Reservoir Characterization of the Hollin and Napo Formations, Western Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Howard J. White Robert A. Skopec Felix A. Ramirez

Oryx Energy Company Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.

Jose A. Rodas
Oryx Ecuador Energy Company Quito, Ecuador

Guido Bonilla
Petroecuador Quito, Ecuador

Abstract
he Oriente basin of Ecuador has produced a substantial amount of oil over the past 20 years. Nearly 3 billion bbl of oil have been recovered from the principal reservoirs in the Cretaceous Napo and Hollin formations. Subtle north-south structures, commonly associated with Andean-related faulting, have trapped much of the recoverable hydrocarbons in the thicker sandstones deposited within the Hollin and Napo reservoirs. East to west thinning of these reservoir units also contributes to the formation of stratigraphic traps. Both the Hollin and Napo formations comprise successions of eastward-sourced fluvial and deltaic sedimentary deposits that prograded westward into shoreline and marine shelf parasequences. The Albian Hollin reservoir interval consists of a dominant alluvial plain sandstone sequence (Main Hollin sandstone) that occupies much of the Oriente basin. In the western Oriente, the uppermost Hollin section grades vertically into open marine strata with isolated tidal- and storm-influenced sandstone bodies. The overlying Napo stratigraphy also consists of sand-rich fluvial and deltaic deposits in the eastern Oriente and abruptly changes to marine shales and limestones and lowstand valley-fill sandstones in the western part of the basin. Extensive structural and stratigraphic trap potential remains within the Napo and Hollin strata in the Oriente basin. High-resolution geophysical techniques and detailed geologic reservoir characterization facilitate successful exploitation of these remaining reserves.

Resumen
n los ltimos veinte aos la Cuenca Oriente del Ecuador ha producido una cantidad sustancial de hidrocarburos. Alrededor de tres mil millones de barriles de petroleo han sido recuperados de los reservorios principales de las formaciones cretcicas Hollin y Napo. Estructuras sutiles orientadas norte-sur, comunmente asociadas con fallamiento de edad Andina, han entrampado la mayora de los hidrocarburos recuperables dentro de los espesos depsitos arenosos de los reservorios de Napo y Hollin. La formacin de trampas estratigraficas ha estado favorecida por los adelagazamientos este-oeste de dichas unidades reservorios. Las formaciones Napo y Hollin comprenden una sucesin de sedimentos deltaicos y fluviales alimentados desde el este, los cuales progradaron hacia el oeste integrando parasecuencias de zonas de playa y marino-plataformicas. El reservorio Albense Hollin consiste de una secuencia predominantemente arenosa de planicie aluvial (Arenisca Hollin Principal) la cual se encuentra ocupando la mayora de la Cuenca Oriente. En el occidente del Oriente, la seccin superior de Hollin grada verticalmente a sedimentos marino-abiertos con cuerpos arenosos influenciados por mareas y tormentas. La sobreyacente estratigrafia de Napo tambien consiste, en el este del Oriente, de depsitos deltaicos y fluviales ricos en arena, los cuales cambian abruptamente a calizas y lutitas marinas, y areniscas lowstand de relleno de valle en la parte oeste de la cuenca. Existe enorme potencial en trampas estructurales y estratigraficas dentro de los estratos Napo y Hollin de la Cuenca Oriente. Las tcnicas geofsicas de alta resolucin y la caracterizacin geologica de los reservorios facilitaran una explotacin exitosa de las reservas remanentes.

White, H. J., R. A. Skopec, F. A. Ramirez, J. A. Rodas, and G. Bonilla, 1995, Reservoir characteristics of the Hollin and Napo formations, western Oriente basin, Ecuador, in A. J. Tankard, R. Surez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, p. 573596.

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Figure 1Overview of the Oriente basin, Ecuador, showing structural features, distribution of producing fields, location of cross sections shown in Figures 7, 15, and 16, and specific wells referred to in the text.

INTRODUCTION
The Oriente basin of Ecuador produces a substantial amount of oil and provides attractive exploration opportunities. The Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs have proven to be consistent producers since initial production was first established in August 1972. The Napo sandstone has a cumulative production (December 1992) of 1.17 billion bbl, and the Hollin Formation has a cumulative production of 1.70 billion bbl. Production estimates for the next 20 years are about 2 billion bbl, which will be derived from the currently producing fields with additional reserves from fields in the process of development. This paper presents an integrated geologic study of the Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs in the greater Oriente basin, with emphasis on the western Oriente. Figure 1 illustrates the regional setting of the Oriente foreland basin in front of the Andean fold and thrust belt, as well as the distribution of producing fields.

STRUCTURAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC SETTING

The Oriente basin of eastern Ecuador is part of the upper Amazon River drainage basin and covers an area

greater than 80,000 km 2. It is contiguous with the Puntamayo basin of Colombia and the Maraon basin of Peru. Stratigraphically and structurally, the Oriente preserves a complex Phanerozoic geologic history beginning with earliest Paleozoic deposition and culminating with Tertiary deposits shed from the Andean fold and thrust belt. Figure 2 shows the general stratigraphy of the Oriente basin. The succession is subdivided into several unconformity-bounded sequences: Paleozoic Jurassic stratigraphy, the Cretaceous Hollin and Napo formations, and Upper CretaceousQuaternary sedimentary sequence. The sedimentary fill rests on Precambrian igneous and metamorphic basement that has been intersected by several wells in the eastern Oriente adjacent to the Guyana shield. The SilurianJurassic interval consists of several thousand meters of carbonates, shales, and subordinate sandstones and conglomerates that have been structurally deformed during several episodes of uplift and extension. Examples of the pre-Hollin structure are documented by Balkwill et al. (1995). The uppermost strata of this interval belong to the Jurassic Chapiza Formation and the associated Misahualli volcanics. In parts of the western Oriente basin, the HollinNapo interval unconformably overlies the

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eastern margin is masked by basin margin arches related to the Guyana shield (Figure 1). Structural arches shown on the regional map of Dashwood and Abbotts (1990) indicate two east-west trending arches extending westward from the Guyana shield. Interval isopach maps confirm the existence of these two intrabasin highsthe Aguarico arch to the north and the Cononaco platform or arch to the south. The arches are believed to have provided sediments as well as localized the Hollin and Napo fluvial systems. Reservoirs within the Hollin and Napo formations are structurally less deformed than the underlying strata. Nevertheless, Hollin and Napo structures are large enough to form prolific hydrocarbon traps. A complex of major reverse faults mark the western limit of the present-day basin adjacent to the Napo uplift. Most of the major oil fields occur east of this complex in structural traps that parallel the north-south structural grain. The source rocks for these reservoirs are believed to be the organic-rich Napo shales which have been extensively tested for maturity, as reported by Dashwood and Abbotts (1990). The overlying Upper CretaceousPaleogene sedimentary rocks in the Oriente basin were the first to be influenced by incipient Andean movement. The Tena and Tiyuyacu formations (Figure 2) are the earliest strata of the post-Napo basin fill and consist of interbedded shales, sandstones, and minor conglomerates. The basal sandstone of the Tena Formation in the western Oriente was probably derived by erosion and local reworking of uppermost Napo. Late Tena and Tiyuyacu deposition consisted of episodes of continental redbeds and limited incursions of marine deposition. Deposition continued with the Orteguaza and post-Orteguaza formations and consisted mainly of clay-rich continental strata eroded from the Andean volcanics. These continental sedimentary rocks mark the infill of the Andean foreland basin and comprise over 1600 m of section in the western Oriente. The Andean volcanic arc controlled much of the Tertiary sedimentation along the western margin of the Oriente basin.

HOLLIN STRATIGRAPHY AND DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS

Characterization of the Hollin and Napo reservoirs includes data from seismic, well logs, core descriptions, and petrophysical analyses. Over 1100 m of core were examined. Regional mapping of the Ecuador Oriente basin focused on depositional environments, paleoshoreline trends, facies distribution, and reservoir continuity. The Hollin Formation occurs throughout the Oriente basin. It thickens from a zero edge along the eastern margin to nearly 200 m thick, forming a sand-rich blanket composed of several depositional sequences. Figure 3 is an isopach map of Hollin strata from its pinchout in the eastern Oriente to the depocenter in the southwestern part of the basin. In the western Oriente basin, the Hollin can be subdivided into the Main Hollin sandstone and the thinner

Figure 2Stratigraphic column for the Oriente basin.

Jurassic Chapiza and Misahualli volcanics, but elsewhere the Cretaceous rocks overlie Paleozoic strata and Precambrian basement. The HollinNapo interval consists of up to 500 m of continental and marine sandstones, shales, and carbonates. The basin deepens toward the southwest, while its

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Figure 3Isopach map of the entire Hollin sequence. Contour interval is 25 m.

Upper Hollin sandstone. General Hollin stratigraphy is described elsewhere (Wasson and Sinclair, 1927; Tschopp, 1953; Campbell, 1970; Canfield et al., 1982; Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). The Hollin is Albian in age, although the basal strata of the Main Hollin may date to the late Aptian. Faunal and flora taxa, although sparse, suggest that the Hollin is time transgressive and trace the overall sea level rise during late Hollin and early Napo deposition. The Hollin in the western Oriente basin consists of five successive depositional sequences: three sequences in the Main Hollin Sandstone and two in the Upper Hollin Formation (Figure 4).

Figure 4Hollin stratigraphic column, western Oriente basin, showing the five depositional systems comprising the complete Hollin sequence.

by isolated Hollin outcrops near Puyo. Valley fill thickness varies up to 40 m, reflecting the original topographic relief. The resulting depositional surface was a very low relief, gently tilted surface over which braidplain deposition occurred. Braidplain Deposition The dominant depositional package in the Main Hollin consists of stacked cross-bedded sandstone and subordinate intervals of interbedded mudstone and sandstone (Figures 4, 5) of Albian age. The upper part of this interval forms the main oil reservoirs in the western Oriente basin. There are three lithofacies types in the braidplain sequence. The first and predominant one consists of stacked channel sandstones that range in thickness from 3 m to more than 10 m. The sandstones are quartzose in composition and fine to very coarse grained. Granule conglomeratic lag occasionally overlies channel scour surfaces. Channel units generally have a uniform grain size distribution without any obvious fining-upward trend. Internally, the sandstone units are structured by

Main Hollin Sandstone

Valley Fill Deposition The initial Main Hollin sediments occupied substantial relief that was eroded into the underlying Jurassic strata. Several wells penetrate this valley fill succession, including Oso #1 and Entre Rios X1. The sedimentary rocks are interpreted to be paleovalley fluvial deposits of channel sandstone and flood basin shales; no cores of this interval have been taken. Figure 5 shows these characteristics in the Oso #1 well. This interpretation is also supported by Pungarayacu cores in the Napo uplift and

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These sedimentary facies are attributed to deposition in a braided alluvial plain environment. The overall facies architecture resembles the Platte River and Bijou Creek models of Miall (1977) and Cant (1982). In this environment, the planar and trough cross bed sets are interpreted as straight and sinuous-crested mid-channel bars. River discharge may have been seasonally variable, but the sand bedload was sufficiently high to account for the stacked braid bars that dominate the Main Hollin. In addition to sediment supply, local topography, precipitation, and vegetation also influenced fluvial deposition. Facies two, interbedded mudstone and sandstone, are attributed to channel, overbank levee, and crevasse splay deposition. The third facies, dominantly thick mudstones, is inferred to have originated as channel abandonment intervals and laterally equivalent flood basin deposits. Coastal Plain Deposition The contact between the Main and Upper Hollin formations has historically been picked on electric logs at the base of the thicker shales overlying the stacked sandstones of the Main Hollin. Detailed core examination of this contact in the western Oriente basin demonstrates that, instead of the stacked sandstones at the top of the Main Hollin, this sequence is frequently a fining-upward succession of planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones and thin mudstones. These sandstones are slightly finer than the braided sandstones, thin upward, and are rhythmically interbedded with numerous, thin, laminated mudstones (Figure 6c). Rooted horizons are occasionally present in the sandstones. The distinctive appearance of these lithofacies (at least in cored intervals) indicates coastal plain deposition. The package ranges up to 15 m in thickness in the western Oriente. The coastal plain depositional sequence is interpreted to represent the overall abandonment of the Main Hollin fluvial system. As such, a lower energy, higher sinuosity fluvial and estuary depositional system is envisaged for these capping sediments. The intervals fining upward character, the occurrence of planar and trough cross bedding and ripple lamination, the rhythmic mudstone interbeds, and the occasional rooting are interpreted to have originated in a meandering stream system that likely entered a coastline estuary setting. The features observed in the coastal plain deposition of the Main Hollin are similar to the meandering fluvial to estuary profiles recognized by Smith (1987). The interbedded sandstones and mudstones in the top part of the estuary profile exemplify features observed in tidally influenced sediments, although the tidal reworking is minor (microtidal) in the coastal plain deposits.

Figure 5Hollin lithofacies and depositional systems within the Oso #1 well, Block 7, western Oriente basin. The depositional systems have been interpreted in more than 100 Oriente wells.

planar tabular and trough cross beds in sets 30100 cm or thicker (Figure 6a). Cross bed slip faces commonly display a grain size segregation typical of avalanche processes. Sandstone units are separated by erosion surfaces with carbonaceous shale laminae and mudstone beds up to 30 cm thick. Macerated plant debris often occurs as concentrations along cross bed laminae. Diagenetic kaolinite is dispersed throughout the sandstones. The resulting gamma ray signature is that of a shaly sandstone rather than the high-porosity sandstones that typify the Main Hollin. The second facies type consists of fining-upward channel units of finer grained sandstones and interbedded mudstones generally less than 30 cm thick. These sandstones are more poorly sorted than the first sandstone facies and are dominated by trough cross bedding. Facies three comprises mudstones and mudstone interbedded with thin sandstones. The sandstone interbeds are fine to very fine grained and often ripple laminated. The mudstones are massive to faintly laminated and often dolomitic. This facies is up to 13 m thick (e.g., Oso #1 well, Figure 5).

Upper Hollin Formation

Shore Zone Deposition The upper Hollin transgressively overlies the coastal plain veneer of the Main Hollin sandstone. It has been generally interpreted as a marine deposit (Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). This transgressive

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 6Core photographs from the Main and Upper Hollin formations. Photographed slabs are from conventional 10-cm whole-diameter cores. (a) Typical planar cross bedding within the braided fluvial facies. (b) Cross-bedded sandstones and thin mudstones of the coastal plain facies. (c) Interbedded sandstones and shales of the tidally reworked Upper Hollin shore zone facies. (d) Open marine glauconitic sandstones beneath the capping limestones of the Upper Hollin.

Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador blanket occurs throughout the Oriente basin, except in the extreme northeast. It consists of two distinctive lithofacies associations. The lower shore zone deposition comprises a sandstone and shale complex that varies up to 15 m thick in the western Oriente. The upper open marine sequence caps the overall abandonment of the Hollin depositional system. The shore zone lithofacies consist of fine- to mediumgrained planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones, very fine to fine-grained ripple laminated sandstones, and burrowed lenticular-bedded mudstones. Above the basal mudstones, the shore zone locally displays a vertical profile of stacked cross-bedded and ripple-laminated sandstone with minor shale interbeds. A few kilometers away, the profile may be dominantly lenticular mudstone and isolated, thin sandstones of limited reservoir quality. The majority of the ripple sandstones contain abundant clay drapes within the lamination. The coarser sandstones occasionally exhibit strongly oblique cross-bedding orientations. Lenticular mudstones are moderately to weakly burrowed (Chondrites, Planolites, and minor Teichichnus) with rare ripple-laminated sandstone lenses. A variety of shoreline to shallow marine depositional environments combined to create the shore zone lithofacies. A continued transgression of the tidally influenced coastal plain resulted in the formation of sanddominated bay head deltas, estuaries, and subtidal shoals. Muddy tidal flat and shallow marine mud deposition locally dominate the shore zone lithofacies. Open Marine Deposition The open marine succession completes the trangressive Upper Hollin depositional sequence. It may range up to 15 m in thickness. The lithofacies consists of glauconitic and quartzose sandstone, limestone, marl, and shale. Ripple-laminated, very fine to fine-grained quartzose sandstones are commonly thin bedded and moderately burrowed and occur at the base of the open marine succession. In the upper part of the open marine sequence, glauconite-rich sandstones (Figure 6d) are capped by a thin veneer of micritic and fossiliferous limestones and marls. The sandstones are typically very fine to fine-grained quartz with fine- to medium-grained glauconite which vary up to 1 m in individual bed thickness and form sharp-based tabular units. Mudstone rip-up clasts occasionally overlie scour surfaces. Sedimentary structures include trough cross bedding, ripple lamination, and flaser bedding. Bioturbation often obliterates all primary sedimentary structures. This unit contains an open marine biota, including ammonites and both thick- and thin-shelled bivalves. In the glauconitic sandstones, the glauconite content is locally in excess of 50% of the framework grains. Capping limestones (fossiliferous wackestones) and marl beds generally measure less than 2 m thick and are well lithified. Vuggy porosity due to shell dissolution occurs sporatically. The basal quartzitic sandstone and shale of the open marine facies are interpreted to be of subtidal shoal origin. These sandstones are generally thinner than the overlying glauconitic shoal deposits and are almost

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always interbedded with marine shelf shales (lenticularbedded burrowed mudstone). The quartzitic beds originated as nearshore, tidally reworked marine sands. The glauconite-rich sands accumulated more seaward of the shoreline as storm-generated sand waves. These shoals incorporated whatever quartz sand reached the middle shelf position, as well as the glauconite-replaced fecal material derived on the shelf, and any reworked invertebrate shell debris. It is likely that fossil abundance increased away from the clastic shoreline. The shelf area beyond the glauconitic shoals provided sites for thin but widespread carbonate deposition. The fossiliferous, micritic limestone and marls capping the Upper Hollin record the final phase of Hollin deposition as the sea transgressed eastward over the Cretaceous Oriente margin. Because of the typical thickness of the limestones (less than 2 m), seismic amplitude contrast at the top of the Hollin is generally minimal. The acoustic contrast does increase locally where limestone thickness increases.

Pungarayacu Area
The Pungarayacu concession is located on the basinward margin of the Napo uplift. It is noted for a large, shallow, heavy oil reservoir that has been evaluated by Petroecuador (Almeida et al., 1983). The Pungarayacu #2 well is representative of the entire Hollin section in this area west of the Oriente basin. Eight braided channel sandstone packages are present in the Main Hollin. Significant mudstone intervals separate several of the upper channel sequences. These mudstones indicate periodic abandonment and aggradation of the alluvial plain. The lower channels, above the Misahualli volcanics, are sand rich and devoid of interbedded mudstone. Figure 7 shows a north-south oriented cross section through three of the Pungarayacu wells. Rapid facies changes occur within the distal or westward fluvial components of the Main Hollin. The abundance of mudstone suggests that the braidplain depositional system responsible for the Main Hollin became a mixed sand and mud system as it prograded westward. The Upper Hollin is represented by relatively thin mud-rich beds, subordinate quartzose and glauconitic sandstone, and capping limestone. Hollin stratigraphy is well exposed along the HollinLoreto road in the Pungarayacu area on the Napo uplift (see de Souza Cruz, 1989). A composite section of the Main and Upper Hollin strata exposed in the roadcut is shown in Figure 8. The Main Hollin consists principally of the braidplain facies, which unconformably overlies the Misahualli volcanics. The braidplain succession is locally saturated with oil. The outcrop shows well-developed levee and floodplain deposits (Figure 8). The lower braided channel sandstones in this section are comparable with the Bijou Creek model. The capping beds of the Main Hollin are correlative with the coastal plain sandstones observed in cores from the western Oriente. Shale interbeds in the coastal plain facies are both more numerous and thicker than those observed in the braidplain deposits.

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Figure 7Hollin sandstone cross section, Pungarayacu concession, eastern Napo uplift. Inferred correlations demonstrate the more frequent facies changes in the western Oriente. See Figure 1 for location.

The Upper Hollin deposits present in this roadcut are part of the shore zone deposition. Individual channels have a lenticular geometry 30150 m or more wide and 13 m thick. The strata are interpreted to be of tidal flat and tidal channel origin. No exposures of the open marine facies of the Upper Hollin were observed here, such as the glauconitic sandstones or carbonates. De Souza Cruz (1989) interpreted the Main Hollin as originating from braided fluvial and eolian paleoenvironments. We see little evidence for eolian deposition. We agree with de Souza Cruz that the Upper Hollin in this outcrop is estuarine, although the tidal range need not have been macrotidal.

NAPO STRATIGRAPHY AND DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS

The Napo Formation consists of organic-rich shales, bioclastic grainstones and packstones, and terrigenous sandstones believed to have been deposited in fluvial, deltaic, marginal marine, and marine shelf environments during the Late Cretaceous. The Napo Formation conformably overlies the Upper Hollin Formation and is in turn overlain unconformably by the Tena Formation (MaastrichtianPaleocene). Total Napo thickness exceeds 275 m over much of the western Oriente basin. Figure 9

shows the lithologies and stratigraphic relationships of the Napo in the western Oriente basin. The Napo T, U, and M sandstone units are related to a series of regressive-transgressive cycles that built the Napo stratigraphy. There were at least four such cycles in the western Oriente basin. Only the T and U intervals deposited sands in the western Oriente basin. To the east in the central Oriente (e.g., Shushufindi field), these sequences are indistinguishable because of their stacked, sand-rich character which resulted in their amalgamation. Mapping of the Napo transgressive shales (referred to as the lower, middle, and upper Napo shales) define a northeast-southwest Napo shoreline trend within the western Oriente basin. Seismic reflection data show that Napo stratigraphy has substantial acoustic contrasts that can be resolved, depending on data quality and signal processing. The most conspicuous acoustic change is at shale-limestone interfaces. The sandstones generally have gradational contacts. The least resolvable acoustic contrasts occur within the U and T sandstones where they thin westward and are difficult to distinguish seismically. Geophysical modeling of the U sandstone shows a subtle amplitude increase where the sandstone is well developed. A marked amplitude increase also occurs where the U sandstone is replaced laterally by limestone. Seismic models for the T sandstone indicate subtle amplitude decrease where the sandstone is well

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Figure 8Roadcut stratigraphy exposed along the HollinLoreto road, eastern Napo uplift. See Figure 1 for location.

developed; however, the overlying B limestone is a strong reflector that tends to mask the T sandstone. On this basis, subtle amplitude anomalies in the western Oriente basin are attributed to the U sandstone. Amplitude versus offset (AVO) analysis of the U sandstone indicates that there is no significant offset due to hydrocarbon-bearing lithologies.

Napo T and U Sandstones

Stacked fluvial and deltaic sandstones comprise the Napo T and U reservoirs of Shushufindi and Libratador fields in the central Oriente (Canfield et al., 1982). These intervals quickly thin and become separated by thicker marine shales in Sacha and Auca fields (Canfield, 1991). From these fields westward, both the T and U sandstones exhibit different lithofacies (and depositional environments) than in the central Oriente. Quartzose sandstones occur in each of the western Oriente Napo cores

Figure 9Composite log of Hollin and Napo formations, western Oriente basin.

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White et al. bedded sandstones dominate the lower half of the Napo T and U sandstone packages. In the upper half of the profile, the sandstone beds are thinner, finer grained, ripple laminated, and generally glauconitic. Mudstone interbeds are intermittent within the sandstones. Capping the T and U intervals are more burrowed mudstone, minor sandstone (locally thicker and medium grained), and limestone interbeds. Laminated shales separate the sandstone intervals from thick carbonate wackestone and mudstone (B and A limestones, respectively). Situated between thick intervals of marine limestones and mudstones, the Napo T and U sandstone packages show a channel-like development, locally exceeding 10 m thick, that is attributable to fluvial channel, shoreline estuary, and subtidal shoal origin. Channels and shoals within this setting were probably controlled by the range of tidal energy, the shoreline configuration (embayments and estuaries), and the physiography of the marine shelf (de Boer et al., 1988; Terwindt, 1988). Westward-flowing streams delivered sediment to these Napo shorelines. The initial stacked sandstones of these prograding channels is inferred to be of fluvial point bar or deltaic origin. Overlying the channel sandstones, the beds exhibit reworking by tidal currents that progressively controlled sand distribution seaward of the fluvial-dominated deposition. As in the Upper Hollin, the variety of tidal environments recognized includes tidal flat, tidal creek, and subaqueous tidal shoals. Dimensions of these shoals can range up to hundreds of meters in width, hundreds of meters to several kilometers in length, and more than 5 m in thickness. Positioning of these sandstone bodies was probably influenced by paleotopographic highs on the Napo marine shelf. Glauconitic sandstone shoals are mixed with quartzose shoals in the upper parts of the Napo T and U sequences. The cycle of progradation dominated by channel and tidal shoal sedimentation was replaced vertically by mud-dominated marine conditions followed by transgressive bioclastic and micritic limestone deposition (Figure 11).

Figure 10Idealized Napo depositional package resulting from sedimentation following sea level drop on the Napo marine shelf.

examined. Glauconitic sandstones, laminated to burrowed mudstones, and fossiliferous limestones are common components of both T and U sequences. The quartzose sandstones exhibit the following characteristics: (1) abrupt basal contacts, (2) bed thicknesses from 30 cm to 1 m, (3) medium to very fine grain size, (4) large scale planar and trough cross bedding to ripple lamination, (5) abundant clay drapes along laminations, and (6) occasional disruption due to burrowing. The glauconitic sandstones are similar to those of the Upper Hollin and typically occur in the upper parts of both the T and U successions. Cross beds commonly occur in oblique orientations and less often in strongly oblique, or herringbone, orientation. Figure 10 shows a typical vertical profile through the Napo T and U sequences. A varying complex of thin fossiliferous limestones, burrowed silty mudstones, and thin quartzose sandstones form an interval less than 5 m thick that commonly occurs above the laminated shales below both the T and U. The sandstones abruptly overlie this complex. Stacked, fine- to medium-grained, cross-

CRETACEOUS PALEOGEOGRAPHY
The four principal sandstone packages deposited in the western part of the Oriente basin during AptianMaastrichtian time were the Main Hollin, Upper Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U intervals. The Main Hollin is the thickest and most widespread of these intervals. It was deposited initially on an irregular erosional surface. The valley fill deposits smoothed this relief and created an alluvial plain that was dominated by braided rivers. The provenance for the Main Hollin sandstones is believed to have been the Guyana shield and its Paleozoic cover. Grain size decreases from east to west. However, isolated outcrops of Hollin valley fill deposits in the uplifts west of Puyo contain gravel- to cobble-sized clasts of locally derived igneous basement demonstrating the influence of possible local source areas during early

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Figure 11Napo regressivetransgressive cycle of sedimentation showing rapid progradation followed by sea level rise with marine onlap.

Hollin sedimentation. The westward extent of the shoreline during braidplain deposition is unknown because the Andean fold and thrust belt has now completely overprinted this area west of the Napo uplift. The physiography conceptualized for the Main Hollin braidplain is a very low relief, low gradient system. The multiple river systems comprising the Hollin alluvial plain carried a high volume of fine to very coarse sand that was efficiently distributed over the entire alluvial plain. The source of the quartzose sand is further envisaged to have been a much higher relief escarpment of Paleozoic sandstones and igneous basement. Several examples of such settings include the valley sandur deposits of southern Iceland (Bluck, 1974), the Scott outwash deposits of Alaska (Boothroyd, 1972), the Canterbury plain of New Zealand (Brown and Wilson, 1988), and the Pantanal escarpment and alluvial plain in Brazil (Short and Blair, 1986). What these alluvial plains have in common is a high sand supply and a braided channel network capable of distributing the high bed load. Regional to local tectonics and vegetation would also have had an important impact on the resulting depositional system. The alluvial plain gradient varies in these examples from several meters per kilometer to less than 0.01 m/km in the Pantanal basin. The AptianMaastrichtian eustatic sea level curve (Figure 12) records significant sea level lows that are correlated with the regressive-transgressive parasequences of the Upper Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U (Macellari, 1988). The Main Hollin coastal plain and Upper Hollin shore zone depositional systems are believed to have been deposited during the late Albian sea level rise that inundated the Main Hollin braidplain. There is no evidence in the Oriente cores for a significant sea level fall at this time. Deposition of the Upper Hollin Formation reflects gradual eastward encroachment of the sea and progressive destruction of the delta plain to form neritic tidal shoals. Figure 12 shows a more substantial sea level drop in the Late Turonian at the start of Napo U sedimentation, suggesting a marked westward shift of the shoreline. It is envisaged that Upper Hollin and Napo deposition took place on a broad, relatively stable continental shelf west of the Guyana craton and prior to

Figure 12Correlation of Napo stratigraphy with global sea level change for the EarlyLate Cretaceous. The T and U sandstone packages correspond to the significant sea level lows during the Cenomanian and Turonian, respectively.

formation of the early Andean orogenic belt. A passive margin shelf apparently received the Hollin and Napo sedimentation. Limited exposures of phosphatic shales and cherts in the northwestern Napo uplift suggest the existence of a shelf slope break and Late Cretaceous upwelling prior to its destruction during Andean deformation.

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Figure 13Hollin paleogeography in Albian time. (A) Braided alluvial plain. (B) Initial transgression during Main Hollin coastal plain deposition. (C) Upper Hollin shore zone deposition in tidally influenced nearshore environments. (D) Open marine sedimentation ending Hollin sedimentation.

Figures 13 and 14 show a series of block diagrams that summarize the paleogeography during Hollin and Napo time. The Albian braided alluvial plain was built on the edge of the Guyana shield and covered the Oriente basin farther west than the Napo uplift. The position of the Albian shoreline has been obliterated by Andean deformation. Inundation by a late Albian sea level rise established fluvial, deltaic, estuary, and tidal shoal environments (Figures 13b, c, d). The delta and estuarine sand accumulations now form excellent hydrocarbon reservoirs in addition to the Main Hollin. Sand sedimentation rates are inferred to have been very rapid within the

Hollin depositional systems. Wells suggest that the shoreline was close to the Guyana shield at the end of Hollin deposition. The late Albian maximum flooding event (Lower Napo Shale) essentially closed Hollin sedimentation. The Napo Formation consists of several transgressiveregressive packages related to Late Cretaceous eustatic sea level fluctuations (Figure 12) (Haq et al., 1988), including the Napo T and U (Figure 14). The successive parasequences in the Upper Hollin and Napo formations were deposited in a basin with a ramp margin (see Van Wagoner et al., 1988). This model implies that relative sea

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Figure 14Napo paleogeography during CenomanianTuronian time. (A) Early Cenomanian marine shelf deposition dominating much of the Oriente. (B) Napo T sandstone deposition in the western Oriente. (C) Transgressive marine mud deposition (Middle Napo Shale). (D) Turonian marine shelf sedimentation prior to sea level lowering and deposition of the Napo U sandstone cycle.

level did not fall below the shelf break, which precludes lowstand sediments within lowstand fan or prograding wedge settings. The Hollin and Napo shore zone to shelf facies tract transgressed and regressed several times. The quartzose sandstones of the Upper Hollin, T, U, and M sequences were deposited after maximum sea level fall and within depocenters (eroded valleys) created during falling sea level. Eventually both the T and U were inundated and covered with limestone shoals and shelf muds during the subsequent sea level rise. The ramp margin model permits major shifts of the shoreline, especially where the rate of sedimentation exceeded the rate of subsidence.

RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION Reservoir-Scale Heterogeneity of the Hollin Lithofacies

The Coca-Payamino and Gacela fields in the northwestern Oriente basin have sufficient well density to allow detailed stratigraphic correlation. Well spacings range up to 3 km in the Gacela field and average about 1 km along the Coca-Payamino structure. The NNW-SSE orientation of the Coca-Payamino is nearly orthogonal to the east-west depositional pattern interpreted for the Hollin strata. Figure 15 is a simplified cross section

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Figure 15Stratigraphic cross section of the Hollin lithofacies in the Coca-Payamino field, western Oriente basin. Lithofacies have been determined from cored intervals in the field. The top of the Upper Hollin is commonly a succession of thin, fossiliferous limestones. See Figure 1 for location.

through Coca-Payamino field and illustrates the local variation of depositional facies interpreted for each well along the structure. Overall, the Coca #4 well contains the thickest development of the coastal and shelf sequences mainly because of thicker shore zone sandstones. A relatively thin veneer of coastal deposits is present in each well, except in Coca #7, where the equivalent interval is dominated by a braided channel. The Main Hollin remains consistent throughout the structure. Figure 16 shows the overall lithofacies variations between two wells in the Gacela area immediately south of the Coca-Payamino field. In the Gacela #1 well, both the glauconitic sandstones of the shelf and the tidal sandstones of shore zone origin are thicker than their counterparts in the Gacela #2 well. The shelf sandstones in the Gacela #2 are not as glauconite rich as those in Gacela #1 and have retained significant reservoir porosity. Finally, the coastal plain deposits in Gacela #1 appear to be absent in Gacela #2. The coastal plain facies is believed to interfinger with braided channel lithologies. These two field examples suggest that the Main Hollin braided stream sandstones are remarkably consistent in character across each field. The coastal plain, shore zone, and open marine units, by comparison, show significant compartmentalization that is largely a function of depositional environment. Optimum field development must account for this lateral and vertical heterogeneity.

Sandstone Petrography
A representative suite of sandstone samples from Hollin and Napo facies was examined using standard petrographic techniques. From this analysis, it is concluded that similar sandstone framework and diagenetic characteristics occur in each of the reservoir

intervals. Two sandstone types are present: quartzose sandstones occur in each facies, while glauconitic sandstones occur only in Upper Hollin and Napo intervals. Figure 17 shows the framework and diagenetic characteristics of the Hollin and Napo sandstones. Quartzose sandstones (Figure 17a) volumetrically dominate the arenaceous deposits. Grain size varies substantially within a single cored interval. The coarsest detritus in cores or outcrops occurs in the braidplain depositional system of the Main Hollin succession. In the Tiguino #3 core, for example, the braided stream sandstones contain beds dominated by coarse to very coarse quartz grains, as well as local quartz granule conglomerate lag. The average grain size of the Main Hollin is medium grained. Bimodal grain size segregation in slipface laminae is typical of much of the cross bedding. The western Oriente Pungarayacu area has the finest grained Hollin channel sandstones encountered in the Oriente area. Excellent porosity and hydrocarbon staining occur throughout the Oriente in the fine-grained to granule textured lithologies. Sandstones in the Upper Hollin and Napo successions also vary significantly in grain size, but generally within the very fine to medium-grained size range; they have locally excellent porosity and permeability (Figure 17b). Glauconitic sandstones of the Upper Hollin shelf facies tract and each of the Napo intervals consist of a framework of glauconite and quartz grains (Figure 17c). Glauconite content varies from trace to dominant. Typically, the glauconite grains are about 200 m larger than associated quartz grains. Whereas the quartz in the shelf sand shoal facies was reworked from deltaic and shore zone deltas, the glauconite was locally derived by diagenetic replacement of biogenic material. Glauconite grains are easily compacted under moderate overburden

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Figure 16Stratigraphic correlation in Gacela field 5 km southwest of Coca-Payamino. Thickness and lithofacies variations are especially noticeable in the coastal plain and open marine facies.

pressure and may form a pseudomatrix that occludes the original primary porosity. Where the percentage of glauconite is less than about 20% of the sandstone framework, the quartz-dominated framework retains much of the original porosity, resulting in significant reservoir potential. In contrast, the dark green, laterally equivalent glauconitic sandstones are tight due to framework grain compaction. Quartz dominates the detrital framework in all sandstones except the glauconite-rich shelf facies. The quartz is generally monocrystalline and less commonly polycrystalline; it has a strong undulose extinction. Feldspars and micas are subordinate to rare, but more abundant in the Napo T and U sandstones. Feldspar composition varies from sodic plagioclase to potassic feldspar. Unless encased in early calcite cementation, most surviving feldspar grains exhibit moderate to extensive secondary leaching. Secondary leaching during burial diagenesis helped reduce the feldspar content. The provenance is believed to be the feldspar-rich granitic Guyana basement to the east. However, the possibility of a quartzose Paleozoic sandstone source overlying the basement is also possible. Other components of the sandstone include heavy minerals such as zircon and coalified plant debris.

The burial diagenetic history of the Cretaceous reservoir sandstones reflects several processes that occurred in the following order: Limited mechanical compaction of framework grains Early calcite and pyrite precipitation Dissolution of unstable framework grains (feldspars) Precipitation of silica overgrowths Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals Calcite precipitation occludes the initial porosity in thin sandstone beds, especially adjacent to shale interbeds where it forms small, spherulitic concretions. These calcite-cemented sandstones show no evidence of mechanical compaction, suggesting that protective cementation occurred at an early stage. Pyrite precipitation in the form of concretionary cements or framboids are characteristically associated with the organic debris trapped within the sandstones and shales. Early mechanical compaction is again limited to isolated grain interpenetrations. Organic debris and pyrite crystals are concentrated along stylolite-like surfaces. Silica overgrowths are ubiquitous throughout the

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Figure 17Petrography of Hollin and Napo reservoir sandstones as seen in thin section photomicrographs and scanning electron micrographs. (a) Plane light view of Main Hollin braidplain sandstone. (b) Quartzose sandstone of Napo U interval. (c) Glauconitic sandstone of the Upper Hollin open marine facies. (e) Diagenetic kaolinite occupying isolated pores in thin section. (f) Scanning electron micrograph of secondary silica overgrowths and kaolinite clay mineral.

Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador quartz arenites of the Hollin and Napo sequence and provide the framework support that has preserved porosity to reservoir depths in the Oriente basin. Although the overgrowths (Figure 17d) make up only a small percentage of the sandstones, they strengthen the highly porous sandstones while only slightly reducing overall primary porosity. Mechanical testing of these sandstones documents the high compressive strength required to break the strong silica-cemented framework. The amount of porosity attributable to framework-grain dissolution is not significant compared to the primary intergranular porosity preserved by silica overgrowth. Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals followed overgrowth formation. The kaolinite typically fills small clusters of pores, but does not seriously affect sandstone permeability (Figure 17e). Kaolinite diagenesis succeeded silica overgrowth formation (Figure 17f), but preceded oil emplacement. Such relationships are common and invariably associated with the oilwater contact where differentially stained sandstones may occur below the base of the oil-saturated sandstones.

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Petrophysical Characteristics
Electric Log Response The stratigraphic and sedimentologic characterization of the Napo and Hollin reservoirs has been facilitated by using core studies combined with electrical log evaluations. Many of the mineralogic characteristics observed in cores have a petrophysical log response. Carbonaceous debris on cross bed slip faces induces a stronger shaly gamma ray response than would be expected from core examination. A clean gamma ray deflection is typical of a clean sandstone, but a higher gamma response may indicate relatively clean sandstones contaminated with carbonaceous laminae, shaly sandstone, or carbonaceous limestone or marl. Glauconite and pyrite reduce the resistivity. The glauconite-rich sandstones result in some of the lowest resistivity responses on observed logs. Pyrite is locally abundant as a disseminated replacement fabric or as concretions in all lithologies. Dolomitic shales tend to have higher resistivity than nondolomitic shales due to carbonate cementation of pore space. These shales are the most resistive clastic lithofacies in the Oriente basin. Fluid chemistry is also reflected in log response, and its effects limit the usefulness of resistivity or SP curves for facies correlation. Low salinities within the Main Hollin succession limit the reliability of the SP curve and also moderately affect the resistivity curve. The presence of oil is noticeable regardless of lithology. PorosityPermeability Relationships, Pore Geometry, and Capillarity Multiple rock types occur in the Hollin formation because of variations in depositional environment. The most important factors affecting porosity preservation are lithology, compaction, and diagenesis. Porosity and permeability generally correlate in the Upper Hollin despite significant mineralogic differences throughout

this interval. In the quartz-dominated Main Hollin, sediment texture is the primary factor controlling pore geometry and connectivity. Figure 18a shows the porositypermeability data for the entire Upper Hollin in a single Coca-Payamino well. Permeability ranges over six orders of magnitude, and no distinct trends are discernible in the overall data set. The poorest permeabilities are associated with glauconitic sandstones and clay-rich interbeds. Figures 18b and 18c illustrate the wide range of measured porosity and permeability in this highly heterogeneous formation. Quartz-rich zones are of high reservoir quality and comparable to those found in the Main Hollin. Median values for porosity and permeability are 8.6% and 1.67 md, respectively. A histogram of grain density (Figure 18d) further demonstrates the diversity of minerals present in this interval. Mercury injection extended range capillary pressure data were generated to examine reservoir rock quality, determine size and sorting of pore throats, and evaluate seal capacity. Shales within the Upper Hollin (Figure 19) are microporous and considered to be effective seals. Because of inhibiting diagenetic effects, glauconitic sandstones have bimodal pore throat size distributions and complex pore geometries (Figure 20). Further reduction in reservoir quality can result from extensive diagenetic pyrite and the abundance of detrital clay drapes and coalified plant debris. Figure 21a shows the porosity-permeability data for the Main Hollin Formation in a single Coca-Payamino well. A clear cluster of data in the 1520% porosity range and greater than 100 md permeability demonstrates excellent reservoir quality. The Main Hollin is a clean uniform sandstone, although thin, impermeable clay-rich interbeds are not uncommon. Figures 21b, c, and d illustrate the quartz-dominated nature of the Main Hollin. Median values for porosity and permeability are 18.6% and 1013 md, respectively. Mercury injection data (Figure 22) show unimodal well-sorted and wellconnected pores, further substantiating high reservoir quality. Most pore throat radii are larger than 1 m, with most pores greater than 10 m in width. Anisotropy within the Main Hollin causing directional preferences in permeability is minimal. Horizontal and vertical permeabilities were measured on fulldiameter core to determine the potential for reservoir fluid coning. In the quartz-rich zones of the Main Hollin, horizontal and vertical permeabilities are almost equal (Figure 23). This indicates that cross bedding and other sedimentologic features do not create anisotropy in this sand body. Rock Mechanics Uniaxial and triaxial compression testing was performed on four lithologies from the Hollin formation: shale, limestone, glauconitic sandstone, and quartzose sandstone. These data were critical in the assessment of borehole stability and other engineering evaluations useful for horizontal drilling parameters (Ramirez and Rodas, 1992). Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria were established under triaxial load on four samples for each

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Figure 18Porositypermeability relationships of the Upper Hollin Formation. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to nitrogen at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram of all lithofacies of the Upper Hollin. (c) Porosity histogram of all lithologies. (d) Grain density histogram for the Upper Hollin.

lithology. Compressive strengths were measured at 952025,170 psi for shale, 16,70028,040 psi for limestone, 837027,550 psi for low-percentage glauconitic sandstone, and 510016,870 psi for clean sandstone (Figure 24). Tensile strengths ranged from 1760 psi for shale to 660 psi for clean sandstone. Wettability Both the Upper and Main Hollin demonstrate intermediate to oil-wetting tendencies based on qualitative and quantitative indicators. Localized development of mixed wettability or preferentially oil-wet characteristics can be mineralogy specific, that is, glauconite-rich rocks tend to show stronger oil-wet conditions. Complex pore geometries formed by small, irregular pore throats lead to high immobile saturation of the wetting phase. Irreducible water saturation tends to be low, with an average of 15%, and residual oil saturation ranges from 25 to 40%

based on fresh state water-oil relative permeability measurements. Wettability indices in the Upper Hollin support the theory of intermediate to slightly oil-wet conditions. Asphaltinic oils (up to 15.2% asphaltene by weight) are common near the oilwater contact. Hollin wetting tendencies could have significant impact on production (fluid flow characteristics) and reservoir development scenarios, such as water flood potential.

CONCLUSIONS
Core descriptions have shown that four depositional systems comprise Hollin stratigraphy: braidplain and coastal deposits of the Main Hollin Sandstone, and shore zone and open marine shelf facies in the Upper Hollin Formation. This reconstruction enlarges on previous interpretations of marine-influenced Hollin fluvial depo-

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Figure 20Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin glauconitic sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b) Pore size distribution.

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Figure 21Porositypermeability relationships of the Main Hollin quartzose sandstones. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to nitrogen at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram of quartzose sandstone. (c) Porosity histogram for sandstones. (d) Grain density histogram for the principal reservoir sandstones.

sition. Sandstones in overlying Napo strata in the western Oriente basin are also divided into two sequences (T and U intervals). The Hollin braidplain depositional system is a sandstone-dominated unit that comprises most of the Hollin succession. It is also the most prolific reservoir zone in the western part of the basin. The braided fluvial sandstone units have excellent continuity and connectivity, as shown by analysis of closely spaced wells. However, shale interbeds and thicker channel abandonment mudstones adversely influence local permeability. It is believed that the braidplain deposits are most productive in structural traps where there is limited stratigraphic trapping potential. The coastal plain depositional system consists of braided and meandering river sediments, overbank floodplain strata, and deltaic-estuarine deposits. Even between closely spaced wells, sandstoneshale ratios may be variable. Similarly, the overlying shore zone

depositional system of the Upper Hollin succession has variable sandstone distribution, with local good quality reservoir development. The capping open marine sandstones are moderately prospective, especially where glauconite content is low. Stratigraphic trapping potential is implied by the heterogeneity of these lithofacies. Fluviodeltaic Napo sandstones are prolific producers of oil from fields in the central part of the Oriente basin. These stacked channel and shore zone sandstones have reservoir characteristics similar to the underlying Hollin fluvial sandstone reservoirs, albeit with local heterogeneities. Toward the west, the Napo sandstones occupy valley-like, topographic lows; these sandstones have locally significant reservoir potential. A better understanding of the Hollin and Napo stratigraphy and distribution of reservoir quality sandstones will help to optimize wellbore placement during field development. This understanding has been further

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Figure 19Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin shales. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b) Pore size distribution of reservoir seals in the Upper Hollin.

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Figure 22Petrophysical relationships of the Main Hollin sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b) Pore size distribution from mercury injection data.

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Figure 23Full diameter core permeability measurements (horizontal and vertical) for the Main Hollin sandstones.

enhanced by detailed petrophysical analysis of the reservoir sandstones, which has provided the appropriate data for accurate reservoir simulation. The Oriente basin of Ecuador is a proven oil province that has tremendous potential for future production.

Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Direccion Nacional de Hidrocarburos (DNH) and Petroecuador for permission to publish this paper and for their invaluable assistance in making Hollin and Napo cores available. The core examination in Ecuador (Quito and Lago Agrio) was undertaken by the principal author, Ed Robbs and Felix Ramirez (Oryx Energy, Dallas), and Mariana Lascano (Petroecuador). Acknowledgment is given for their assistance in collecting the initial core data for the project. Harold Illich (Oryx Energy, Dallas) contributed substantially to the Hollin outcrop study and our understanding of the Oriente basin burial history. Further acknowledgment is given to Tim Martin (Oryx Energy, Dallas), Cliff Thomson (Oryx Ecuador), Oryx Energy (Dallas), and our partners for permission to publish this paper, and to the Oryx Graphic group for preparation of the illustrations.

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Suarez, and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG Memoir 62, this volume. Bluck, B. J., 1974, Structure and directional properties of some valley sandur deposits in southern Iceland: Sedimentology, v. 21, p. 533554. Boothroyd, J. C., 1972, Coarse-grained sedimentation on a braided outwash fan, northeast Gulf of Alaska: Coastal Research Division, University of South Carolina Technical Report No. 6, 127 p. Brown, L. J., and D. D. Wilson, 1988, Stratigraphy of the late Quaternary deposits of the northern Canterbury plains, New Zealand: New Zealand Journal of Geology, v. 31, p. 305335. Campbell, C. J., 1970, Guide to the Puerto Napo area, eastern Ecuador, with notes on the regional geology of the Oriente basin: Ecuador Society of Geology and Geophysics, 40 p. Canfield, R. W., 1991, Sacha field, Ecuador: Oriente basin, in N. H. Foster and E. A Beaumont, eds., AAPG Treatise of Petroleum Geology, Atlas of Oil and Gas Fields, Structural Traps V, p. 285305. Canfield, R. W., G. Bonilla, and R. K. Robbins, 1982, Sacha oil field of Ecuadorian Oriente: AAPG Bulletin, v. 66, p. 10761090. Cant, D. J., 1982, Fluvial facies models and their application, in P. A. Scholle and D. Spearing, eds., Sandstone depositional environments: AAPG Memoir 31, p. 115137. Dashwood, M. F., and I. L. Abbotts, 1990, Aspects of the petroleum geology of the Oriente basin, Ecuador, in J. Brooks, ed., Classic petroleum provinces: Geological Society of London, Special Publication 50, p. 89117. de Boer, P. L., A. van Gelder, and S. D. Nio, eds., 1988, Tideinfluenced sedimentary environments and facies: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, D. Reidel, 530 p. de Souza Cruz, C. E., 1989, Cretaceous sedimentary facies and depositional environments, Oriente basin, Ecuadora field trip guide: Tercer Congreso Andino de la Industria del Petroleo, Petrobras Research Center, Brazil, 65 p. Haq, B. U., J. Hardenbol, and P. R. Vail, 1988, Mesozoic and Cenozoic chronostratigraphy and cycles of sea-level change, in C. K. Wilgus, B. S. Hastings, C. A. Ross, H. Posamentier, J. Van Wagoner, and C. G. St. C. Kendall, eds., Sea-level change: an integrated approach: SEPM Special Publication 42, p. 71108. Macellari, C. E., 1988, Cretaceous paleogeography and depositional cycles of western South America: Journal South American Earth Sciences, v. 1, p. 373418. Miall, A. D., 1977, A review of the braided river depositional environment: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 13, p. 162. Ramirez, F. A., and J. A. Rodas, 1992, Geoscience aspects in the first experiences with horizontal wells in the Ecuadorian Oriente basin: Proceedings, V Congreso Colombiano del Petrolero, Memorias, p. 91100. Short, N. M., and R. W. Blair, Jr., 1986, Geomorphology from spacea global overview of regional landforms: Washington, D.C., National Aeronautics Space Administration, 715 p. Smith, D. G., 1987, Meandering river point bar lithofacies models: modern and ancient examples compared, in F. G. Ethridge, R. M. Flores, and M. D. Harvey, eds., Recent developments in fluvial sedimentology: SEPM Special Publication 39, p. 8391. Terwindt, J. H. J., 1988, Palaeo-tidal reconstructions on inshore tidal depositional environments, in P. L. de Boer, A. van Gelder, S. D. Nio, eds., Tide-influenced sedimentary environments and facies: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, D. Reidel, p. 233263.

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Figure 24Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria for the Main and Upper Hollin lithologies. (a) Upper Hollin shale. (b) Upper Hollin limestone. (c) Glauconitic sandstone (high quartz content, Upper Hollin). (d) Main Hollin reservoir sandstone. Tschopp, H. H. , 1953, Oil explorations in the Oriente of Ecuador: AAPG Bulletin, v. 27, p. 23032347. Van Wagoner, J. C., H. W. Posmentier, R. M. Mitchum, P. R. Vail, J. F. Sarg, T. S. Loutit, and J. Hardenbol, 1988, An overview of sequence stratigraphy and key definitions, in C. W. Wilgus, B. S. Hastings, C. A. Ross, H. Posamentier, J. Van Wagoner, and C. G. St. C. Kendall, eds., Sea-level changes: an integrated approach: SEPM Special Publication 42, p. 3945. Wasson, T., and J. H. Sinclair, 1927, Geological explorations east of the Andes in Ecuador: AAPG Bulletin, v. 11, p. 12531281.

Robert A. Skopec Department of Petroleum Geology University of Aberdeen Aberdeen AB9 2UE Scotland Jose A. Rodas Oryx Ecuador Energy Company Avenue de Amazonas Quito Ecuador Guido Bonilla Petroecuador J. Leon M y Av. Orellana Quito Ecuador

Authors Mailing Addresses Howard J. White Felix A. Ramirez Oryx Energy Company 13155 Noel Road Dallas, Texas 75240-5067 U.S.A.