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From Death to Life: The Restoration of Jewish Yeshua-Believers in the Land of Israel
Gershon Nerel
Introduction The emergence of the Messianic Jewish (Hebrew Christian) self-identity between the years 1917-1967 is a ni! e "henomenon in the history of the #$ish %# in &ret'-(srael) the *and of (srael+ ,y -Messianic Jews- it is meant Jews who %ol ntarily decided to embrace faith in $esh a (Jes s) of .a'areth as /on of 0od and 1edeemer) or as in one single case) to be disc ssed later) merely as Messiah and 2ro"het+ The originality of this segment in (sraeli society - which in Mandatory 2alestine n mbered circa 134 "ersons and ro ghly 154 aro nd 1967 - was that they insisted on not being regarded as #con%erts to Christianity#) b t rather stressed their being called 6Com"leted Jews7 or 6Messianic Jews7+1 The chronological sco"e between the years 1917 and 1967 is an e%entf l "eriod of 54 years) significantly mar8ed by the transition of Jer salem from one "olitical hegemony to another9 from its ca"t re in 1917 from the :ttoman (T r8ish) M slim &m"ire by the ,ritish Christian &m"ire) and the re nification of the City in 1967 by the (sraelis+ /ince Jer salem always had a "artic lar "lace in :ld and .ew Testament e;egesis) it also nat rally held a central "lace within the conte;t ali'ing %iews of Messianic Jews+ <ithin the time s"ectr m of these two e%ents in 1917 and 1967) re"resenting two salient -crossroads-) one finds a most formati%e half-cent ry within which modern Messianic Jewish tho ght in &ret'-(srael was sha"ed+ (n fact) Messianic Jewish hermene tics of ,iblical "ro"hecy had as its foc s both Jer salem and the "eo"le and land of (srael at one and the same time+ The Messianic Jews %iewed and inter"reted not only regional affairs in the Middle &ast) b t also so ght to trace "rominent eschatological ha""enings within a world "ers"ecti%e and history+3 om!le"it# of Nomenclature The iss e of nomenclat re is one of "rimary im"ortance within the history of the mo%ement+ <hen e;amining the terminology sed in Messianic Jewish circles) it becomes crystal clear that they re=ected any a""roach which might ha%e classified them as -Christians- per se+ &%en the term -Hebrew Christians-) and es"ecially within an &ret'-(srael connotation) was not
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This "a"er is an "dated &nglish syno"sis of my 2h> dissertation Messianic Jews in Eretz-Israel (19171967): Trends and C an!es in " apin! "el# Identit$%& 1996 (in Hebrew)) which was carried o t nder the s "er%ision of 2rof+ 0edalyah 0 y /tro msa) from the >e"artment of Com"arati%e 1eligion) the Hebrew ?ni%ersity of Jer slem+ /ee Mis 'an) %ol+ 37 (1997)9 11-3@+ Aor f rther com"arisons see also my article 6Contin ity and Change Bmong Messianic Jews in &ret'-(srael9 ,efore and Aollowing the &stablishment of the /tate of (srael7) in9 T e Messianic Jew) %ol+ 66 (199@)9 77-C@ (Hebrew Dersion in9 Meet (eEt) %ol+ C1-C3 (1995)9 3@-37)+ /ee also recently >an Cohn-/herbo8) 6Modern Hebrew Christianity and Messianic J daism)7 in9 2eter J+ Tomson and >oris *ambers-2etry) eds+) T e I)a!e o# t e J*daeo-C ristians in +ncient Jewis and C ristian (iterat*re) Mohr /iebec8) TEbingen 344@) ""+ 3C7-39C (<issenschaftliche ?nters ch ngen ' m .e en Testament) 15C)F and 2a line Gollontai) 6Messianic Jews and Jewish (dentity)7 in9 Jo*rnal o# Modern Jewis "t*dies) %ol+ @ (344H)9 195-345+ 3 /ee) for e;am"le) Bgnes <aldstein) 6The Aig Tree and Bll the Trees)7 in9 Jer*sale) (Jewish Christian Comm nity)) %ol+ 13H (Jan ary 1957)) ""+ @-5F Cf+ 0ershon .erel) 6(srael at Aifty9 Messianic Jews in the *and7) in9 " alo) (CMJ Maga'ine) ?G)) 199C) ""+ 9-14

always acce"ted among them+ Bs Jews who followed the Messiah of the .ew Testament) they "referred to be called sim"ly -Messianic Jews-+ (n Mandatory 2alestine we do not find a niform definition or term sed by Jewish belie%ers in $esh a (which we shall refer to as I JBY) for their own self-identity+ Most of those who were mainly connected to &nglish-s"ea8ing ch rches and missionary societies) li8e the ,ritish (ondon "ociet$ #or ,ro)otin! C ristianit$ +)on!st t e Jews& ) also 8nown as the C *rc Missions to Jews- (CMJ) and the Bmerican C ristian and Missionar$ +lliance& (CJMB)) did se among themsel%es the term -Hebrew Christian-+ This term was already well-8nown within the Bnglo-/a;on 2rotestant world) at least since the second half of the 19th cent ry+ Howe%er) more than semantic diffic lties arose when the term -Hebrew Christian- was sed in &ret'-(srael+ -Hebrew Christian- con%eyed mi;ed meanings when translated into collo! ial Hebrew within a Hebrew-s"ea8ing milie + J,$ were aware of the fact that the title -Hebrew Christian- was often nderstood as meaning com"lete se"aration from anything connected to Jewishness or a J daic bac8gro nd) while this was not their intention in sing the term+ Bmbig ity also arose when the term -Hebrew Christian- was nderstood to be related to the conce"t of -1estoration-+ J,$ did e;"ress clear as"irations for restoring for themsel%es an archaic and a thentic Hebraic nationality+ This -archaic nationality- was fo nd act ally in the first cent ry B+>+ and related to the first J,$ in Jer salem+ Moreo%er) modern J,$ also wished to attach themsel%es to literal biblical "ro"hecy and biblical s"irit ality+ Howe%er) they dro""ed the "refi; -Hebrew- and re"laced it by the term -Jew- in order to be related to the heritage of the Jewish world+ (n the &ret'-(srael milie a term li8e -Messianic Jew- enabled J,$ to identify themsel%es both with modern Jewish nationality and -,iblical J daism- as being distinct from -1abbinical J daism-+ ,y the ado"tion of the term -Messianic Jews-) J,$ in &ret'- (srael also re=ected the term -Jewish Christians- or -J deo- Christians-+ The diffic lty they faced was mainly with the "ro"er no n -Christian-) es"ecially when it was translated into Hebrew # - #+ They strongly re=ected any "ossible e! ation between themsel%es and 0entile Christianity as manifested in Ch rch History+ (n their writings we find a "rofo nd desire .:T to become #0entili'ed# by any terminology or by any other ind cement from non-Jewish followers of Jes s+ $et at the same time) they were com"elled ! ite often to re=ect acc sations from 0entile circles that they had) so to s"ea8) some hidden or e%en a""arent intentions to -= dai'ethe 0entile Christians thro gh their -Jewish inclinations-+ >e facto) those acc sations reflected 0entile-Christian s s"icions that J,$ had "lanned on " r"ose to regain #theological hegemony# o%er 0entiles) as it was in the first cent ry+ @ <hen the ma=ority of J,$ consented to define themsel%es as -Messianic Jews-) es"ecially following the establishment of the /tate of (srael in 19HC) it grad ally became e%ident that within mainstream Jewish thin8ing the term #Messianic# co ld hardly be ado"ted e;cl si%ely for themsel%es+ Historically) the term -Messianic- was deri%ed from -Messiah- (IChristos) ( )and was also lin8ed to di%erse holders of ideologies denoting a "artic lar -Messiah- or /a%ior+ / ch -Messiahs- or -messianic sit ations- co ld range from the s"here of religio s
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/ee) for e;am"le) 0ershon .erel) 6Modern Bssemblies of Jewish $esh a-,elie%ers between Ch rch and /ynagog e)7 in /+ .+ 0 ndry J *+ 0oldberg) eds+) .ow Jewis is C ristianit$: Two /iews on t e Messianic Mo0e)ent) Konder%an) 0rand 1a"ids 344@) ""+ 93-147+

"ersons or territorial conce"ts to com"letely sec lar conce"ts relating to non-religio s /ocialist to"ias+ The $%e&rew atholics$ Arom a theological "ers"ecti%e) a basic similarity is fo nd between Messianic Jewish belief and %ario s 2rotestant &%angelical teachings based on the .ew Testament alongside the :ld+ $et at the same time when relating to J,$) we need to "oint also to another gro "9 Jews) who following their ba"tism within the 1oman Catholic Ch rch) "referred to call themsel%es -Hebrew Catholics-+ Most of these -Hebrew Catholics-) howe%er) wo ld ob=ect to being called -Messianic Jews-) and "refer to be 8nown as LChristiansM (I )+ / ch differences of nomenclat re do not reflect merely semantic "reference+ The acce"tance of the term -Christian )-) by Hebrew Catholics manifests a clear ni%ersalistic a""roach) a "olicy of integration into the Catholic Ch rch+ /ome of them e%en as"ire to become an a""ro%ed and -! asi-inde"endent branch- within the ?ni%ersal Catholic Ch rch+ H The Messianic Jews) howe%er) by re=ecting the se of the Hebrew term - - (ILChristianM) wished to e;"ress their disconnection from the 1entile Ch rch-s history of the "ast nearly 3444 years+ They re=ected the term - - beca se it was lin8ed to anti-Jewish Christian history+ Howe%er) most J,$ endea%ored to restore a historical and gen ine self-identity as Jewish followers of $esh a+ Bltho gh they identified themsel%es with the first-cent ry J,$) they still were di%ided in "rinci"le on how to sha"e and manifest s ch an identity %is-a-%is /ynagog e and Ch rch ali8e+ (n the conte;t of the historical di%isions between Catholics and 2rotestants) it became ob%io s that Messianic Jews wo ld constantly differentiate themsel%es from -Hebrew Catholics- - and %ice %ersa+ / ch a dissimilarity was ! ite e%ident) altho gh each gro " o"enly str ggled against the assimilation of its members into the instit tional 0entile Ch rches+ (n fact) both gro "s also deno nced traditional Christian antisemitism) and insisted on maintaining a ni! e stat s) as Jews) among all other followers of Jes s) es"ecially in still being "art of the biblical -Chosen 2eo"le-+ -Hebrew Catholics- and Messianic Jews form de facto T<: modern $esh a-mo%ements+ (n o r conte;t it is indeed interesting to "erform a systematic com"arison between -Messianic Jews- and -Hebrew Catholics-+ / ch a 6mechanism7 may add to the ill mination of s"ecific iss es which characterise the global restoration of J,$+5 'trivin( for or!orate )manci!ation The attit des of J,$ towards establishing their own cor"orate instit tions are obser%ed not only on a national le%el with strong territorial roots) b t are also reflected thro gh their theological thin8ing+ This is seen) for e;am"le) when they come to define those "ersons who wo ld ! alify to =oin their circles officially+ ,asically) Messianic Jews in Mandatory 2alestine were "art and "arcel of the 2rotestant missionary organi'ations located in central towns li8e Jer salem) Jaffa) Haifa) /afed and Tiberias+ B constant tendency was fo nd among them to lea%e these 0entile instit tions) and e%en to a%oid the se of traditional theological terminologyF e+g+) to dro" the word 6Ch rch7( )and to se instead terms li8e -Bssembly- ))or LBllianceM( )+
H

/ee recently *eon Men'ies 1acion'er) 6Hebrew Catholicism9 Theology and 2olitics in Modern (srael)7 in9 T e .e$t rop Jo*rnal% %ol+ H5 (344H)9 H45-H15+ 5 /ee 0ershon .erel) #,isho" Jean-,a"tiste 0 rion and Two Modern $esh a-Mo%ements# in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ H4 (344H)9 57-6@+

.o do bt the factor of ongoing Hebrai'ation within their circles as in the society s rro nding them) s ch as the daily se and -indigeni'ation- of the Hebrew lang age) infl enced their way of thin8ing+ /o did their growing awareness of the need to de%elo" a gen ine Messianic Jewish mentality which wo ld disting ish itself from any characteristics or c stoms that wo ld) so to s"ea8) 0entili'e them and ca se them to lose their Jewish heritage and identity+ The o tcome of this tendency was that J,$ constantly attem"ted to de%elo" new forms of gro "ing by themsel%es in order to better e;"ress) as well as maintain) their ni! e identity+ Th s) they strongly insisted on sha"ing a distinct Jewish identity) which embraced the belief in $esh a as Messiah and /on of 0od within their own "hraseology+ 6 Howe%er) they faced diffic lties and mis nderstandings) "artic larly with those e;"atriate Christian missionaries who were ministering in the *and and yet co ld only with diffic lty gras" s ch -se"aratist- or e%en so-called -self-e;alting- Jewish belie%ers in $esh a+ Th s) for e;am"le) a s"ecial attem"t to establish an inde"endent Messianic Jewish congregation can be traced in Jer salem between the years 1935-1939+ Howe%er) in &nglish they called themsel%es -Hebrew Christians-) b t in collo! ial Hebrew and in Hebrew te;ts they sed the term -$eh dim Meshihiim- (-Messianic Jews-)+ The fo nders of this congregation were two Jews) Hyman Jacobs and Moshe (mman el ,en-Meir) and a .orwegian missionary) >r+ Brne Jonsen+ Jonsen and Jacobs " blished a statement of "rinci"les to ser%e almost as an enlarged creed or manifesto+ This "roclaimed their as"irations to restore the original and national entity of J,$ as described in the .ew Testament+ ,y this they e;"ressed strong awareness of their need to obser%e the Jewish national c stoms and Holy >ays originating in the :ld Testament) "artic larly Circ mcision) the /abbath and 2asso%er+7 There were hea%y "ress res e;erted on them from their 0entile Mission ,oards o%erseas+ The s ""orters of >r+ Jonsen in :slo and the board of the #Chicago Hebrew Mission# in the ?/B that s ""orted Jacobs com"elled them to 8ee" / nday and the /abbath as two da$s for di%ine worshi"+ The /abbath was not to remain the single day for their wee8ly worshi"+ Theological "ress re was also " t "on the leadershi" of this congregation) and they were acc sed of being #J dai'ers# who e;"erimented at 8ee"ing only the /abbath >ay or stressing the obser%ance of Jewish festi%als according to the Jewish calendar+ 2ress res of this 8ind) followed also by financial and "ersonal ind cements) finally bloc8ed any "ossibility for s ch a re%ol tionary congregation) which at the same time was regarded) in a dialectical way) as a -reactionary congregation-+ Therefore) this first attem"t to form an independent Messianic Jewish congregation in 34th cent ry Jer salem did not s r%i%e more than fo r years+ ,oth Jonsen and Jacobs were obliged to face in%estigators who came to 2alestine to learn first-hand abo t their -J dai'ing- tendencies+ Bt last Jonsen had to lea%e the co ntry and Jacobs became an itinerant e%angelist in 2alestine+C ,en-Meir) who ret rned from -Moody ,ible (nstit te- in Chicago after st dying there between the years 1937-19@1) fo nd the congregation disintegrated+ He then occ "ied himself with fresh attem"ts to fo nd larger territorial organi'ations of J,$ co%ering 2alestine and the Middle-&ast) rather than starting new local assemblies of J,$+ Th s) the sol tion of ,en-Meir) and Jacobs as well) for sha"ing
6

/ee) for e;am"le) 0ershon .erel) 6Creeds Bmong Jewish ,elie%ers in $esh a between the <orld <ars7) in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ @H (3441)9 61-79+ 7 G rt H=emdal) 6Brne Jonsen - B 2ioneer in (srael (193H-1939)7) in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ 34 (199H)9 @9-H4+ C 0ershon .erel) 6The Aormation and >issol tion of a LMessianic JewishM (Hebrew Christian) Comm nity in Jer salem in the 1934s7) in9 ,roceedin!s o# t e Twel#t 2orld Con!ress o# Jewis "t*dies% >i%ision & (Contem"orary Jewish /ociety)) Jer salem 3441) ""+ 19-39 (Hebrew)+

a gen ine Messianic Jewish self-identity in &ret'-(srael was transferred from the local le%el to the wider regional le%el+ They also had great ho"es to crystali'e s ch an identity thro gh coo"eration with the 6(nternational Hebrew Christian Blliance7 ((HCB)+9 (n 19@1 the first regional gro "ing fo nded by Messianic Jews was named in &nglish - for their 0entile constit ency - #The Hebrew Christian Aellowshi" of 2alestine#+ Howe%er) in their internal Hebrew te;ts they sed the term -Messianic Jews-+ (n "rinci"le) their theological goal was to achie%e an interdenominational fellowshi" witho t any 8ind of s bordination to the traditional ch rches and mission organi'ations in 2alestine+ Bmong their "roclaimed aims) = st the "rinci"al ones sho ld be mentioned9 #+++To nite Messianic Jews in 2alestine and /yriaF to establish and s ""ort rban branchesF to witness cor"orately both to /ynagog e and Ch rch concerning the f lfillment of (srael-s messianic ho"e in Jes sF to introd ce Jewish tho ght to 0entile Christians and the 0os"el to JewsF to coo"erate with the (HCB+# They also by"assed any contro%ersial iss es in order to "ro%ide a wide common gro nd for as many of them as "ossible to =oin their -Aellowshi"-+ (n 19@@ the #Aellowshi"# changed its official title and ado"ted a new name9 #The Hebrew Christian Blliance of 2alestine and the .ear &ast#+ The re! irements for admission to the #Aellowshi"NBlliance# were as follows9 #&;"ression in " blic of faith in Messiah Jes s as "ersonal /a%ior and *ordF belief in the di%inity of Messiah Jes sF belief in his sacrificial death and res rrectionF acce"tance of the :ld and .ew Testaments as the word of 0od and as the r le for their faith and li%es+# Howe%er) neither the iss e of the Trinity nor the to"ic of ba"tism was mentioned as a sti" lation for membershi" in that organi'ation+ The reason for that was the desire to "resent the broadest theological s"ectr m as a "ossible doctrinal basis in order to "ermit ma;imal membershi" by a%oiding doctrinal confrontation on %ery "roblematic iss es+ Bbram 2ol=a8 was another acti%e and infl ential "ersonality among Messianic Jewish circles in Mandatory 2alestine+ (n one of his early boo8s titled #The Cross in the /tar of >a%id#) he endea%ored to la nch a ni! e world mo%ement that wo ld crystali'e a clear and solid identity for those Jews who belie%e in $esh a+ Howe%er) instead of foc sing on a s"ecial &ret'-(sraeli Messianic Jewish identity) 2ol=a8 ended " in &nglish and 0erman-s"ea8ing co ntries where he "rom lgated the idea of reci"rocal coe;istence between Jews and Christians thro gh reg lar dialog e between them+ J st li8e other leaders) s ch as Moris /igel) 2a line 1ose) Jacobs and ,en-Meir) 2ol=a8 was str ggling to create a corporate witness of J,$ in the *and+ *i8e his colleag es) 2ol=a8 em"hasi'ed the need to instit tionali'e these acti%ities+ He im"lemented this mainly thro gh " blishing %ario s articles in his maga'ine 3Jer*sale)3+14 Insecurit# *mon( Jewish Believers in Yeshua .ot e%ery Jewish belie%er in $esh a in Mandatory &ret'-(srael was willing to e;"ose himself in " blic as s ch+ B few do'ens of so-called #.icodem s Jews# (see John @9 1-3) tried to 8ee" secret their belief in $esh a and for decades li%ed in this conte;t with an ndergro nd mentality+ Their main fear was that they wo ld not be tolerated by normati%e Jewish society) and dreaded the "ossibility of =eo"ardi'ing their "ositions at wor8) and e%en being stigmati'ed as -traitors-+ *ater) within the /tate of (srael) the "henomenon of #.icodem s Jews# did not disa""ear+ Blongside those who " blicly declared their faith in $esh a) many
9

/ee also Arederic8 *e%ison) C ristian and Jew: T e (i#e o# (eon (e0ison% 1441-1956) The 2entland 2ress) &dinb rgh 19C9) ""+ 16@-33@+ 14 /ee a collection of articles in T e Jewis C ristian Mo0e)ent) 2atmos 2 blishers) *ondon (O1955)+

others endea%ored to remain in the shadow+ <hile e;amining the relationshi" between the -o"en- and the -closed- gro "s of J,$) it became e%ident that they were characteri'ed by constant tensions+ ?s ally the former strongly critici'ed the latter as being -fainthearted- and -o""ort nistic-+ <hen the ,ritish Mandate o%er 2alestine came to an end in 19HC) the Jer salem Bnglican ecclesiastical a thorities raised the iss e of the f t re of J,$ when the Jewish /tate wo ld become a fait accom"li+ Their ma=or concern related to those J,$ who were lin8ed to the #do ble ,ritish enemy#) namely) the ,ritish missionaries and the ,ritish go%ernment+ Therefore) -6peration Merc$- (or -6peration 1race-% as it was also termed) was la nched to e%ac ate from the co ntry all #Hebrew Christians# who "referred not to remain within the antici"ated new Jewish /tate+ The o"eration was organi'ed as a 8ind of -s"irit al > n8ir8-) transferring abo t C4 "ersons to *i%er"ool in &ngland+11 Most "robably) a strong moti%ation behind this o"eration was in the association of ideas relating to a modern e! i%alent of the first cent ry Jer salem comm nity -&;od s- to 2ella in Trans-Jordan shortly before the destr ction of the Tem"le in B+>+ 74+ The First Decade in the 'tate of Israel Howe%er) not all J,$ left the co ntry then+ Bbo t a do'en remained) among them /hlomo :stro%s8y) Bbram 2ol=a8) 2a line 1ose) Moshe ,en-Meir and Hayim Haimoff+ Bs a res lt of this o"eration) a "rofo nd dis nity was created among J,$+ The ma=ority followed the 0entile ecclesiastical "olicyF namely) that J,$ sho ld grad ally assimilate within the nonJewish Ch rch society+ The minority as"ired to sha"e and maintain a ni! e identity within Jewish society as an integral segment within the Jewish /tate+ .o do bt this difference of o tloo8 was rooted in the theological ed cation and tho ght of indi%id als who had 8ey "ositions within J,$ circles+ B ma=or conse! ence of #:"eration Mercy# was that) with the de"art re of those e%ac ees in 19HC) a co))*nit$ of J,$ in &ret'-(srael ceased to e;ist) and a new sit ation emerged+ #:"eration Mercy# ca sed generation discontin ity) and also interr "ted the se! ence of #gro " o%erla"#) i+e+) ca sed the disintegration of local fellowshi"s and act ally "rod ced a clear distinction between 0entile Ch rch identity on the one hand and national congregation identity on the other hand+ Aollowing the establishment of the /tate of (srael in 19HC) a new era began in the history of J,$ in the *and+ Those %ery few who remained) reinforced by new J,$ who mo%ed into the *and thro gh the massi%e -aliya- (immigration) wa%es of the 1954s and 1964s) together formed a new fo ndation for local belie%ers+ They wor8ed strongly to eliminate their minority stat s within the e;"atriate minorities of ch rches and missions in (srael+ (n fact) grad ally they did become a self-determined ideological minority on their own+ Dario s efforts were made to establish their own inde"endent fellowshi"s in (srael+ Th s) for e;am"le) the -7nion o# Messianic Jews- was fo nded already in 1954) and later it was re"laced by the -Israeli Messianic Jewis +lliance- organi'ed in 195H+ Howe%er) both the #?nion# and the #Blliance# were disbanded after a few years) mainly beca se of "ersonal and theological disagreements+ B central iss e in those conflicts was whether to "ermit) on the one hand) the in%ol%ement of non-Jewish Christians) e+g+ from the local missions and
11

0ershon .erel) 6M:"eration 0raceM ,efore the /tate of (srael was ,orn9 The &%ac ation of J,$ from the *and)7 in9 8ot .a9rit) :rgan of the Messianic Jewish Blliance of (srael) %ol+ 34 (344H)9 11-13 (in Hebrew)) with a "hotogra"h of list of e%ac ees+

ch rches) and on the other hand) to "ermit the in%ol%ement of re"resentati%es from organi'ations li8e the (HCB+13 (n reaction to attem"ts to create inde"endent and gen ine cor"orate entities of J,$) leaders among the ch rches and missionary organi'ations in (srael decried them as manifesting renewed tendencies of #J dai'ing# the 0entiles who belonged to the ni%ersal body of belie%ers in Jes s+ A rthermore) fears were also e;"ressed in the same circles in reaction to the "ossibility of ha%ing a modern Jewish-(sraeli L2rotestant ,isho"M in Jer salem+ / ch a de%elo"ment) so non-Jewish Ch rch leaders reasoned) wo ld ndermine the traditional a thority and "restige of the e;isting 0entile ecclesiastical leadershi"+ Bn inde"endent and a thoritati%e Jewish bisho") sitting on the /ee of James ($aa8o%)) brother of Jes s in Jer salem) co ld) they reasoned) decrease 0entile s"irit al "rerogati%es not only in the Holy *and b t in the global Christian milie as well+ Bfter the (sraeli #?nion# and the #Blliance# had colla"sed and disa""eared in the 1954-s) another organi'ation was formed) this time by Hebrew Catholics) in 1957) which still e;ists+ -T e "ociet$ o# "t: Ja)es- and its constit tion were a""ro%ed as a ni! e #branch# wit in the 1oman Ch rch) and was act ally incor"orated into the >iocese of the *atin 2atriarchate of Jer salem+1@ Hebrew Catholic members in this -/ociety-) on the one hand) ado"ted both a Hebrew translation of the *atin 1ite and s bordinated themsel%es to the Catholic hierarchy) yet on the other hand) they still ho"ed to renew the original #"rimiti%e# Jer salem infl ence of J,$ within the Ch rch ?ni%ersal+ <hile among the s ""orters of the #/ociety# one co ld find Hebrew Catholics li8e the late >aniel :swald 1 feisen) ,r no H ssar and 1ina 0eftman) one also co ld find o""osition to it within the same circles+ The late Carmelite mon8 &lias Ariedman) of Jewish origin) for e;am"le) o""osed the /ociety in "rinci"le for legitimi'ing assimilation of J,$ within the 0entile Ch rch+ This) according to Ariedman) comes witho t de%elo"ing an a tonomo s Jewish identity of J,$) and witho t "reser%ing their ni! e election and a"ostolate+1H Bnother attem"t to establish a gen ine congregation for e;"ressing the self-determination of Messianic Jews in (srael was thro gh the official registration of the #(sraeli Messianic Bssembly - Jer salem Bssembly#+ Bltho gh this entity was nominally registered at the Ministry of (nterior in 195C) in "ractice it did not become) as it was initially intended) TH& national body re"resenting the consens s of Messianic Jews in (srael+ >e facto) this Bssembly f nctioned mainly as a local congregation in Jer salem+ The fo nders of this Bssembly) among whom were Ke-e% (/hlomo) Gofsmann) &%a Gronha s) and 1achel 0rinberg) e;"licitly e;"ressed their desire that thro gh their Bssembly they wo ld re%i%e and restore characteristics of the first-cent ry Jer salem congregation of J,$+15 Th s) they act ally wished to bridge a ga" of almost 3444 years of history and mentality+ (n their theology) and "artic larly in Christological definitions) most of them deliberately "referred to
13

Aor additional data see) for e;am"le) Hei88i . rminen) 6&ighty $ears of the Ainnish &%angelical * theran Mission (A&*M) in (srael)7 in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ H1 (344H)9 6@-67+ 1@ 6The Hebrew /"ea8ing Comm nities)7 in9 Jer*sale) (>iocesan , lletin of the *atin 2atriarchate)) $ear 9) no+ @-H) J ne-B g st 344@) ""+ 1@1-1@3+ 1H (n general) see &lias Ariedman) Jewis Identit$) The Miriam 2ress) .ew $or8 19C7) es"ecially ""+ C9-95+ /ee also J dith ,ratten) 6Thro gh the Hebrew Catholic $ear)7 in9 T e .e9rew Cat olic) .o+ 73) Aall 3444) ""+ 173@+ 15 /ee 2er Psterbye) T e C *rc in Israel) 0leer " (/t dia Missionalia ?"saliensia QD)) * nd 1974) "assimF and Menahem ,enhayim) 6The Messianic Mo%ement in (srael R B 2ersonal 2ers"ectice (196@-199C))7 in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ 3C (199C)9 14+

a%oid reference to any traditional ecclesiastical creed+ Th s) they ref sed to ado"t any -creed-) s ch as the -B"ostle-s Creed-) the -.icaean Creed- and the -Bthanasian Creed-+ Howe%er) they were aware of the fact that ob%io sly their non-Jewish Christian brothers in faith) both in (srael and abroad) did e;"ect them to do so+ .e%ertheless) they insisted on sing .ew Testament terminology e;cl si%ely) witho t mentioning) for e;am"le) the conce"t of the #trinity# in the formal te;t of an a""ro%ed creed+ (n other words) they were con%inced that when coming to christological definitions) the se of the Hebrew lang age wo ld nat rally ma8e a s bstantial difference+ Th s) for e;am"le) within the one conce"t of #Messiah )#)) they arg ed) the di%inity as well as the h manity of the /a%ior were reflected+16 Litur(ical Thou(ht and +ractice >ealing with lit rgical tho ght and "ractice) two ma=or to"ics deser%e s"ecial attention9 the celebration of feasts and rit als) and hymnology+ Gee"ing the Jewish /abbath had a s"ecial significance for J,$F / nday obser%ance was treated by Messianic Jews as # nbiblical#+ Hebrew Catholics) howe%er) still 8e"t the / nday lit rgy as the r le within the *atin Ch rch+ /ome J,$) howe%er) also disc ssed among themsel%es whether to form late a "artic lar #Messianic /abbath *it rgy#) incl ding s"ecial "rayers connected with lighting two /abbath candles) as "ractised in many Jewish homes+ 2ersons li8e 2ol=a8 and ,en-Meir e%en initiated a ni! e -/abbath $esh a *it rgy-) combining Jewish traditions and biblical te;ts in order to find some common gro nd with normati%e J daism+ :thers) li8e Hayim Haimoff) re=ected s ch tendencies by arg ing that lit rgies of this 8ind are e;trabiblical and therefore irrele%ant for J,$+ <hile Hebrew Catholics celebrated mainly &aster according to the Ch rch calendar always on / ndays) Messianic Jews almost nanimo sly held to the conce"t that 2asso%er sho ld be celebrated only according to the Jewish calendar+ ,en-Meir e%en elaborated a te;t of #B Messianic Jewish Hagadah#) incor"orating into it %erses both from the standard Jewish traditional Hagadah and the .ew Testament+ A rthermore) the celebration of the Jewish 2asso%er also "ro%ided Messianic Jews with a ni! e o""ort nity to = stify the "ractice of the -*ord-s / ""er- by sing only -mat'a-) the nlea%ened bread+ (n contrast to Hebrew Catholics) Messianic Jews re=ected the doctrine of #transs bstantiation# and celebrated the #*ord-s / ""er# basically as a symbolic act of remembrance+ They arg ed that this reflected a .ew Testament theology and not merely a common 0entile 2rotestant theology+ Bs to the feast of Christmas in Mandatory 2alestine and early days of (sraeli statehood) most J,$ celebrated this e%ent+ *ater) howe%er) only few of them celebrated Christmas) yet e%en those did not attrib te "artic lar im"ortance to the date of the 35th of >ecember) b t rather foc sed on celebrating the message and act of (ncarnation+ ?nli8e Hebrew Catholics who followed the *atin Christmas rit al witho t dis" te) among Messianic Jews one co ld find both those who = stified the "ractice of a Christmas tree decoration and others) who only em"hasi'ed the "reaching of an edifying Christmas message accom"anied by Christmas carols+ Messianic Jews also disa""ro%ed with the traditional c stom of -%isitation- by the legendary fig re of -/anta Gla s-+ (n J,$ circles) Chan 8a) howe%er) was also celebrated alongside Christmas+ (n Mandatory 2alestine indi%id als li8e ,en-Meir em"hasi'ed the im"ortance of correlating the two feasts in order to lin8 Christmas to the Jewish national
16

/ee) for e;am"le) .alapid (The Torch)) :rgan of the (sraeli Messianic ;e ila (Bssembly)) %ol+ 1) Jer salem) Jan ary 1st) 1964 (in Hebrew)+

as"ect of the feast of Chan 8a+ Haimoff) howe%er) ignored not only the feast of Chan 8a b t also the feast of 2 rim as irrele%ant to the -Messianic 2rogramme-+ The hymns that were s ng in ser%ices of Messianic Jews d ring the years 1917-1967 were s ally traditional ch rch lit rgical hymns translated from the &nglish andNor the 0erman into the Hebrew lang age+ Most of the translation wor8 was done by Moshe ,en-Meir) who also "ri%ately " blished three Hebrew hymnal man als) among them -" irat <es *r*nwhich incl ded some of his original hymns in Hebrew+ 17 >e facto) their hymnal cor" s in the Hebrew lang age act ally "resented a s"ecial 8ind of creed by itself) foc sing on the iss e of sal%ation which was based on the life of the Messiah9 his birth) teaching) cr cifi;ion) res rrection and second coming+ Th s) on the one hand) most J,$ as"ired to detach themsel%es from traditional 0entile hermene tics and theological creedal form lasF on the other hand) thro gh the ado"tion of traditional Ch rch hymns) translated into Hebrew) they sensed no diffic lty or menace %is-a-%is their identity+ 1C *ttitudes towards the Return of the Jews to ,ion Aollowing the "arable of $esh a abo t the #blossoming fig tree#) (Matt+ 3H9@3) J,$ li8e ,en-Meir) :stro%s8y) Haimoff and Gofsmann often "reached that the inter"retation of this "arable lies with the national restoration of (srael to her ancient Homeland+ / ch "ersons considered their own times) and the 34th cent ry as a whole) as the "redestined "eriod for the f lfillment of biblical "ro"hecy regarding the ret rn of Jews worldwide to &ret'-(srael+ 19 A rthermore) they also ta ght that (srael-s restoration to its 2romised *and had clear eschatological im"lications) and that the ingathering of the Jews and the establishment of a so%ereign /tate wo ld "recede the second coming of the Messiah and the establishment of his millennial 8ingdom on earth+ Bmong Hebrew Catholics as well) and es"ecially those re"resented by &lias Ariedman and >aniel :swald 1 feisen) the notion "re%ailed that the 1et rn of the Jews to Kion had theological significance+ (n s ch renewed national conte;t they ta ght that J,$ had a ni! e calling and %ocation) and sho ld be regarded as the real -remnant of (srael- that wo ld become a -s"irit al n cle s- bridging -/ynagog e- and -Ch rch-) and e%en a s"earhead for combatting idolatro s and a"ostate theologies that had infiltrated the #&cclesia e; 0entib s#+ Ariedman) howe%er) did not e;"ect all Jews to ret rn to the *and) b t only a small minority of them while the ma=ority wo ld remain o tside (srael+ ,oth 1 feisen and Ariedman did "oint o t) as against the traditional Catholic "osition) that the Jewish nation remained the -&lect .ation- according to 0od-s "lan) which still has a ni! e ni%ersal mission to infl ence the 0entiles+ Ariedman e%en sed the term -Catholic Kionism- as an ideology dealing with Hebrew Catholics belonging to a re%i%ed -Hebrew branch of the Ch rch- - with no less s"irit al a thority than the first a"ostles in Jer salem+ Th s) -Catholic Kionism- wo ld mean that the Holy *and becomes the -.ational Datican City for (srael-+ Therefore) in Ariedman-s mind) -Catholic Kionism- %is-a-%is sec lar Kionism wo ld
17

Concerning distincti%e Messianic m sic see also Haya J Menachem ,enhayim) =o*nd #or t e ,ro)ised (and) Jer salem 344@) ""+ 1HH-1H5+ 1C > ring the last two decades (sraeli J,$ organi'ed "rolific conferences on Messianic m sic+ These "rod ced many new songs in Hebrew+ /ee) for e;am"le) the song boo8lets titled 8i)rat >??> and 8i)rat >??@) com"iled and " blished by the Messianic Jewish Blliance of (srael+ 19 Aor later de%elo"ments) com"are >a%id H+ /tern) Messianic Jewis Mani#esto) Jer salem 19CC) ""+ 317-3@@+ /ee also 0ershon .erel) 6Bttit des of Messianic Jews (Hebrew Christians) towards Kionism) 1C66-19HC7) in9 ,roceedin!s o# t e Ele0ent 2orld Con!ress o# Jewis "t*dies) >i%ision ,) %ol+ 3) Jer salem 199H) ""+ 115-133 (Hebrew)+

enable the -s"irit al n cle s- of Hebrew Catholics in the *and both to -" rify a"ostate Christendom- and to attract and infl ence the rest of the Jews and moti%ate them to t rn to $esh a+ Bccording to Ariedman) the two 1atisbonne brothers Bl"honse and Theodore) con%erted to Catholicism in the 19th cent ry) were the forer nners of Her'lian Kionism in the *and+ Howe%er) for both Ariedman and 1 feisen it was crystal-clear that the res rrection of $esh a symbolically "refig red the national restoration of the Jews in &ret'-(srael+ The analogy they made between the -/hoah- (IHoloca st) and 0olgotha was ob%io s9 = st as $esh a s ffered the agony of cr cifi;ion and death and rose from the dead after three days) so the Jews were restored in their so%ereign /tate three years after they s ffered the agony of the -/hoah- and nder a death sentence from .a'i "ersec tors see8ing to im"lement -the final sol tion-+ 34 (n fact) all J,$ in the *and stressed the inter"retation that the historical "hase of the #f lfillment of the 0entiles# (1om+ 11935) had arri%ed and the end-time "osition of J,$ sho ld be manifested not only locally in &ret'-(srael b t thro gho t the ni%ersal Ch rch+ The -erdict of the 'u!reme ourt The formal denial of 1 feisen-s Jewishness according to the -*aw of 1et rn- by a %erdict of the (sraeli / "reme Co rt in 1963 led to %ario s reactions within J,$ circles+ 1 feisen himself started a life-long cam"aign to obtain recognition of his Jewishness wit in the Catholic Ch rch as a Hebrew Christian+ Aor this) he relied "on the Jewishness of the early Ch rch) and "roclaimed that he himself and those in his stat s were the direct heirs of the original Jewish Ch rch+ His Kionism concentrated on identifying himself with -Jewish Christianity- in &ret'-(srael+ Howe%er) his conser%ati%e o""onent) &lias Ariedman) s ""orted the %erdict of the / "reme Co rt) saying that 1 feisen had indeed lost his Jewish identity and sho ld be regarded as a #Christian (sraelite#+ $et both Ariedman and 1 feisen strongly ob=ected to the total assimilation and disa""earance of J,$ within the Catholic Ch rch as had been the case thro gho t Ch rch history+31 1eacting to the same %erdict) ,en-Meir and Haimoff arg ed that 1 feisen re"resented to the / "reme Co rt the traditionally des"ised fig re of the -con%erted Jew-) es"ecially when he was wearing his friar-s brown robe+ Howe%er) both ,en-Meir and Haimoff sed this o""ort nity to enco rage J,$ in the *and to foc s on their Jewish identity and strengthen it+ Th s) for e;am"le) they tho ght it wo ld be im"erati%e that J,$ become totally inde"endent from #Ch rchianity# and detach themsel%es from Ch rch c stoms and hermene tics) limiting the dis" te between themsel%es as J,$ and normati%e Jewish society to the one single iss e9 the cr cified and risen Messiah and /on of 0od+ (n other words) in all other matters e;ce"t faith in the blood atonement of the Messiah and /on of 0od) they wished to form late a biblical way of e;egesis that wo ld ne trali'e acc sations against them as ha%ing become traitors to their Jewish heritage+ Gee"ing the Jewish /abbath and Aeasts) as well as "racticing circ mcision) e;"ressed for them the central and a thentic Hebraic-Jewish national feat res of their faith+ *ttem!ts to )sta&lish 'ettlements
34

/ee .echama Tec) In t e (ions Aen: T e (i#e o# 6swald B*#eisen) :;ford ?+2+) :;fordN.ew $or8 1994) ""+ 167-174+ 31 /ee) for e;am"le) >aniel :swald 1 feisen) 6Hebrew Christians between &arly and *ater Christian Traditions)7 in9 Torleif &lg%in) ed+) Israel and <es *a) Aestschrift Cas"ari Center) Jer salem 199@) ""+ H955+

:n the agenda of J,$ in &ret'-(srael we also find %ario s attem"ts to fo nd colonies of their own+ Th s) for e;am"le) in the 1934-s a small hen-farm was established near Motza in the J dean Hills near Jer salem+ Then in the 19@4s the (HCB "lanned to establish a ni! e Hebrew Christian Colony near 0a'a where 3444 d nams were " rchased for this " r"ose+ There was also another o"tion to " rchase *and near Bcre (B88o)+ Bll these attem"ts failed+ .otwithstanding these fail res) we may "oint o t the "ro"hetic moti%es of the "artici"ants in attem"ting s ch settlement "ro=ects in order to be "ractically in%ol%ed in the "rocess of Jewish restoration and coloni'ation of the *and+ ,y trying to establish their own settlements they act ally labored to "resent a Messianic Jewish alternati%e to the dominant "rototy"e of sec lar Kionism+33 : tside mainstream J,$) the settlement called #(r :%ot#) fo nded in 1966 by the late /imha 2earlm tter in the Bra%a in the .ege%) still e;ists+ (n fact) this is a #one "erson# settlement) limited to the wife and children of 2earlm tter+ Blso called #G-far $esh a#) it became better 8nown beca se of archaeological e;ca%ations in the region which led to the nearthing of the biblical town of -Tamar-+ (t did not) howe%er) significantly affect the local (sraeli body of J,$) b t remained e;cl si%ely the residence of one man and a "art of his family+ 2earlm tter strongly critici'ed the .ew Testament as "agan and idolatro s literat re+ Aor him) $esh a was only the s ffering and -"otential- Messiah) and was far from being the /on of 0od or ha%ing any di%ine attrib tes+3@ )schatolo(ical Im!lications of the 'i"-Da# .ar The (sraeli %ictory in the 1967 /i;->ay <ar and the re nification of Jer salem were soon inter"reted by J,$ as a significant #sign of the times# "receding the second coming of $esh a and the establishment of his millennial 8ingdom in Kion+ ,en-Meir) 2ol=a8) :stro%s8y) Haimoff and Gofsmann re"eatedly ta ght that f ll Jewish hegemony in Jer salem meant the end of the -times of the 0entiles- ( ;airoi Et non)) and that 0entile global s"irit al leadershi" wo ld begin to be re"laced by J,$+3H A rthermore) Jer salem-s re nification symboli'ed for them the a""roach of the satanic Bntichrist who wo ld r le the world+ (n their chiliastic hermene tics) s ch J,$ considered the /i;->ay <ar as also "receding the eschatological battle of 0og and Magog which wo ld introd ce Messiah $esh a-s millennial reign in Kion o%er the whole world+ Jer salem wo ld then become the center of the world) and 0od-s "romises to Bbraham) (saac and Jacob wo ld be com"letely f lfilled+ (n the wa8e of these end-time s"ec lations) leaders li8e ,en- Meir and Haimoff also stressed that J,$ sho ld ser%e in the (sraeli >efence Aorces ((>A) as loyal citi'ens of the /tate) and if com"etent) e%en as officers+ Th s) in com"arison to the sit ation in 19HC when most J,$ fled the co ntry) in J ne 1967 many of them "artici"ated in the fighting on %ario s fronts+ Th s) their #Messianic Kionism# in 1967 was not merely a theoretical and #hea%enly Kionism# b t a "ractical one as well+35 Bct ally) those few li8e 2ol=a8) :stro%s8y) Haimoff and ,en-Meir who did not =oin the e;od s of J,$ from the *and in 19HC raised a new
33

/ee) for e;am"le) Moshe (mman el ,en-Meir) Cro) Jer*sale) to Jer*sale) (&;cer"ts from a >iary)) .eti%yah) Translated by Bmi8am Ta%or) Jer salem 3441) ""+ 95F 1H5-1H7 (in Hebrew)+ 3@ /imha 2earlm tter) T e Tents o# " e) (B Messianic Jewish Manifesto to the 2ost-Holoca st Ch rch)) <aters8ins 2 blishing) ,risbane) B stralia) 19C7+ 3H /ee 0ershon .erel) 6Haim (Haimoff) ,ar->a%id9 1estoring B"ostolic B thority among Jewish $esh a,elie%ers)7 in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ @7 (3443)9 59-7C+ 35 Concerning the ideal of 6Hea%enly Jer salem7 among J,$ before <orld <ar (( see 0ershon .erel) 6Kion in the Theology of *eon B%erb ch and /habbetai 1ohold7 in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ 36 (1997)9 6H-71+

generation of J,$ in (srael which de%elo"ed a strong "atriotic Kionism as "art of their eschatological theology+ Kionism) therefore) was not #co rted# by J,$ as a "ragmatic or o""ort nistic ideology) -a tool for achie%ing legitimation by normati%e Jewish circles-) b t was rather gras"ed as an immanent com"onent of their theology+ Th s) considering those who held to the conce"t of a #hea%enly Kion# only) as well as those who fo nd a ni! e balance between their loyalty to both -earthly- and -hea%enly- Kion) one finds that the beliefs of both gro "s were rooted in their di%erse nderstanding and a""lications of biblical "ro"hecy+ )!ilo(ue (n s mmary) this "a"er draws a com"rehensi%e ma""ing of the history and theology of Jewish belie%ers in $esh a in &ret'-(srael d ring the lifetime of two generations that witnessed the ,ritish Mandate o%er 2alestine followed by the establishment of the /tate of (srael+ The following concl sions are clear9 1+ (n Mandatory 2alestine there was a minim m of interaction between the Jewish mainstream and the small minority of J,$) which also li%ed as a minority within a minority among 0entile Ch rch and missionary circles+ This tendency) howe%er) was basically changed after the establishment of the /tate of (srael+36 3+ J,$ de%elo"ed a strong sense of the need to "re%ent their total social) c lt ral and theological assimilation within 0entile circles+37 They re=ected the -gentili'ation- tendencies which "re%ailed in the "ast+ Bt the same time) J,$ de%elo""ed no as"irations to 6J dai'e7 the belie%ers from the nations+ @+ J,$ foc sed on bridging the "sychological ga"s between themsel%es and the Jer salem first-cent ry disci"les of Jes s as recorded in the ,oo8 of Bcts in the .ew Testament+ Their strong conscio sness of historical affinity with the first disci"les of Jes s strongly sha"ed their identity+3C H+ J,$ almost nanimo sly acce"ted the canonical Holy /cri"t res com"rising the :ld and .ew Testaments as a -fait accom"li-) and made no attem"ts to canoni'e new te;ts+ :n the other hand) they insisted on their right to "ro%ide new and inde"endent scri"t ral inter"retations) mainly as a comm nity rooted in the Hebrew lang age+ The re%i%al of the Hebrew lang age in their circles has gi%en moment m to new tendencies among them to redefine theologies and e%en historical creeds+39 5+ Their attem"ts to achie%e organi'ational inde"endence from missions and historical ch rches in the *and) as for e;am"le within their home-fellowshi"s) contrib ted to their s ccess in sha"ing their collecti%e self-identity+ Howe%er) s ch de%elo"ments were %isible mainly after the /i;->ay <ar+ Thro gh s ch organi'ational de%elo"ments) we may regard
36

/ee) for e;am"le) Gai G=aer-Hansen J ,odil A+ /8=Stt) Cacts and M$t s +9o*t t e Messianic Con!re!ations in Israel) Mish8an %ols+ @4-@1) ?CC(NCas"ari) Jer salem 1999) "assim+ 37 /ee also) for e;am"le) $aa8o% Briel) 6&%angelists in a /trange *and9 Bmerican Missionaries in (srael) 19HC1967)7 in9 "t*dies in Conte)porar$ Jewr$) %ol+ 1H (199C)9 195-31@+ 3C Aor an elaboration on this to"ic see) for e;am"le) 0ershon .erel) 62rimiti%e Jewish Christians in the Modern Tho ght of Messianic Jews7) in9 /imon Cla de Mimo ni J A+ /tanley Jones) eds+) (e D*dEo-c ristianis)e dans to*s ses Etats) Cerf) 2aris 3441) ""+ @99-H35+ 39 /ee) 0ershon .erel) 6& sebi sMs Ecclesiastical .istor$ and the Modern $esh a-Mo%ement9 /ome Com"arisons)7 in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ @9) (344@)9 75-76F (dem) 6The LAlagshi"M of Hebrew .ew Testaments9 B 1ecent 1e%ision by (sraeli Messianic Jews7) in9 Mis 'an) %ol+ H1 (344H)9 H9-56+

the intellect al and social history of J,$ in &ret'- (srael in terms of a mo%ement) and not only in terms of theoretical theology+@4 6+ (t sho ld be noted that s ally J,$ were not deterred by threats which their o""onents made against them that they were #corr "t missionaries#+ (n their declared statements and writings as well as their deeds) most of them constantly em"hasi'ed that they ha%e a ci%il right and a nat ral h man right to share their faith with others+ They act ally ignored social and legal "ress res to cease from the o"en dissemination of their beliefs+ 1es"onding to traditional rabbinic attac8s against them) they often claimed that they ha%e in conscience the obligation to #maintain a candlestic8 of witness# for $esh a) e%en if they were delegitimi'ed by normati%e J daism+ The to"ic of this "resentation is not an -esoteric- iss e+ Bs it is wide o"en to anyone interested in messianic "atterns of tho ght and "ractice) it "ro%ides m ch material for drawing historical) theological and social com"arisons between J,$ and other messianic gro "s "ast and "resent+ Th s) for e;am"le) c rrent com"arisons between modern J,$ and -Chabadmessianic tho ght already re%eal new dimensions that ha%e hardly been considered ntil now+@1

2 blished in9 Israel: His People, His Land, His Story) &dited by Ared <right) Than8f l ,oo8s) &astbo rne 3445) ""+ 16C-1CC+ Co"yright T 3447 by 0ershon .erel Bll rights reser%ed+ .o "art or this " blication may be re"rod ced) stored in a retrie%al system) or "hotoco"y) recording or any other) e;ce"t for brief ! otations in "rinted re%iews) witho t the "rior and written "ermission of 0ershon .erel+

@4

/ome "reliminary efforts in this direction already too8 "lace in T r8ish 2alestine+ /ee 0ershon .erel) 6Hebrew Christian Bssociations in :ttoman Jer salem9 Jewish $esh a-,elie%ers facing Ch rch and /ynagog e)7 in Be0*e des Et*des J*i0es (1&J)) 2aris) %ol+ 161 (3443)9 H@1-H57+ @1 /ee also) for e;am"le) Joel Marc s) 6The :nce and A t re Messiah in &arly Christianity and Chabad)7 in9 Few Testa)ent "t*dies) %ol+ H7 (3441)9 @C1-H41+ ( than8 Jorge U inone' for drawing my attention to this reference+