la!e so as to obtain a !o 3lete, ready# ade -or1sho3+ But on!e the en and the instru ents had been brought together, the di)ision of labour, su!h as it had existed in the for of the guilds, -as re3rodu!ed, ne!essarily refle!ted inside the -or1sho3+ For M+ Proudhon, -ho sees things u3side do-n, if he sees the at all, the di)ision of labour, in (da B ith6s sense, 3re!edes the -or1sho3, -hi!h is a !ondition of its existen!e+ Ma!hinery, 3ro3erly so#!alled, dates fro the end of the 18th !entury+ :othing is ore absurd than to see in a!hinery the antithesis of the di)ision of labour, the synthesis restoring unity to di)ided labour+ 8he a!hine is a unifi!ation of the instru ents of labour, and by no eans a !o bination of different o3erations for the -or1er hi self+ @9hen, by the di)ision of labour, ea!h 3arti!ular o3eration has been si 3lified to the use of a single instru ent, the lin1ing u3 of all these instru ents, set in otion by a single engine, !onstitutes D a a!hine+A *Babbage, 8raitM sur l6M!ono ie des a!hines Ret des anufa!turesS, 3+ /G0, Paris, 18GG, Bi 3le tools; a!!u ulation tools; !o 3osite tools; setting in otion of a !o 3osite tool by a single hand engine, by an; setting in otion of these instru ents by natural for!es, a!hines; syste of a!hines ha)ing one otor; syste of a!hines ha)ing one auto ati! otor D this is the 3rogress of a!hinery+ 8he !on!entration of the instru ents of 3rodu!tion and the di)ision of labour are as inse3arable one fro the other as are, in the 3oliti!al s3here, the !on!entration of 3ubli! authority and the di)ision of 3ri)ate interests+ 'ngland, -ith the !on!entration of the land, this instru ent of agri!ultural labour, has at the sa e ti e di)ision of agri!ultural labour and the a33li!ation of a!hinery to the ex3loitation of the soil+ Fran!e, -hi!h has the di)ision of the instru ents, the s all holdings syste , has, in general, neither di)ision of agri!ultural labour nor a33li!ation of a!hinery to the soil+ For M+ Proudhon the !on!entration of the instru ents of labour is the negation of the di)ision of labour+ "n reality, -e find again the re)erse+ (s the !on!entration of instru ents de)elo3s, the di)ision de)elo3s also, and )i!e )ersa+ 8his is -hy e)ery big e!hani!al in)ention is follo-ed by a greater di)ision of labour, and ea!h in!rease in the di)ision of labour gi)es rise in turn to nee!hani!al in)entions+ 9e need not re!all the fa!t that the great 3rogress of the di)ision of labour began in 'ngland after the in)ention of a!hinery+ 8hus, the -ea)ers and s3inners -ere for the ost 3art 3easants li1e those one still eets in ba!1-ard !ountries+ 8he in)ention of a!hinery brought about the se3aration of anufa!turing industry fro agri!ultural industry+ 8he -ea)er and the s3inner, united but lately in a single fa ily, -ere se3arated by the a!hine+ 8han1s to the a!hine, the s3inner !an li)e in 'ngland -hile the -ea)er resides in the 'ast "ndies+ Before the in)ention of a!hinery, the industry of a !ountry -as !arried on !hiefly -ith ra- aterials that -ere the 3rodu!ts of its o-n soil; in 'ngland D -ool, in =er any D flax, in Fran!e D sil1s and flax, in the 'ast "ndies and the $e)ant D !ottons, et!+ 8han1s to the a33li!ation of a!hinery and of stea , the di)ision of labour -as about to assu e su!h di ensions that large#s!ale industry, deta!hed fro the national soil, de3ends entirely on the -orld ar1et, on international ex!hange, on an international di)ision of labour+ "n short D the a!hine has so great an influen!e on the di)ision

<9

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

of labour, that -hen, in the anufa!ture of so e ob5e!t, a eans has been found to 3rodu!e 3arts of it e!hani!ally, the anufa!ture s3lits u3 i ediately into t-o -or1s inde3endent of ea!h other+ :eed -e s3ea1 of the 3hilanthro3i! and 3ro)idential ai that M+ Proudhon dis!o)ers in the in)ention and first a33li!ation of a!hineryF 9hen in 'ngland the ar1et had be!o e so far de)elo3ed that anual labour -as no longer ade2uate, the need for a!hinery -as felt+ 8hen !a e the idea of the a33li!ation of e!hani!al s!ien!e, already 2uite de)elo3ed in the 18th !entury+ 8he auto ati! -or1sho3 o3ened its !areer -ith a!ts -hi!h -ere anything but 3hilanthro3i!+ .hildren -ere 1e3t at -or1 at the -hi36s end; they -ere ade an ob5e!t of traffi! and !ontra!ts -ere underta1en -ith the or3hanages+ (ll the la-s on the a33renti!eshi3 of -or1ers -ere re3ealed, be!ause, to use M+ Proudhon6s 3hraseology, there -as no further need for syntheti! -or1ers+ Finally, fro 18/5 on-ards, al ost all the ne- in)entions -ere the result of !ollisions bet-een the -or1er and the e 3loyer -ho sought at all !osts to de3re!iate the -or1er6s s3e!ialised ability+ (fter ea!h ne- stri1e of any i 3ortan!e, there a33eared a ne- a!hine+ Bo little indeed did the -or1er see in the a33li!ation of a!hinery a sort of rehabilitation, restoration D as M+ Proudhon -ould say D that in the 18th !entury he stood out for a )ery long ti e against the in!i3ient do ination of the auto aton+ @9yatt,A says Oo!tor ;re, @in)ented the series of fluted rollers+++ *the s3inning fingers usually as!ribed to (-1right,++++ 8he ain diffi!ulty did not, to y a33rehension, lie so u!h in the in)ention of a 3ro3er self#a!ting e!hanis +++ as in training hu an beings to renoun!e their desultory habits of -or1, and to identify the sel)es -ith the un)arying regularity of the !o 3lex auto aton+ But to de)ise and ad inister a su!!essful !ode of fa!tory dis!i3line, suited to the ne!essities of fa!tory diligen!e, -as the Eer!ulean enter3rise, the noble a!hie)e ent of (-1right+A *Jol+ ", 33+ /1#//, /G, "n short, by the introdu!tion of a!hinery, the di)ision of labour inside so!iety has gro-n u3, the tas1 of the -or1er inside the -or1sho3 has been si 3lified, !a3ital has been !on!entrated, hu an beings ha)e been further dis e bered+ 9hen M+ Proudhon -ants to be an e!ono ist, and to abandon for a o ent the @e)olution of ideas in serial relation in the understanding,A then he goes and dra-s erudition fro (da B ith, fro a ti e -hen the auto ati! -or1sho3 -as only 5ust !o ing into existen!e+ "ndeed, -hat a differen!e bet-een the di)ision of labour as it existed in (da B ith6s day and as -e see it in the auto ati! -or1sho3H "n order to a1e this 3ro3erly understood, -e need only 2uote a fe3assages fro Or+ ;re6s 8he Philoso3hy of Manufa!tures+ @9hen (da B ith -rote his i ortal ele ents of e!ono i!s, auto ati! a!hinery being hardly 1no-n, he -as 3ro3erly led to regard the di)ision of labour as the grand 3rin!i3le of anufa!turing i 3ro)e ent; and he sho-ed, in the exa 3le of 3in# a1ing, ho- ea!h handi!rafts an, being thereby enabled to 3erfe!t hi self by 3ra!ti!e in one 3oint, be!a e a 2ui!1er and !hea3er -or1 an+ "n ea!h bran!h of anufa!ture he sa- that so e 3arts -ere, on that 3rin!i3le, of easy exe!ution, li1e the !utting of 3in -ires into unifor lengths, and so e -ere !o 3arati)ely diffi!ult, li1e the for ation and fixation of their heads; and therefore he !on!luded that to ea!h a -or1 an of a33ro3riate )alue and !ost -as naturally assigned+ 8his a33ro3riation for s the )ery essen!e of the di)ision of labour++++ @But -hat -as in Or+ B ith6s ti e a to3i! of useful illustration, !annot no- be used -ithout ris1 of isleading the 3ubli! ind as to the right 3rin!i3le of anufa!turing industry+ "n fa!t, the di)ision, or rather ada3tation of labour to the different talents of en, is little thought of in fa!tory e 3loy ent+ 7n the !ontrary, -here)er a 3ro!ess re2uires a 3e!uliar dexterity and steadiness of hand, it is -ithdra-n as soon as 3ossible fro the !unning -or1 an, -ho is 3rone to irregularities of any 1inds, and it is 3la!ed in !harge of a 3e!uliar e!hanis , so self# regulating, that a !hild ay su3erintend it+

70

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

@8he 3rin!i3le of the fa!tory syste then is, to substitute e!hani!al s!ien!e for hand s1ill, and the 3artition of a 3ro!ess into its essential !onstituents, for the di)ision or gradation of labour a ong artisans+ 7n the handi!raft 3lan, labour ore or less s1illed, -as usually the ost ex3ensi)e ele ent of 3rodu!tion+++ but on the auto ati! 3lan, s1illed labour gets 3rogressi)ely su3erseded, and -ill, e)entually, be re3la!ed by ere o)erloo1ers of a!hines+ @By the infir ity of hu an nature it ha33ens, that the ore s1ilful the -or1 an, the ore self# -illed and intra!table he is a3t to be!o e, and, of !ourse, the less fit a !o 3onent of a e!hani!al syste , in -hi!h, by o!!asional irregularities, he ay do great da age to the -hole+ 8he grand ob5e!t therefore of the odern anufa!turer is, through the union of !a3ital and s!ien!e, to redu!e the tas1 of his -or13eo3le to the exer!ise of )igilan!e and dexterity D fa!ulties, -hen !on!entrated to one 3ro!ess, s3eedily brought to 3erfe!tion in the young+ @7n the gradation syste , a an ust ser)e an a33renti!eshi3 of any years before his hand and eye be!o e s1illed enough for !ertain e!hani!al feats; but on the syste of de!o 3osing a 3ro!ess into its !onstituents, and e bodying ea!h 3art in an auto ati! a!hine, a 3erson of !o on !are and !a3a!ity ay be entrusted -ith any of the said ele entary 3arts after a short 3robation, and ay be transferred fro one to another, on any e ergen!y, at the dis!retion of the aster+ Bu!h translations are utterly at )arian!e -ith the old 3ra!ti!e of the di)ision of labour, -hi!h fixed one an to sha3ing the head of a 3in, and another to shar3ening its 3oint, -ith the ost ir1so e and s3irit#-asting unifor ity, for a -hole life++++ But on the e2ualisation 3lan of self#a!ting a!hines, the o3erati)e needs to !all his fa!ulties only into agreeable exer!ise++++ (s his business !onsists in ending the -or1 of a -ell#regulated e!hanis , he !an learn it in a short 3eriod; and -hen he transfers his ser)i!es, fro one a!hine to another, he )aries his tas1, and enlarges his )ie-s, by thin1ing on those general !o binations -hi!h result fro his and his !o 3anions6 labours+ 8hus, that !ra 3ing of the fa!ulties, that narro-ing of the ind, that stunting of the fra e, -hi!h -ere as!ribed, and not un5ustly, by oral -riters, to the di)ision of labour, !annot, in !o on !ir!u stan!es, o!!ur under the e2uable distribution of industry++++ "t is, in fa!t, the !onstant ai and tenden!y of e)ery i 3ro)e ent in a!hinery to su3ersede hu an labour altogether, or to di inish its !ost, by substituting the industry of -o en and !hildren for that of en; or that of ordinary labourers for trained artisans++++ 8his tenden!y to e 3loy erely !hildren -ith -at!hful eyes and ni ble fingers, instead of 5ourney en of long ex3erien!e, sho-s ho- the s!holasti! dog a of the di)ision of labour into degrees of s1ill has been ex3loded by our enlightened anufa!turers+A *(ndre ;re, Philoso3hie des anufa!tures ou '!ono ie industrielle, Jol+ ", .ha3+ 1, 33+ G4#G5, 9hat !hara!terises the di)ision of labour inside odern so!iety is that it engenders s3e!ialised fun!tions, s3e!ialists, and -ith the !raft#idio!y+ @9e are stru!1 -ith ad iration,A says $e ontey, @-hen -e see a ong the (n!ients the sa e 3erson distinguishing hi self to a high degree as 3hiloso3her, 3oet, orator, historian, 3riest, ad inistrator, general of an ar y+ 7ur souls are a33alled at the sight of so )ast a do ain+ 'a!h one of us 3lants his hedge and shuts hi self u3 in his en!losure+ " do not 1no- -hether by this 3ar!ellation the field is enlarged, but " do 1no- that an is belittled+A *$e ontey, o3+ !it+, 3+ /1G, 9hat !hara!terises the di)ision of labour in the auto ati! -or1sho3 is that labour has there !o 3letely lost its s3e!ialised !hara!ter+ But the o ent e)ery s3e!ial de)elo3 ent sto3s, the need for uni)ersality, the tenden!y to-ards an integral de)elo3 ent of the indi)idual begins to be felt+ 8he auto ati! -or1sho3 -i3es out s3e!ialists and !raft#idio!y+ M+ Proudhon, not ha)ing understood e)en this one re)olutionary side of the auto ati! -or1sho3, ta1es a ste3 ba!1-ard and 3ro3oses to the -or1er that he a1e not only the 1/th 3art of a 3in, but su!!essi)ely all 1/ 3arts of it+ 8he -or1er -ould thus arri)e at the 1no-ledge and the !ons!iousness of the 3in+ 8his is M+ Proudhon6s syntheti! labour+ :obody -ill !ontest that to a1e a o)e ent for-ard and another o)e ent ba!1-ard is to a1e a syntheti! o)e ent+ 8o su u3, M+ Proudhon has not gone further than the 3etty#bourgeois ideal+ (nd to realise this ideal, he !an thin1 of nothing better than to ta1e us ba!1 to the 5ourney an or, at ost, to the

71

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

aster !rafts an of the Middle (ges+ "t is enough, he says so e-here in his boo1, to ha)e !reated a aster3ie!e on!e in one6s life, to ha)e felt oneself 5ust on!e to be a an+ "s not this, in for as in !ontent, the aster3ie!e de anded by the trade guild of the Middle (gesF 2 /. 5o&petition and Monopoly @.o 3etition is as essential to labour as =ood side of !o 3etition di)ision++++ "t is ne!essary +++ for the ad)ent of e2uality+A *Jol+ "+ 33+ 18<, 188, @8he 3rin!i3le is the negation of itself+ "ts ost !ertain result is to ruin those -ho it drags in its train+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 185, @8he dra-ba!1s -hi!h follo- in its -a1e, 5ust as the good it 3ro)ides+++ both flo- logi!ally fro the 3rin!i3le+A Jol+ ", 33+ 185#8<, @8o see1 the 3rin!i3le of a!!o odation, -hi!h ust be deri)ed fro a la- su3erior to liberty itself+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 185, Proble to be sol)ed @8here !an, therefore, be no 2uestion here of destroying !o 3etition, a thing as i 3ossible to destroy as liberty; -e ha)e only to find its e2uilibriu , " -ould be ready to say its 3oli!e+A *Jol+ ", 3+ //G,

Bad side of !o 3etition

=eneral refle!tion

M+ Proudhon begins by defending the eternal ne!essity of !o 3etition against those -ho -ish to re3la!e it by e ulation+N 8here is no @3ur3oseless e ulation,A and as @the ob5e!t of e)ery 3assion is ne!essarily analogous to the 3assion itself D a -o an for the lo)er, 3o-er for the a bitious, gold for the iser, a garland for the 3oet D the ob5e!t of industrial e ulation is ne!essarily 3rofit+ ' ulation is nothing but !o 3etition itself+A *Jol+ ", 3+ 187, .o 3etition is e ulation -ith a )ie- to 3rofit+ "s industrial e ulation ne!essarily e ulation -ith a )ie- to 3rofit, that is, !o 3etitionFF M+ Proudhon 3ro)es it by affir ing it+ 9e ha)e seen that, for hi , to affir is to 3ro)e, 5ust as to su33ose is to deny+ "f the i ediate ob5e!t of the lo)er is the -o an, the i ediate ob5e!t of industrial e ulation is the 3rodu!t and not the 3rofit+ .o 3etition is not industrial e ulation, it is !o er!ial e ulation+ "n our ti e industrial e ulation exists only in )ie- of !o er!e+ 8here are e)en 3hases in the e!ono i! life of odern nations -hen e)erybody is sei?ed -ith a sort of !ra?e for a1ing 3rofit -ithout 3rodu!ing+ 8his s3e!ulation !ra?e, -hi!h re!urs 3eriodi!ally, lays bare the true !hara!ter of !o 3etition, -hi!h see1s to es!a3e the need for industrial e ulation+ "f you had told an artisan of the 14th !entury that the 3ri)ileges and the -hole feudal organi?ation of industry -ere going to be abrogated in fa)our of industrial e ulation, !alled !o 3etition, he -ould ha)e re3lied that the 3ri)ileges of the )arious !or3orations, guilds and fraternities -ere organi?ed !o 3etition+ M+ Proudhon does not i 3ose u3on this -hen he affir s that @e ulation is nothing but !o 3etition itself+A

8he Fourierists+ R:ote by 'ngels to 1885 =er an editionS

7/

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

@Oe!ree that fro the first of 4anuary 1847, labour and -ages shall be guaranteed to e)erybody> i ediately an i ense relaxation -ill su!!eed the high tension of industry+A *Jol+ "+ 3+ 189, "nstead of a su33osition, an affir ation and a negation, -e ha)e no- a de!ree that M+ Proudhon issues 3ur3osely to 3ro)e the ne!essity of !o 3etition, its eternity as a !ategory, et!+ "f -e i agine that de!rees are all that is needed to get a-ay fro !o 3etition, -e shall ne)er get a-ay fro it+ (nd if -e go so far as to 3ro3ose to abolish !o 3etition -hile retaining -ages, -e shall be 3ro3osing nonsense by royal de!ree+ But nations do not 3ro!eed by royal de!ree+ Before fra ing su!h ordinan!es, they ust at least ha)e !hanged fro to3 to botto the !onditions of their industrial and 3oliti!al existen!e, and !onse2uently their -hole anner of being+ M+ Proudhon -ill re3ly, -ith his i 3erturbable assuran!e, that it is the hy3othesis of @a transfor ation of our nature -ithout histori!al ante!edents,A and that he -ould be right in @ex!luding is fro the dis!ussion,A -e 1no- not in )irtue of -hi!h ordinan!e+ M+ Proudhon does not 1no- that all history is nothing but a !ontinuous transfor ation of hu an nature+ @$et us sti!1 to the fa!ts+ 8he Fren!h Ce)olution -as ade for industrial liberty as u!h as for 3oliti!al liberty; and although Fran!e, in 1789, had not 3er!ei)ed D let us say it o3enly D all the !onse2uen!es of the 3rin!i3le -hose realisation it de anded, it -as ista1en neither in its -ishes nor in its ex3e!tations+ 9hoe)er atte 3ts to deny this loses, in y )ie-, the right to !riti!is + " -ill ne)er dis3ute -ith an ad)ersary -ho 3uts as 3rin!i3le the s3ontaneous error of /5 illion en++++ @9hy then, if !o 3etition had not been a 3rin!i3le of so!ial e!ono y, a de!ree of fate, a ne!essity of the hu an soul, -hy, instead of abolishing !or3orations, guilds and brotherhoods, did nobody thin1 rather of re3airing the -holeFA *Jol+ "+ 3+ 191, 19/, Bo, sin!e the Fren!h of the 18th !entury abolished !or3orations, guilds, and fraternities instead of odifying the , the Fren!h of the 19th !entury ust odify !o 3etition instead of abolishing it+ Bin!e !o 3etition -as established in Fran!e in the 18th !entury as a result of histori!al needs, this !o 3etition ust not be destroyed in the 19th !entury be!ause of other histori!al needs+ M+ Proudhon, not understanding that the establish ent of !o 3etition -as bound u3 -ith the a!tual de)elo3 ent of the en of the 18th !entury, a1es of !o 3etition a ne!essity of the hu an soul, in parti(us infi"elium Rliterally, territory of the infidels; here, eaning, beyond the real of reality+S 9hat -ould he ha)e ade of the great .olbert for the 17th !enturyF (fter the re)olution !o es the 3resent state of affairs+ M+ Proudhon e2ually dra-s fa!ts fro it to sho- the eternity of !o 3etition, by 3ro)ing that all industries in -hi!h this !ategory is not yet suffi!iently de)elo3ed, as in agri!ulture, are in a state of inferiority and de!re3itude+ 8o say that there are industries -hi!h ha)e not yet rea!hed the stage of !o 3etition, that others again are belo- the le)el of bourgeois 3rodu!tion, is dri)el -hi!h gi)es not the slightest 3roof of the eternity of !o 3etition+ (ll M+ Proudhon6s logi! a ounts to is this> !o 3etition is a so!ial relation in -hi!h -e are node)elo3ing our 3rodu!ti)e for!es+ 8o this truth, he gi)es no logi!al de)elo3 ent, but only for s, often )ery -ell de)elo3ed, -hen he says that !o 3etition is industrial e ulation, the 3resent#day ode of freedo , res3onsibility in labour, !onstitution of )alue, a !ondition for the ad)ent of e2uality, a 3rin!i3le of so!ial e!ono y, a de!ree of fate, a ne!essity of the hu an soul, an ins3iration of eternal 5usti!e, liberty in di)ision, di)ision in liberty, an e!ono i! !ategory+ @&ompetition an" association su33ort ea!h other+ Far fro ex!luding ea!h other they are not e)en di)ergent+ 9hoe)er says !o 3etition already su33oses a !o on ai + .o 3etition is therefore not egois , and the ost de3lorable error !o itted by so!ialis is to ha)e regarded it as the o)erthro- of so!iety+A *Jol+ ", 3+ //G, 9hoe)er says !o 3etition says !o on ai , and that 3ro)es, on the one hand, that !o 3etition is asso!iation; on the other, that !o 3etition is not egois + (nd -hoe)er says egois , does he not say !o on ai F ')ery egois o3erates in so!iety and by the fa!t of so!iety+ Een!e it 3resu33oses so!iety, that is to say, !o on ai s, !o on needs, !o on eans of 3rodu!tion,

7G

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

et!+, et!+ "s it, then, by ere !han!e that the !o 3etition and asso!iation -hi!h the so!ialists tal1 about are not e)en di)ergentF Bo!ialists 1no- -ell enough that 3resent#day so!iety is founded on !o 3etition+ Eo- !ould they a!!use !o 3etition of o)erthro-ing 3resent#day so!iety -hi!h they -ant to o)erthrothe sel)esF (nd ho- !ould they a!!use !o 3etition of o)erthro-ing the so!iety to !o e, in -hi!h they see, on the !ontrary, the o)erthro- of !o 3etitionF M+ Proudhon says, later on, that !o 3etition is the o33osite of ono3oly, and !onse2uently !annot be the o33osite of asso!iation+ Feudalis -as, fro its origins, o33osed to 3atriar!hal onar!hy; it -as thus not o33osed to !o 3etition, -hi!h -as not yet in existen!e+ Ooes it follo- that !o 3etition is not o33osed to feudalis F "n a!tual fa!t, society% association are deno inations -hi!h !an be gi)en to e)ery so!iety, to feudal so!iety as -ell as to bourgeois so!iety -hi!h is asso!iation founded on !o 3etition+ Eothen !an there be so!ialists, -ho, by the single -ord association, thin1 they !an refute !o 3etitionF (nd ho- !an M+ Proudhon hi self -ish to defend !o 3etition against so!ialis by des!ribing !o 3etition by the single -ord associationF (ll -e ha)e 5ust said a1es u3 the beautiful side of !o 3etition as M+ Proudhon sees it+ :o- let us 3ass on to the ugly side, that is the negati)e side, of !o 3etition, its dra-ba!1s, its destru!ti)e, sub)ersi)e ele ents, its in5urious 2ualities+ 8here is so ething dis al about the 3i!ture M+ Proudhon dra-s of it+ .o 3etition engenders isery, it fo ents !i)il -ar, it @!hanges natural ?ones,A ixes u3 nationalities, !auses trouble in fa ilies, !orru3ts the 3ubli! !ons!ien!e, @sub)erts the notion of e2uity, of 5usti!e,A of orality, and -hat is -orse, it destroys free, honest trade, and does not e)en gi)e in ex!hange syntheti! )alue, fixed, honest 3ri!e+ "t disillusions e)eryone, e)en e!ono ists+ "t 3ushes things so far as to destroy its )ery self+ (fter all the ill M+ Proudhon says of it, !an there be for the relations of bourgeois so!iety, for its 3rin!i3les and its illusions, a ore disintegrating, ore destru!ti)e ele ent than !o 3etitionF "t ust be !arefully noted that !o 3etition al-ays be!o es the ore destru!ti)e for bourgeois relations in 3ro3ortion as it urges on a fe)erish !reation of ne- 3rodu!ti)e for!es, that is, of the aterial !onditions of a ne- so!iety+ "n this res3e!t at least, the bad side of !o 3etition -ould ha)e its good 3oints+ @.o 3etition as an e!ono i! 3osition or 3hase, !onsidered in its origin, is the ne!essary result+++ of the theory of the redu!tion of general ex3enses+A *Jol+ ", 3+ /G5, For M+ Proudhon, the !ir!ulation of the blood ust be a !onse2uen!e of Ear)ey6s theory+ @/onopoly is the ine)itable end of !o 3etition, -hi!h engenders it by a !ontinual negation of itself+ 8his generation of ono3oly is in itself a 5ustifi!ation of it++++ Mono3oly is the natural o33osite of !o 3etition+++ but as soon as !o 3etition is ne!essary, it i 3lies the idea of ono3oly, sin!e ono3oly is, as it -ere, the seat of ea!h !o 3eting indi)iduality+A *Jol+ ", 33+ /G<, /G7, 9e re5oi!e -ith M+ Proudhon that he !an for on!e at least 3ro3erly a33ly his for ula to thesis and antithesis+ ')eryone 1no-s that odern ono3oly is engendered by !o 3etition itself+ (s for the !ontent, M+ Proudhon !lings to 3oeti! i ages+ .o 3etition ade @of e)ery subdi)ision of labour a sort of so)ereignty in -hi!h ea!h indi)idual stood -ith his 3o-er and his inde3enden!e+A Mono3oly is @the seat of e)ery !o 3eting indi)iduality+A 8he so)ereignty is -orth at least as u!h as the seat+ M+ Proudhon tal1s of nothing but odern ono3oly engendered by !o 3etition+ But -e all 1nothat !o 3etition -as engendered by feudal ono3oly+ 8hus !o 3etition -as originally the o33osite of ono3oly and not ono3oly the o33osite of !o 3etition+ Bo that odern ono3oly is not a si 3le antithesis, it is on the !ontrary the true synthesis+ Thesis> Feudal ono3oly, before !o 3etition+ ,ntithesis> .o 3etition+

74

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

Synthesis> Modern ono3oly, -hi!h is the negation of feudal ono3oly, in so far as it i 3lies the syste of !o 3etition, and the negation of !o 3etition in so far as it is ono3oly+ 8hus odern ono3oly, bourgeois ono3oly, is syntheti! ono3oly, the negation of the negation, the unity of o33osites+ "t is ono3oly in the 3ure, nor al, rational state+ M+ Proudhon is in !ontradi!tion -ith his o-n 3hiloso3hy -hen he turns bourgeois ono3oly into ono3oly in the !rude, 3ri iti)e, !ontradi!tory, s3as odi! state+ M+ Cossi, -ho M+ Proudhon 2uotes se)eral ti es on the sub5e!t of ono3oly, see s to ha)e a better gras3 of the syntheti! !hara!ter of bourgeois ono3oly+ "n his .ours d6M!ono ie 3oliti2ue, he distinguishes bet-een artifi!ial ono3olies and natural ono3olies+ Feudal ono3olies, he says, are artifi!ial, that is, arbitrary; bourgeois ono3olies are natural, that is, rational+ Mono3oly is a good thing, reasons M+ Proudhon, sin!e it is an e!ono i! !ategory, an e anation @fro the i 3ersonal reason of hu anity+A .o 3etition, again, is a good thing sin!e it also is an e!ono i! !ategory+ But -hat is not good is the reality of ono3oly and the reality of !o 3etition+ 9hat is still -orse is that !o 3etition and ono3oly de)our ea!h other+ 9hat is to be doneF $oo1 for the synthesis of these t-o eternal thoughts, -rest it fro the boso of =od, -here is has been de3osited fro ti e i e orial+ "n 3ra!ti!al life -e find not only !o 3etition, ono3oly and the antagonis bet-een the , but also the synthesis of the t-o, -hi!h is not a for ula, but a o)e ent+ Mono3oly 3rodu!es !o 3etition, !o 3etition 3rodu!es ono3oly+ Mono3olists are ade fro !o 3etition; !o 3etitors be!o e ono3olists+ "f the ono3olists restri!t their utual !o 3etition by eans of 3artial asso!iations, !o 3etition in!reases a ong the -or1ers; and the ore the ass of the 3roletarians gro-s as against the ono3olists of one nation, the ore des3erate !o 3etition be!o es bet-een the ono3olists of different nations+ 8he synthesis is of su!h a !hara!ter that ono3oly !an only aintain itself by !ontinually entering into the struggle of !o 3etition+ 8o a1e the diale!ti!al transition to the taxes -hi!h !o e after ono3oly, M+ Proudhon tal1s to us about the so!ial genius -hi!h, after ?ig?agging intre3idly on-ard, @after striding -ith a 5aunty ste3, -ithout re3enting and -ithout halting, rea!hes the !orner of ono3oly, !asts ba!1-ard a elan!holy glan!e, and, after 3rofound refle!tion, assails all the ob5e!ts of 3rodu!tion -ith taxes, and !reates a -hole ad inistrati)e organisation, in order that all e 3loy ents be gi)en to the 3roletariat and 3aid by the en of ono3oly+A *Jol+ ", 33+ /84, /85, 9hat !an -e say of this genius, -hi!h, -hile fasting, -al1s about in a ?ig?agF (nd -hat !an -e say of this -al1ing -hi!h has no other ob5e!t in )ie- than that of destroying the bourgeois by taxes, -hereas taxes are the )ery eans of gi)ing the bourgeois the -here-ithal to 3reser)e the sel)es as the ruling !lassF Merely to gi)e a gli 3se of the anner in -hi!h M+ Proudhon treats e!ono i! details, it suffi!es to say that, a!!ording to hi , the ta2 on consumption -as established -ith a )ie- to e2uality, and to relie)e the 3roletariat+ 8he tax on !onsu 3tion has assu ed its true de)elo3 ent only sin!e the rise of the bourgeoisie+ "n the hands of industrial !a3ital, that is, of sober and e!ono i!al -ealth, -hi!h aintains, re3rodu!es, and in!reases itself by the dire!t ex3loitation of labour, the tax on !onsu 3tion -as a eans of ex3loiting the fri)olous, gay, 3rodigal -ealth of the fine lords -ho did nothing but !onsu e+ 4a es Bteuart !learly de)elo3ed this original 3ur3ose of the tax on !onsu 3tion in his Ce!her!hes des 3rin!i3es de l6e!ono ie 3oliti2ue, -hi!h he 3ublished 10 years before (da B ith+ @;nder the 3ure onar!hy, the 3rin!e see s 5ealous, as it -ere, of gro-ing -ealth, and therefore i 3oses taxes u3on 3eo3le -ho are gro-ing ri!her+ ;nder the li ited go)ern ent they are !al!ulated !hiefly to affe!t those -ho fro ri!h are gro-ing 3oorer+ 8hus the onar!h i 3oses a tax u3on industry, -here e)eryone is rated in 3ro3ortion to the gain he is su33osed to a1e by his 3rofession+ 8he 3oll#tax and taille are li1e-ise 3ro3ortioned to the su33osed o3ulen!e of e)eryone libel to the ++++ "n li ited go)ern ents, i 3ositions are ore generally laid u3on !onsu 3tion+A *Jol+ "", 33+ 190#91,

75

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

(s for the logi!al se2uen!e of taxes, of the balan!e of trade, of !redit D in the understanding of M+ Proudhon D -e !ould only re ar1 that the 'nglish bourgeoisie, on attaining its 3oliti!al !onstitution under 9illia of 7range, !reated all at on!e a ne- syste of taxes, 3ubli! !redit, and the syste of 3rote!ti)e duties, as soon as it -as in a 3osition freely to de)elo3 its !onditions of existen!e+ 8his brief su ary -ill suffi!e to gi)e the reader a true idea of M+ Proudhon6s lu!ubrations on the 3oli!e or on taxes, the balan!e of trade, !redit, !o unis , and 3o3ulation+ 9e defy the ost indulgent !riti!is to treat these !ha3ters seriously+ 2 4. Property or %round $ent "n ea!h histori!al e3o!h, 3ro3erty has de)elo3ed differently and under a set of entirely different so!ial relations+ 8hus to define bourgeois 3ro3erty is nothing else than to gi)e an ex3osition of all the so!ial relations of bourgeois 3rodu!tion+ 8o try to gi)e a definition of 3ro3erty as of an inde3endent relation, a !ategory a3art, an abstra!t and eternal idea, !an be nothing but an illusion of eta3hysi!s or 5uris3ruden!e+ M+ Proudhon, -hile see ing to s3ea1 of 3ro3erty in general, deals only -ith landed 3ro3erty, -ith ground rent+ @8he origin of rent, as 3ro3erty, is, so to s3ea1, extra#e!ono i!> it rests in 3sy!hologi!al and oral !onsiderations -hi!h are only )ery distantly !onne!ted -ith the 3rodu!tion of -ealth+A *Jol+ "", 3+ /<5, Bo M+ Proudhon de!lares hi self in!a3able of understanding the e!ono i! origin of rent and of 3ro3erty+ Ee ad its that this in!a3a!ity obliges hi to resort to 3sy!hologi!al and oral !onsiderations, -hi!h, indeed, -hile only distantly !onne!ted -ith the 3rodu!tion of -ealth, ha)e yet a )ery !lose !onne!tion -ith the narro-ness of his histori!al )ie-s+ M+ Proudhon affir s that there is so ething ysti!al and ysterious about the origin of 3ro3erty+ :o-, to see ystery in the origin of 3ro3erty D that is, to a1e a ystery of the relation bet-een 3rodu!tion itself and the distribution of the instru ents of 3rodu!tion D is not this, to use M+ Proudhon6s language, a renun!iation of all !lai s to e!ono i! s!ien!eF M+ Proudhon @!onfines hi self to re!alling that at the se)enth e3o!h of e!ono i! e)olution D !redit D -hen fi!tion had !aused reality to )anish, and hu an a!ti)ity threatened to lose itself in e 3ty s3a!e, it had be!o e ne!essary to bind an ore !losely to nature+ :o-, rent -as the 3ri!e of this ne!ontra!t+A *Jol+ "", 3+ /<9, Lhomme au2 $uarante cusN foresa- a M+ Proudhon of the future> @Mr+ .reator, by your lea)e> e)eryone is aster in his o-n -orld> but you -ill ne)er a1e e belie)e that the one -e li)e in is ade of glass+A "n your -orld, -here !redit -as a eans of losing oneself in empty space, it is )ery 3ossible that 3ro3erty be!a e ne!essary in order to (in" man to nature+ "n the -orld of real 3rodu!tion, -here landed 3ro3erty al-ays 3re!edes !redit, M+ Proudhon6s horror vacui Rhorror of a )a!uu S !ould not exist+ 8he existen!e of rent on!e ad itted, -hate)er its origin, it be!o es a sub5e!t of utually antagonisti! negotiations bet-een the far er and the landed 3ro3rietor+ 9hat is the ulti ate result of these negotiations, in other -ords, -hat is the a)erage a ount of rentF 8his is -hat M+ Proudhon says> @Ci!ardo6s theory ans-ers this 2uestion+ "n the beginning of so!iety, -hen an, ne- to earth, had before hi nothing but huge forests, -hen the earth -as )ast and -hen industry -as beginning to !o e to life, rent ust ha)e been nil+ $and, as yet unfor ed by labour, -as an ob5e!t of utility; it -as not an ex!hange )alue, it -as !o on, not so!ial+ $ittle by little, the ulti3li!ation of
N

8he Man of Forty '!us is the hero of Joltaire6s story of the sa e na e+ Ee is a odest, hard#-or1ing 3easant -ith an annual in!o e of 40 M!us *sil)er !oins used in Fran!e in the 17th#18th !enturies,+ 8he next 3assage is 2uoted fro the story+

7<

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

fa ilies and the 3rogress of agri!ulture !aused the 3ri!e of land to a1e itself felt+ $abour !a e to gi)e the soil its -orth; fro this, rent !a e into being+ 8he ore fruit a field yielded -ith the sa e a ount of labour, the higher it -as )alued; hen!e the tenden!y of 3ro3rietors -as al-ays to arrogate to the sel)es the -hole a ount of the fruits of the soil, less the -ages of the far D that is, less the !osts of 3rodu!tion+ 8hus 3ro3erty follo-ed on the heels of labour to ta1e fro it all the 3rodu!t that ex!eeded the a!tual ex3enses+ (s the 3ro3rietor fulfils a ysti! duty and re3resents the !o unity as against the !olonus, that far er is, by the dis3ensation of Pro)iden!e, no ore than a res3onsible labourer, -ho ust a!!ount to so!iety for all he rea3s abo)e his legiti ate -age++++ "n essen!e and by destination, then, rent is an instru ent of distributi)e 5usti!e, one of the thousand eans that the genius of e!ono y e 3loys to attain to e2uality+ "t is an i ediate land )aluation -hi!h is !arried out !ontradi!torily by lando-ners and far ers, -ithout any 3ossible !ollusion, in a higher interest, and -hose ulti ate result ust be to e2ualise the 3ossession of the land bet-een the ex3loiters of the soil and the industrialists++++ "t needed no less than this agi! of 3ro3erty to snat!h fro the !olonus the sur3lus of his 3rodu!t -hi!h he !annot hel3 regarding as his o-n and of -hi!h he !onsiders hi self to be ex!lusi)ely the author+ Cent, or rather 3ro3erty, has bro1en do-n agri!ultural egois and !reated a solidarity that no 3o-er, no 3artition of the land !ould ha)e brought into being++++ 8he oral effe!t of 3ro3erty ha)ing been se!ured, at 3resent -hat re ains to be done is to distribute the rent+A *Jol+ "", 33+ /70#7/, (ll this tu ult of -ords ay be redu!ed firstly to this> Ci!ardo says that the ex!ess of the 3ri!e of agri!ultural 3rodu!ts o)er their !ost of 3rodu!tion, in!luding the ordinary 3rofit and interest on the !a3ital, gi)es the easure of the rent+ M+ Proudhon does better+ Ee a1es the lando-ner inter)ene, li1e a Oeus ex a!hina, / and snat!h fro the !olonus all the sur3lus of his 3rodu!tion o)er the !ost of 3rodu!tion+ Ee a1es use of the inter)ention of the lando-ner to ex3lain 3ro3erty, of the inter)ention of the rent#re!ei)er to ex3lain rent+ Ee ans-ers the 3roble by for ulating the sa e 3roble and adding an extra syllable+ G $et us note also that in deter ining rent by the differen!e in fertility of the soil, M+ Proudhon assigns a ne- origin to it, sin!e land, before being assessed a!!ording to different degrees of fertility, @-as not,A in his )ie-, @an ex!hange )alue, but -as !o on+A 9hat, then, has ha33ened to the fi!tion about rent ha)ing !o e into being through the necessity of bringing ba!1 to the lan" an -ho )as a(out to lose himself in the infinity of empty space F :o- let us free Ci!ardo6s do!trine fro the 3ro)idential, allegori!al, and ysti!al 3hrases in -hi!h M+ Proudhon has been !areful to -ra3 it+ Cent, in the Ci!ardian sense, is 3ro3erty in land in its bourgeois state; that is, feudal 3ro3erty -hi!h has be!o e sub5e!t to the !onditions of bourgeois 3rodu!tion+ 9e ha)e seen that, a!!ording to the Ci!ardian do!trine, the 3ri!e of all ob5e!ts is deter ined ulti ately by the !ost of 3rodu!tion, in!luding the industrial 3rofit; in other -ords, by the labour ti e e 3loyed+ "n anufa!turing industry, the 3ri!e of the 3rodu!t obtained by the ini u of labour regulates the 3ri!e of all other !o odities of the sa e 1ind, seeing that the !hea3est and ost 3rodu!ti)e instru ents of 3rodu!tion !an be ulti3lied to infinity and that !o 3etition ne!essarily gi)es rise to a ar1et 3ri!e D that is, a !o on 3ri!e for all 3rodu!ts of the sa e 1ind+ "n agri!ultural industry, on the !ontrary, it is the 3ri!e of the 3rodu!t obtained by the greatest a ount of labour -hi!h regulates the 3ri!e of all 3rodu!ts of the sa e 1ind+ "n the first 3la!e, one !annot, as in anufa!turing industry, ulti3ly at -ill the instru ents of 3rodu!tion 3ossessing the sa e degree of 3rodu!ti)ity, that is, 3lots of land -ith the sa e degree of fertility+ 8hen, as
/

$iterally, god out of the a!hine, a referen!e to a!tors in theatres of anti2uity -ho ade their a33earan!e by stage a!hinery+ Figurati)ely, a 3erson -ho a33ears unex3e!tedly to sa)e a situation+ D 'd+ G Proprit *3ro3erty, is ex3lained by the inter)ention of the propritaire *3ro3rietor,, and rente *rent,, by the inter)ention of the rentier *rent#re!ei)er,+ D 'd+

77

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

3o3ulation in!reases, land of an inferior 2uality begins to be ex3loited, or ne- outlays of !a3ital, 3ro3ortionately less 3rodu!ti)e than before, are ade u3on the sa e 3lot of land+ "n both !ases a greater a ount of labour is ex3ended to obtain a 3ro3ortionately s aller 3rodu!t+ 8he needs of the 3o3ulation ha)ing rendered ne!essary this in!rease of labour, the 3rodu!t of the land -hose ex3loitation is the ore !ostly has as !ertain a sale as that of a 3ie!e of land -hose ex3loitation is !hea3er+ (s !o 3etition le)els the ar1et 3ri!e, the 3rodu!t of the better soil -ill be 3aid for as dearly as that of the inferior+ "t is the ex!ess of the 3ri!e of the 3rodu!ts of the better soil o)er the !ost of their 3rodu!tion that !onstitutes rent+ "f one !ould al-ays ha)e at one6s dis3osal 3lots of land of the sa e degree of fertility; if one !ould, as in anufa!turing industry, ha)e re!ourse !ontinually to !hea3er and ore 3rodu!ti)e a!hines, or if the subse2uent outlays of !a3ital 3rodu!ed as u!h as the first, then the 3ri!e of agri!ultural 3rodu!ts -ould be deter ined by the 3ri!e of !o odities 3rodu!ed by the best instru ents of 3rodu!tion, as -e ha)e seen -ith the 3ri!e of anufa!tured 3rodu!ts+ But, fro this o ent rent -ould ha)e disa33eared also+ For the Ci!ardian do!trine4 to be generally true, it is oreo)er essential that !a3ital should be freely a33li!able to different bran!hes of industry; that a strongly de)elo3ed !o 3etition a ong the !a3italists should ha)e brought 3rofits to an e2ual le)el; that the far er should be no ore than an industrial !a3italist !lai ing for the use of his !a3ital on the land, 5 a 3rofit e2ual to that -hi!h he -ould dra- fro his !a3ital if it -ere a33lied in any 1ind of anufa!ture; that agri!ultural ex3loitation should be sub5e!ted to the regi e of large#s!ale industry; and finally, that the lando-ner hi self should ai at nothing beyond the oney return+ "t ay ha33en, as in "reland, that rent does not yet exist, although the letting of land has rea!hed an extre e de)elo3 ent there+ Cent being the ex!ess not only o)er -ages, but also o)er industrial 3rofit, it !annot exist -here the lando-ner6s re)enue is nothing but a ere le)y on -ages+ 8hus, far fro !on)erting the ex3loiter of the land, the far er, into a simple la(ourer, and @snat!hing fro the !ulti)ator the sur3lus of his 3rodu!t, -hi!h he !annot hel3 regarding as his o-n,A rent !onfronts the lando-ner, not -ith the sla)e, the serf, the 3ayer of tribute, the -age labourer, but -ith the industrial !a3italist+ 7n!e !onstituted as ground rent, ground 3ro3erty has in its 3ossession only the sur3lus o)er 3rodu!tion !osts, -hi!h are deter ined not only by -ages but also by industrial 3rofit+ "t is therefore fro the lando-ner that ground rent snat!hed a 3art of his in!o e+ 8hus, there -as a big la3se of ti e before the feudal far er -as re3la!ed by the industrial !a3italist+ "n =er any, for exa 3le, this transfor ation began only in the last third of the 18th !entury+ "t is in 'ngland alone that this relation bet-een the industrial !a3italist and the landed 3ro3rietor has been fully de)elo3ed+ Bo long as there -as only M+ Proudhon6s colonus, there -as no rent+ 8he o ent rent exists, the colonus is no longer the far er, but the -or1er, the far er6s colonus+ 8he abase ent of the labourer, redu!ed to the role of a si 3le -or1er, day labourer, -age#earner, -or1ing for the industrial !a3italist; the in)ention of the industrial !a3italist, ex3loiting the land li1e any other fa!tory; the transfor ation of the landed 3ro3rietor fro a 3etty so)ereign into a )ulgar usurer; these are the different relations ex3ressed by rent+ Cent, in the Ci!ardian sense, is 3atriar!hal agri!ulture transfor ed into !o er!ial industry, industrial !a3ital a33lied to land, the to-n bourgeoisie trans3lanted into the !ountry+ Cent, instea" of (in"ing man to nature, has erely bound the ex3loitation of the land to !o 3etition+ 7n!e established as rent, landed 3ro3erty itself is the result of !o 3etition, sin!e fro that ti e on-ards it de3ends on the ar1et )alue of agri!ultural 3rodu!e+ (s rent, landed 3ro3erty is obilised and be!o es an arti!le of !o er!e+ Cent is 3ossible only fro the o ent -hen the
4

"n the !o3y 3resented by Marx to :+ ;tina, the beginning of the senten!e -as altered as follo-s> @For the Ci!ardian do!trine, on!e the 3re ises granted, to be generally true, it is oreo)er essential thatYA D 'd+ 5 "n the !o3y 3resented to :+ ;tina, the -ords @on inferior landA -ere altered to @on the land+A D 'd+

78

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

de)elo3 ent of urban industry, and the so!ial organisation resulting therefro , for!e the lando-ner to ai solely at !ash 3rofits, at the onetary relation of his agri!ultural 3rodu!ts D in fa!t to loo1 u3on his landed 3ro3erty only as a a!hine for !oining oney+ Cent has so !o 3letely di)or!ed the landed 3ro3rietor fro the soil, fro nature, that he has no need e)en to 1no- his estates, as is to be seen in 'ngland+ (s for the far er, the industrial !a3italist and the agri!ultural -or1er, they are no ore bound to the land they ex3loit than are the e 3loyer and the -or1er in the fa!tories to the !otton and -ool they anufa!ture; they feel an atta!h ent only for the 3ri!e of their 3rodu!tion, the onetary 3rodu!t+ Een!e the 5ere iads of the rea!tionary 3arties, -ho offer u3 all their 3rayers for the return of feudalis , of the good old 3atriar!hal life, of the si 3le anners and the fine )irtues of our forefathers+ 8he sub5e!tion of the soil to the la-s -hi!h do inate all other industries is and al-ays -ill be the sub5e!t of interested !ondolen!es+ 8hus it ay be said that rent has be!o e the oti)e 3o-er -hi!h has introdu!ed idyll into the o)e ent of history+ Ci!ardo, after 3ostulating bourgeois 3rodu!tion as ne!essary for deter ining rent, a33lies the !on!e3tion of rent, ne)ertheless, to the landed 3ro3erty of all ages and all !ountries+ 8his is an error !o on to all the e!ono ists, -ho re3resent the bourgeois relations of 3rodu!tion as eternal !ategories+ Fro the 3ro)idential ai of rent D -hi!h is, for M+ Proudhon, the transfor ation of the !olonus into a res3onsible -or1er, he 3asses to the e2ualised re-ard of rent+ Cent, as -e ha)e 5ust seen, is !onstituted by the e2ual 3ri!e of the 3rodu!ts of lands of une2ual fertility, so that a he!tolitre of !orn -hi!h has !ost 10 fran!s is sold for /0 fran!s if the !ost of 3rodu!tion rises to /0 fran!s u3on soil of inferior 2uality+ Bo long as ne!essity for!es the 3ur!hase of all the agri!ultural 3rodu!ts brought into the ar1et, the ar1et 3ri!e is deter ined by the !ost of the ost ex3ensi)e 3rodu!t+ 8hus it is this e2ualisation of 3ri!e, resulting fro !o 3etition and not fro the different fertilities of the lands, that se!ures to the o-ner of the better soil a rent of 10 fran!s for e)ery he!tolitre that his tenant sells+ $et us su33ose for a o ent that the 3ri!e of !orn is deter ined by the labour ti e needed to 3rodu!e it, and at on!e the he!tolitre of !orn obtained fro the better soil -ill sell at 10 fran!s, -hile the he!tolitre of !orn obtained on the inferior soil -ill !ost /0 fran!s+ 8his being ad itted, the a)erage ar1et 3ri!e -ill be 15 fran!s, -hereas, a!!ording to the la- of !o 3etition, it is /0 fran!s+ "f the a)erage 3ri!e -ere 15 fran!s, there -ould be no o!!asion for any distribution, -hether e2ualised or other-ise, for there -ould be no rent+ Cent exists only -hen one !an sell for /0 fran!s the he!tolitre of !orn -hi!h has !ost the 3rodu!er 10 fran!s+ M+ Proudhon su33oses e2uality of the ar1et 3ri!e, -ith une2ual !osts of 3rodu!tion, in order to arri)e at an e2ualised sharing out of the 3rodu!t of ine2uality+ 9e understand su!h e!ono ists as Mill, .herbulie?, Eildit!h, and others de anding that rent should be handed o)er to the state to ser)e in 3la!e of taxes+ 8hat is a fran1 ex3ression of the hatred the industrial !a3italist bears to-ards the landed 3ro3rietor, -ho see s to hi a useless thing, an ex!res!en!e u3on the general body of bourgeois 3rodu!tion+ But first to a1e the 3ri!e of the he!tolitre of !orn /0 fran!s in order then to a1e a general distribution of the 10 fran!s o)er!harge le)ied on the !onsu er, is indeed enough to a1e the so!ial genius 3ursue its ?ig?ag !ourse ournfully D and 1no!1 its head against so e !orner+ Cent be!o es, under M+ Proudhon6s 3en, @an i ense land )aluation, -hi!h is !arried out !ontradi!torily by land# o-ners and far ers+++ in a higher interest, and -hose ulti ate result ust be to e2ualise the 3ossession of land bet-een ex3loiters of the soil and the industrialists+A *Jol+ "", 3+ /71, For any land )aluation based u3on rent to be of 3ra!ti!al )alue, the !onditions of 3resent so!iety ust not be de3arted fro + :o-, -e ha)e sho-n that the far rent 3aid by the far er to the landlord ex3resses the rent -ith any exa!titude only in the !ountries ost ad)an!ed in industry and !o er!e+ (nd e)en this rent

79

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

often in!ludes interest 3aid to the landlord on !a3ital in!or3orated in the land+ 8he lo!ation of the land, the )i!inity of to-ns, and any other !ir!u stan!es influen!e the far rent and odify the ground rent+ 8hese 3ere 3tory reasons -ould be enough to 3ro)e the ina!!ura!y of a land )aluation based on rent+ 8hus history, far fro su33lying, in rent, a ready# ade land )aluation, does nothing but !hange and turn to3sy#tur)y the land )aluations already ade+ Finally, fertility is not so natural a 2uality as ight be thought; it is !losely bound u3 -ith the so!ial relations of the ti e+ ( 3ie!e of land ay be )ery fertile for !orn gro-ing, and yet the ar1et 3ri!e ay de!ide the !ulti)ator to turn it into an artifi!ial 3astureland and thus render it infertile+ M+ Proudhon has i 3ro)ised his land )aluation, -hi!h has not e)en the )alue of an ordinary land )aluation, only to gi)e substan!e to the 3ro)identially e2ualitarian ai of rent+ @Cent,A !ontinues M+ Proudhon, @is the interest 3aid on a !a3ital -hi!h ne)er 3erishes, na ely D land+ (nd as the !a3ital is !a3able of no in!rease in atter, but only of an indefinite i 3ro)e ent in its use, it !o es about that -hile the interest or 3rofit on a loan * mutuum, tends to di inish !ontinually through abundan!e of !a3ital, rent tends al-ays to in!rease through the 3erfe!ting of industry, fro -hi!h results the i 3ro)e ent in the use of the land++++ Bu!h, in its essen!e, is rent+A *Jol+ "", 3+ /<5, 8his ti e, M+ Proudhon sees in rent all the !hara!teristi!s of interest, sa)e that it is deri)ed fro !a3ital of a s3e!ifi! nature+ 8his !a3ital is land, an eternal !a3ital, @-hi!h is !a3able of no in!rease in atter, but only an indefinite i 3ro)e ent in its use+A "n the 3rogressi)e ad)an!e of !i)ilisation, interest has a !ontinual tenden!y to fall, -hilst rent !ontinually tends to rise+ "nterest falls be!ause of the abundan!e of !a3ital; rent rises o-ing to the i 3ro)e ents brought about in industry, -hi!h results in an e)er better utilisation of land+ Bu!h, in its essen!e, is the o3inion of M+ Proudhon+ $et us first exa ine ho- far it is true to say that rent is interest on !a3ital+ For the landed 3ro3rietor hi self, rent re3resents the interest on the !a3ital that the land has !ost hi , or that he -ould dra- fro it if he sold it+ But in buying or selling land he only buys or sells rent+ 8he 3ri!e he 3ays to a1e hi self a re!ei)er of rent is regulated by the rate of interest in general and has nothing to do -ith a!tual nature of rent+ 8he interest on !a3ital in)ested in land is in general lo-er than the interest on !a3ital in)ested in anufa!ture or !o er!e+ 8hus, for those -ho a1e no distin!tion bet-een the interest that the land re3resents to the o-ner and the rent itself, the interest on land !a3ital di inishes still ore than does the interest on other !a3ital+ But it is not a 2uestion of the 3ur!hase or sale 3ri!e of rent, of the ar1etable )alue of rent, of !a3italised rent, it is a 2uestion of rent itself+ Far rent !an i 3ly again, a3art fro rent 3ro3er, the interest on the !a3ital in!or3orated in the land+ "n this instan!e the landlord re!ei)es this 3art of the far rent, not as a landlord but as a !a3italist; but this is not the rent 3ro3er that -e are to deal -ith+ $and, so long as it is not ex3loited as a eans of 3rodu!tion, is not !a3ital+ $and as !a3ital !an be in!reased 5ust as u!h as all the other instru ents of 3rodu!tion+ :othing is added to its atter, to use M+ Proudhon6s language, but the lands -hi!h ser)e as instru ents of 3rodu!tion are ulti3lied+ 8he )ery fa!t of a33lying further outlays of !a3ital to land already transfor ed into eans of 3rodu!tion in!reases land as !a3ital -ithout adding anything to land as atter D that is, to the extent of the land+ M+ Proudhon6s land as atter is the 'arth in its li itation+ (s for the eternity he attributes to land, -e grant readily it has this )irtue as atter+ $and as !a3ital is no ore eternal than any other !a3ital+ =old and sil)er, -hi!h yield interest, are 5ust as lasting and eternal as land+ "f the 3ri!e of gold and sil)er falls, -hile that of land 1ee3s rising, this is !ertainly not be!ause of its ore or less eternal nature+ $and as !a3ital is fixed !a3ital; but fixed !a3ital gets used u3 5ust as u!h as !ir!ulating !a3ital+ " 3ro)e ents to the land need 3rodu!tion and u31ee3; they last only for a ti e; and this they

80

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

ha)e in !o on -ith all other i 3ro)e ents used to transfor atter into eans of 3rodu!tion+ "f land as !a3ital -ere eternal, so e lands -ould 3resent a )ery different a33earan!e fro -hat they do today, and -e should see the Co an .a 3agna, Bi!ily, Palestine, in all the s3lendour of their for er 3ros3erity+ 8here are e)en instan!es -hen land as !a3ital ight disa33ear, e)en though the i 3ro)e ents re ain in!or3orated in the land+ "n the first 3la!e, this o!!urs e)ery ti e rent 3ro3er is -i3ed out by the !o 3etition of ne- and ore fertile soils; se!ondly, the i 3ro)e ents -hi!h ight ha)e been )aluable at one ti e !ease to be of )alue the o ent they be!o e uni)ersal o-ing to the de)elo3 ent of agrono y+ 8he re3resentati)e of land as !a3ital is not the landlord, but the far er+ 8he 3ro!eeds yielded by land as !a3ital are interest and industrial 3rofit, not rent+ 8here are lands -hi!h yield su!h interest and 3rofit but still yield no rent+ Briefly, land in so far as it yields interest, is land !a3ital, and as land !a3ital it yields no rent, it is not landed 3ro3erty+ Cent results fro the so!ial relations in -hi!h the ex3loitation of the land ta1es 3la!e+ "t !annot be a result of the ore or less solid, ore or less durable nature of the soil+ Cent is a 3rodu!t of so!iety and not of the soil+ (!!ording to M+ Proudhon, @i 3ro)e ent in the use of the landA D a !onse2uen!e @of the 3erfe!ting of industryA D !auses the !ontinual rise in rent+ 7n the !ontrary, this i 3ro)e ent !auses its 3eriodi! fall+ 9herein !onsists, in general, any i 3ro)e ent, -hether in agri!ulture or in anufa!tureF "n 3rodu!ing ore -ith the sa e labour; in 3rodu!ing as u!h, or e)en ore, -ith less labour+ 8han1s to these i 3ro)e ents, the far er is s3ared fro using a greater a ount of labour for a relati)ely s aller 3rodu!t+ Ee has no need, therefore, to resort to inferior soils, and instal ents of !a3ital a33lied su!!essi)ely to the sa e soil re ain e2ually 3rodu!ti)e+ 8hus, these i 3ro)e ents, far fro !ontinually raising rent as M+ Proudhon says, be!o e on the !ontrary so any te 3orary obsta!les 3re)enting its rise+ 8he 'nglish lando-ners of the 17th !entury -ere so -ell a-are of this truth, that they o33osed the 3rogress of agri!ulture for fear of seeing their in!o es di inish+ *Bee Petty, an 'nglish e!ono ist of the ti e of .harles ""+, 2 0. !tri(es and 5o&binations of Wor(ers @')ery u3-ard o)e ent in -ages !an ha)e no other effe!t than a rise in the 3ri!e of !orn, -ine, et!+, that is, the effe!t of a dearth+ For -hat are -agesF 8hey are the !ost 3ri!e of !orn, et!+; they are the integrant 3ri!e of e)erything+ 9e ay go e)en further> -ages are the 3ro3ortion of the ele ents !o 3osing -ealth and !onsu ed re3rodu!ti)ely e)ery day by the ass of the -or1ers+ :o-, to double -ages +++ is to attribute to ea!h one of the 3rodu!ers a greater share than his 3rodu!t, -hi!h is !ontradi!tory, and if the rise extends only to a s all nu ber of industries, it brings a general disturban!e in ex!hange; in a -ord, a dearth++++ "t is i 3ossible, " de!lare, for stri1es follo-ed by an in!rease in -ages not to !ul inate in a general rise in 3ri!es> this is as !ertain as that t-o and t-o a1e four+A *Proudhon, Jol+ ", 33+ 110 and 111, 9e deny all these assertions, ex!e3t that t-o and t-o a1e four+ "n the first 3la!e, there is no general rise in 3ri!es+ "f the 3ri!e of e)erything doubles at the sa e ti e as -ages, there is no !hange in 3ri!e, the only !hange is in ter s+ 8hen again, a general rise in -ages !an ne)er 3rodu!e a ore or less general rise in the 3ri!e of goods+ (!tually, if e)ery industry e 3loyed the sa e nu ber of -or1ers in relation to fixed !a3ital or to the instru ents used, a general rise in -ages -ould 3rodu!e a general fall in 3rofits and the !urrent 3ri!e of goods -ould undergo no alteration+ But as the relation of anual labour to fixed !a3ital is not the sa e in different industries, all the industries -hi!h e 3loy a relati)ely greater ass of !a3ital and fe-er -or1ers, -ill be for!ed sooner or later to lo-er the 3ri!e of their goods+ "n the o33osite !ase, in -hi!h the 3ri!e of their goods is not lo-ered, their 3rofit -ill rise abo)e the !o on rate of 3rofits+ Ma!hines are not -age#earners+ 8herefore, the general rise in -ages -ill affe!t less those industries, -hi!h,

81

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

!o 3ared -ith the others, e 3loy ore a!hines than -or1ers+ But as !o 3etition al-ays tends to le)el the rate of 3rofits, those 3rofits -hi!h rise abo)e the a)erage rate !annot but be transitory+ 8hus, a3art fro a fe- flu!tuations, a general rise in -ages -ill lead, not as M+ Proudhon says, to a general in!rease in 3ri!es, but to a 3artial fall D that is a fall in the !urrent 3ri!e of the goods that are ade !hiefly -ith the hel3 of a!hines+ 8he rise and fall of 3rofits and -ages ex3resses erely the 3ro3ortion in -hi!h !a3italists and -or1ers share in the 3rodu!t of a day6s -or1, -ithout influen!ing in ost instan!es the 3ri!e of the 3rodu!t+ But that @stri1es follo-ed by an in!rease in -ages !ul inate in a general rise in 3ri!es, in a dearth e)enA D those are notions -hi!h !an blosso only in the brain of a 3oet -ho has not been understood+ "n 'ngland, stri1es ha)e regularly gi)en rise to the in)ention and a33li!ation of ne- a!hines+ Ma!hines -ere, it ay be said, the -ea3on e 3loyed by the !a3italist to 2uell the re)olt of s3e!ialised labour+ 8he self#a!ting ule, the greatest in)ention of odern industry, 3ut out of a!tion the s3inners -ho -ere in re)olt+ "f !o binations and stri1es had no other effe!t than that of a1ing the efforts of e!hani!al genius rea!t against the , they -ould still exer!ise an i ense influen!e on the de)elo3 ent of industry+ @" find,A !ontinues M+ Proudhon, @in an arti!le 3ublished by M+ $eon Fau!her+++ Be3te ber 1845, that for so e ti e the British -or1ers ha)e got out of the habit of com(ination, -hi!h is assuredly a 3rogress for -hi!h one !annot but !ongratulate the > but this i 3ro)e ent in the orale of the -or1ers !o es !hiefly fro their e!ono i! edu!ation+ K"t is not on the anufa!turers,6 !ries a s3inning# ill -or1er at a Bolton eeting, Kthat -ages de3end+ "n 3eriods of de3ression the asters are, so to s3ea1, erely the -hi3 -ith -hi!h ne!essity ar s itself, and -hether they -ant to or not, they ha)e to deal blo-s+ 8he regulati)e 3rin!i3le is the relation of su33ly and de and; and the asters ha)e not this 3o-er6++++ @9ell doneHA !ries M+ Proudhon+ @8hese are -ell#trained -or1ers, odel -or1ers, et!+, et!+, et!+ Bu!h 3o)erty did not exist in Britain; it -ill not !ross the .hannel+A *Proudhon, Jol+ ", 33+ /<1 and /</, 7f all the to-ns in 'ngland, Bolton is the one in -hi!h the radi!alis is the ost de)elo3ed+ 8he Bolton -or1ers are 1no-n to be the ost re)olutionary of all+ (t the ti e of the great agitation in 'ngland for the abolition of the .orn $a-s, the 'nglish anufa!turers thought that they !ould !o3e -ith the lando-ners only by thrusting the -or1ers to the fore+ But as the interests of the -or1ers -ere no less o33osed to those of the anufa!turers than the interests of the anufa!turers -ere to those of the lando-ners, it -as natural that the anufa!turers should fare badly in the -or1ers6 eetings+ 9hat did the anufa!turers doF 8o sa)e a33earan!es they organised eetings !o 3osed, to a large extent, of fore en, of the s all nu ber of -or1ers -ho -ere de)oted to the , and of the real friends of trade+ 9hen later on the genuine -or1ers tried, as in Bolton and Man!hester, to ta1e 3art in these sha de onstrations, in order to 3rotest against the , they -ere forbidden ad ittan!e on the ground that it -as a ti!1et eeting D a eeting to -hi!h only 3ersons -ith entran!e !ards -ere ad itted+ Tet the 3osters 3la!arded on the -alls had announ!ed 3ubli! eetings+ ')ery ti e one of these eetings -as held, the anufa!turers6 ne-s3a3ers ga)e a 3o 3ous and detailed a!!ount of the s3ee!hes ade+ "t goes -ithout saying that it -as the fore en -ho ade these s3ee!hes+ 8he $ondon 3a3ers re3rodu!ed the -ord for -ord+ M+ Proudhon has the isfortune to ta1e fore en for ordinary -or1ers, and en5oins the not to !ross the .hannel+ "f in 1844 and 1845 stri1es dre- less attention than before, it -as be!ause 1844 and 1845 -ere the first t-o years of 3ros3erity that British industry had had sin!e 18G7+ :e)ertheless none of the trades unions had been dissol)ed+ :o- let us listen to the fore en of Bolton+ (!!ording to the anufa!turers ha)e no !o and o)er -ages be!ause they ha)e no !o and o)er the 3ri!e of 3rodu!ts, and they ha)e no !o and o)er the 3ri!e of 3rodu!ts be!ause they ha)e no !o and o)er the -orld ar1et+ For this reason, they -ish it to be understood that !o binations should not be for ed to extort an in!rease in -ages fro the asters+ M+ Proudhon, on the !ontrary, forbids !o binations for fear

8/

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

they should be follo-ed by a rise in -ages -hi!h -ould bring -ith it a general dearth+ 9e ha)e no need to say that on one 3oint there is an entente cor"iale bet-een the fore en and M+ Proudhon> that a rise in -ages is e2ui)alent to a rise in the 3ri!e of 3rodu!ts+ But is the fear of a dearth the true !ause of M+ Proudhon6s ran!ourF :o+ Iuite si 3le, he is annoyed -ith the Bolton fore en be!ause they deter ine )alue by su33ly and de and and hardly ta1e any a!!ount of !onstituted )alue, of )alue -hi!h has 3assed into the state of !onstitution, of the !onstitution of )alue, in!luding 3er anent ex!hangeability and all the other 3ro3ortionalities of relations and relations of 3ro3ortionality, -ith Pro)iden!e at their side+ @( -or1ers6 stri1e is illegal, and it is not only the Penal .ode that says so, it is the e!ono i! syste , the ne!essity of the established order++++ 8hat ea!h -or1er indi)idually should dis3ose freely o)er his 3erson and his hands, this !an be tolerated, but that -or1ers should underta1e by !o bination to do )iolen!e to ono3oly, is so ething so!iety !annot 3er it+A *Jol+ ", 33+ GG4 and GG5, M+ Proudhon -ants to 3ass off an arti!le of the Penal .ode as a ne!essary and general result of bourgeois relations of 3rodu!tion+ "n 'ngland, !o bination is authorised by an (!t of Parlia ent, and it is the e!ono i! syste -hi!h has for!ed Parlia ent to grant this legal authorisation+ "n 18/5, -hen, under the Minister Eus1isson, Parlia ent had to odify the la- in order to bring it ore and ore into line -ith the !onditions resulting fro free !o 3etition, it had of ne!essity to abolish all la-s forbidding !o binations of -or1ers+ 8he ore odern industry and !o 3etition de)elo3, the ore ele ents there are -hi!h !all forth and strengthen !o bination, and as soon as !o bination be!o es an e!ono i! fa!t, daily gaining in solidity, it is bound before long to be!o e a legal fa!t+ 8hus the arti!le of the Penal .ode 3ro)es at the ost that odern industry and !o 3etition -ere not yet -ell de)elo3ed under the .onstituent (sse bly and under the ' 3ire+ < '!ono ists and so!ialists7 are in agree ent on one 3oint> the !onde nation of !o bination+ 7nly they ha)e different oti)es for their a!t of !onde nation+ 8he e!ono ists say to -or1ers> Oo not !o bine+ By !o bination you hinder the regular 3rogress of industry, you 3re)ent anufa!turers fro !arrying out their orders, you disturb trade and you 3re!i3itate the in)asion of a!hines -hi!h, by rendering your labour in 3art useless, for!e you to a!!e3t a still lo-er -age+ Besides, -hate)er you do, your -ages -ill al-ays be deter ined by the relation of hands de anded to hands su33lied, and it is an effort as ridi!ulous as it is dangerous for you to re)olt against the eternal la-s of 3oliti!al e!ono y+ 8he so!ialists say to the -or1ers> Oo not !o bine, be!ause -hat -ill you gain by it any-ayF ( rise in -agesF 8he e!ono ists -ill 3ro)e to you 2uite !learly that the fe- ha63en!e you ay gain by it for a fe- o ents if you su!!eed -ill be follo-ed by a 3er anent fall+ B1illed !al!ulators -ill 3ro)e to you that it -ould ta1e you years erely to re!o)er, through the in!rease in your -ages, the ex3enses in!urred for the organisation and u31ee3 of the !o binations+ (nd -e, as so!ialists, tell you that, a3art fro the oney 2uestion, you -ill !ontinue nonetheless to be -or1ers, and the asters -ill still !ontinue to be the asters, 5ust as before+ Bo no !o binationH :o 3oliti!sH For is not entering into !o bination engaging in 3oliti!sF 8he e!ono ists -ant the -or1ers to re ain in so!iety as it is !onstituted and as it has been signed and sealed by the in their anuals+ 8he so!ialists -ant the -or1ers to lea)e the old so!iety alone, the better to be able to enter the ne- so!iety -hi!h they ha)e 3re3ared for the -ith so u!h foresight+
<

8he la-s in o3eration at that ti e in Fran!e D the so#!alled $e .ha3elier la- ado3ted by the .onstituent (sse bly in 1791 during the re)olution and the !ri inal !ode elaborated under the :a3oleoni! ' 3ire D forbade the -or1ers to for labour unions or to go on stri1e+ 8he 3rohibition of trade unions -as abolished in Fran!e in 1884+ 7 8hat is, the so!ialists of that ti e> the Fourierists in Fran!e, the 7-enites in 'ngland+ R:ote by 'ngels to the 1885 =er an editionS

8G

Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

"n s3ite of both of the , in s3ite of anuals and uto3ias, !o bination has not yet !eased for an instant to go for-ard and gro- -ith the de)elo3 ent and gro-th of odern industry+ "t has norea!hed su!h a stage, that the degree to -hi!h !o bination has de)elo3ed in any !ountry !learly ar1s the ran1 it o!!u3ies in the hierar!hy of the -orld ar1et+ 'ngland, -hose industry has attained the highest degree of de)elo3 ent, has the biggest and best organised !o binations+ "n 'ngland, they ha)e not sto33ed at 3artial !o binations -hi!h ha)e no other ob5e!ti)e than a 3assing stri1e, and -hi!h disa33ear -ith it+ Per anent !o binations ha)e been for ed, trades unions, -hi!h ser)e as ra 3arts for the -or1ers in their struggles -ith the e 3loyers+ (nd at the 3resent ti e all these lo!al trades unions find a rallying 3oint in the :ational (sso!iation of ;nited 8rades, the !entral !o ittee of -hi!h is in $ondon, and -hi!h already nu bers 80,000 e bers+ 8he organisation of these stri1es, !o binations, and trades unions -ent on si ultaneously -ith the 3oliti!al struggles of the -or1ers, -ho no- !onstitute a large 3oliti!al 3arty, under the na e of .hartists+ 8he first atte 3t of -or1ers to asso!iate a ong the sel)es al-ays ta1es 3la!e in the for of !o binations+ $arge#s!ale industry !on!entrates in one 3la!e a !ro-d of 3eo3le un1no-n to one another+ .o 3etition di)ides their interests+ But the aintenan!e of -ages, this !o on interest -hi!h they ha)e against their boss, unites the in a !o on thought of resistan!e D com(ination+ 8hus !o bination al-ays has a double ai , that of sto33ing !o 3etition a ong the -or1ers, so that they !an !arry on general !o 3etition -ith the !a3italist+ "f the first ai of resistan!e -as erely the aintenan!e of -ages, !o binations, at first isolated, !onstitute the sel)es into grou3s as the !a3italists in their turn unite for the 3ur3ose of re3ression, and in the fa!e of al-ays united !a3ital, the aintenan!e of the asso!iation be!o es ore ne!essary to the than that of -ages+ 8his is so true that 'nglish e!ono ists are a a?ed to see the -or1ers sa!rifi!e a good 3art of their -ages in fa)our of asso!iations, -hi!h, in the eyes of these e!ono ists, are established solely in fa)our of -ages+ "n this struggle D a )eritable !i)il -ar D all the ele ents ne!essary for a !o ing battle unite and de)elo3+ 7n!e it has rea!hed this 3oint, asso!iation ta1es on a 3oliti!al !hara!ter+ '!ono i! !onditions had first transfor ed the ass of the 3eo3le of the !ountry into -or1ers+ 8he !o bination of !a3ital has !reated for this ass a !o on situation, !o on interests+ 8his ass is thus already a !lass as against !a3ital, but not yet for itself+ "n the struggle, of -hi!h -e ha)e noted only a fe- 3hases, this ass be!o es united, and !onstitutes itself as a !lass for itself+ 8he interests it defends be!o e !lass interests+ But the struggle of !lass against !lass is a 3oliti!al struggle+ "n the bourgeoisie -e ha)e t-o 3hases to distinguish> that in -hi!h it !onstituted itself as a !lass under the regi e of feudalis and absolute onar!hy, and that in -hi!h, already !onstituted as a !lass, it o)erthre- feudalis and onar!hy to a1e so!iety into a bourgeois so!iety+ 8he first of these 3hases -as the longer and ne!essitated the greater efforts+ 8his too began by 3artial !o binations against the feudal lords+ Mu!h resear!h has been !arried out to tra!e the different histori!al 3hases that the bourgeoisie has 3assed through, fro the !o une u3 to its !onstitution as a !lass+ But -hen it is a 2uestion of a1ing a 3re!ise study of stri1es, !o binations and other for s in -hi!h the 3roletarians !arry out before our eyes their organisation as a !lass, so e are sei?ed -ith real fear and others dis3lay a transcen"ental disdain+ (n o33ressed !lass is the )ital !ondition for e)ery so!iety founded on the antagonis of !lasses+ 8he e an!i3ation of the o33ressed !lass thus i 3lies ne!essarily the !reation of a ne- so!iety+ For the o33ressed !lass to be able to e an!i3ate itself, it is ne!essary that the 3rodu!ti)e 3o-ers already a!2uired and the existing so!ial relations should no longer be !a3able of existing side by side+ 7f all the instru ents of 3rodu!tion, the greatest 3rodu!ti)e 3o-er is the re)olutionary !lass itself+ 8he organisation of re)olutionary ele ents as a !lass su33oses the existen!e of all the 3rodu!ti)e for!es -hi!h !ould be engendered in the boso of the old so!iety+

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Po)erty of Philoso3hy+ .ha3ter 8-o

Ooes this ean that after the fall of the old so!iety there -ill be a ne- !lass do ination !ul inating in a ne- 3oliti!al 3o-erF :o+ 8he !ondition for the e an!i3ation of the -or1ing !lass is the abolition of e)ery !lass, 5ust as the !ondition for the liberation of the third estate, of the bourgeois order, -as the abolition of all estates and all orders+N 8he -or1ing !lass, in the !ourse of its de)elo3 ent, -ill substitute for the old !i)il so!iety an asso!iation -hi!h -ill ex!lude !lasses and their antagonis , and there -ill be no ore 3oliti!al 3o-er 3ro3erly so#!alled, sin!e 3oliti!al 3o-er is 3re!isely the offi!ial ex3ression of antagonis in !i)il so!iety+ Mean-hile the antagonis bet-een the 3roletariat and the bourgeoisie is a struggle of !lass against !lass, a struggle -hi!h !arried to its highest ex3ression is a total re)olution+ "ndeed, is it at all sur3rising that a so!iety founded on the opposition of !lasses should !ul inate in brutal contra"iction, the sho!1 of body against body, as its final "nouementF Oo not say that so!ial o)e ent ex!ludes 3oliti!al o)e ent+ 8here is ne)er a 3oliti!al o)e ent -hi!h is not at the sa e ti e so!ial+ "t is only in an order of things in -hi!h there are no ore !lasses and !lass antagonis s that social evolutions -ill !ease to be political revolutions+ 8ill then, on the e)e of e)ery general reshuffling of so!iety, the last -ord of so!ial s!ien!e -ill al-ays be> @$e !o bat ou la ort; la lutte sanguinaire ou le nMant+ .6est ainsi 2ue la 2uMstion est in)in!ible ent 3osMe+A RFro the no)el 8ean !iska by =eorge Band> @.o bat or Oeath> bloody struggle or extin!tion+ "t is thus that the 2uestion is inexorably 3ut+AS

'states here in the histori!al sense of the estates of feudalis , estates -ith definite and li ited 3ri)ileges+ 8he re)olution of the bourgeoisie abolished the estates and their 3ri)ileges+ Bourgeois so!iety 1no-s only classes+ "t -as, therefore, absolutely in !ontradi!tion -ith history to des!ribe the 3roletariat as the @fourth estate+A R'ngels, 1885 =er an editionS