E-05 Ac Generators

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Module 5: Generators
Electrical
MODULE E-5
AC GENERATORS
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CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................... 4 INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINES ............................................................................. 4 1.1 GENERAL....................................................................................................4 1.2 THE STEAM TURBINE................................................................................4 1.3 THE GAS TURBINE ....................................................................................5 1.4 SINGLE SHAFT AND TWO SHAFT TURBINES .........................................8 1.5 FUEL............................................................................................................9 1.6 SPEEDCONTROL ..................................................................................... 10 1.7 STARTING................................................................................................. 11 1.8 STOPPING ................................................................................................ 14 1.9 PROTECTION ........................................................................................... 15 1.10 CONTROL ................................................................................................. 16 1.11 SPEED CONTROL .................................................................................... 16 1.12 WASHING.................................................................................................. 16 1.13 ANTI-ICING ............................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................................... 18 A.C. GENERATORS .......................................................................................................... 18 2.1 GENERAL.................................................................................................. 18 2.2 ROTOR CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................ 19 2.3 INSULATION ............................................................................................. 21 2.4 COOLING .................................................................................................. 22 2.5 EXCITATION AND VOLTAGE CONTROL ................................................ 23 2.6 NEUTRAL EARTHING RESISTOR ........................................................... 23 CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................................... 25 GENERATOR EXCITATION AND VOLTAGE CONTROL.......................................... 25 3.1 GENERAL.................................................................................................. 25 3.2 CONVENTIONAL EXCITATION ................................................................ 25 3.3 STATIC EXCITATION................................................................................ 26 3.4 BRUSHLESS EXCITATION (GENERAL CASE) ....................................... 26 3.5 BEHAVIOUR UNDER SHORT CIRCUIT ................................................... 27 3.6 BRUSH LESS EXCITATION (WITHOUT PILOT EXCITER)...................... 29 3.7 THE DIODE BRIDGE................................................................................. 30 3.8 REGULATION RESPONSE TIME ............................................................. 31 3.9 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS (AVR) ....................................... 32 3.10 AVR SET-POINT ....................................................................................... 32 3.11 A.C.GENERATOR VOLTAGE REGULATION ........................................... 32 CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................... 34 DIESEL GENERATOR SETS ........................................................................................... 34 4.1 GENERAL.................................................................................................. 34 4.2 BASIC SERVICES ..................................................................................... 35 4.3 AVAILABILITY OF BASIC SERVICES GENERATOR ............................... 36 4.4 BASIC SERVICES GENERATOR UTILITIES............................................ 36 CHAPTER 5 ......................................................................................................................... 38 SYNCHRONISING OF GENERATORS .......................................................................... 38 5.1 GENERAL.................................................................................................. 38 5.2 D.C. GENERATORS.................................................................................. 38 5.3 A.C.GENERATORS................................................................................... 39 5.4 SYNCHRONSING A.C.GENERATORS.....................................................41
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5.5 LAMP SYNCHRONISING.......................................................................... 41 5.5.1 The 2-Lamp Method ....................................................................................... 41 5.5.2 The 3-Lamp Method ....................................................................................... 43 5.6 SYNCHROSCOPE .................................................................................... 44 5.7 SYNCHRONISING AT A SWITCHBOARD................................................ 45 5.8 AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONISING .............................................................. 46 5.9 CHECK SYNCHRONISING ....................................................................... 46 5.10 CLOSING ONTO DEAD BUSBAR............................................................. 47 CHAPTER 6 ......................................................................................................................... 49 LOAD SHARING ................................................................................................................. 49 6.1 GENERAL.................................................................................................. 49 6.2 THE D.C. CASE......................................................................................... 49 6.3 A.C. GENERATORS.................................................................................. 51 6.4 CONTROL OG GENERATOR LOADING .................................................. 52 6.4.1 Voltage Adjustment ......................................................................................... 52 6.4.2 Speed Adjustment ........................................................................................... 53 6.4.3 Summary .......................................................................................................... 54 6.5 PRINCIPLES OF PARALLEL OPERATION .............................................. 56 6.5.1 Droop ................................................................................................................. 56 6.5.2 Trimming and Governor Setting .................................................................... 59 6.5.3 Trimming and Governor Droop ..................................................................... 60 6.5.4 Stability.............................................................................................................. 60 CHAPTER 7 ......................................................................................................................... 63 LOAD SHEDDING .............................................................................................................. 63 7.1 GENERAL .................................................................................................................. 63 7.2 ACTION ...................................................................................................................... 63 7.3 SHEDDING CONTROL ............................................................................................ 64 7.4 PLANNING ................................................................................................................. 65 7.5 AUTOMATIC LOAD SHEDDING ............................................................................ 65 7.5.1 Direct Shedding ............................................................................................... 65 7.5.2 Testing .............................................................................................................. 69 CHAPTER 8 ......................................................................................................................... 70 GENERATOR PROTECTION........................................................................................... 70 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................. 70 PROTECTING THE GENERATOR FROM EXTERNAL CONDITIONS ............... 70 SENSING INTERNAL FAULTS............................................................................ 72 MISCELLANEOUS RELAYS AND MECHANICAL PROTECTION ...................... 72 TYPICAL GENERATOR PROTECTION .............................................................. 72 Generators and electrical safety:.......................................................................... 75 Important Safety Points ........................................................................................ 75
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINES

1.1 GENERAL
All generators send out energy in the form of electrical power, and they have to be given the equivalent mechanical energy. This means that they have to be driven by an engine of some sort, which derives its energy from fuel, or some other natural source such as wind or water. The engine which drives an electric generator is called a 'prime mover and may take many forms. In the early days steam-, gas- or oil-driven reciprocating engines were used. Later, steam turbines became more general, especially in large power stations. More recently gas turbines have come into use, especially on oil platforms where gas is produced as part of the production process usually in sufficient quantities to provide a source of fuel. The modern form of oil engine, the diesel, is also much used, principally for standby or emergency plant when gas supplies to the gas turbines fail or are shut down. On a platform, of course, it is necessary to bunker diesel fuel for these engines. As the various forms of gas turbine may not be familiar to some, a brief description of this type of engine and how it evolved is given overleaf. Firstly, however, it may be advantageous to recap the principles of operation of its predecessor, the steam turbine. 1.2 THE STEAM TURBINE
Fuel was burned under a boiler, whose water (shown blue) was turned into steam. This steam, at high pressure and speed, hit the inclined blades of a turbine wheel (yellow) and drove it round. In doing so it lost some of its pressure, but enough was left to drive a second wheel and a third or fourth on the same shaft. Finally the steam was exhausted into a condenser, turned back into water and returned to the boiler to be reheated and used again. This was the whole steam 'cycle,' which is shown in Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1 Steam Turbine System 1.3 THE GAS TURBINE
Gas-turbine generators are found generally in offshore installations, where natural gas is available. Onshore installations have only small standby or emergency generators, and these are usually diesel driven. This chapter, therefore, applies to offshore installations only.
FIGURE 1.2 GAS TURBINE The gas turbine works on a similar principle to that of the steam turbine except that there is no boiler or water: instead the fuel is burned in a combustion chamber at one end of the turbine where it produces a hot, highpressure gas. This gas, in trying to expand, causes a reaction on each row of blades on a rotor (shown yellow), expanding and cooling as it does so and driving the blades round to produce mechanical power. By expanding in the confined volume of the turbine, the gas has to keep up and even increase its speed in order to pass through. The principle of the gas turbine is shown in Figure 1.2.
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It should be noted that the gas is hottest at the combustion chamber or inlet end. As it expands in the turbine, it cools, and it should leave the exhaust end at a lower temperature, of about 450C. Many turbines have instruments to measure exhaust temperature. If it is too high, it indicates some fault in the combustion, and the set is usually shut down to save the blades from damage.
Figure 1.3 Compressor
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In order for the fuel to burn, oxygen, in the form of air, is needed, and it must be at high pressure in order to enter the combustion chamber; therefore- an air compressor is fitted integrally with the turbine. It is just like a turbine in reverse. Air is drawn in at the larger diameter end by the inclined blades acting as a suction fan. Once in, it is compressed by the blades of the compressor rotor (shown yellow) into a smaller volume, to be sucked in again by the next row of blades and compressed still further. Each stage of compression causes the air to become hotter. Eventually it emerges at the small diameter end as hot compressed air. The principle of the gas-turbine compressor is shown in Figure 1.3.
To provide the power to compress the air, the compressor must be driven mechanically. The turbine itself drives it. The gas-turbine shaft is coupled to the compressor shaft and constitutes the complete gas-turbine assembly. This looks like perpetual motion which it is, provided that the fuel continues to be supplied. The combined turbine and compressor unit is shown in Figure 1.4.
FIGURE 1.4 SINGLE SHAFT GAS TURBINE SET. In practice something like 80% of the power developed in the turbine from the combustion is needed to drive the compressor, leaving only about 20% 'payload' to drive the load. It can be seen that, if there is a drop of only about 5% in the combustion efficiency, so needing 85% of the output to drive the compressor, the effect is to reduce the payload from 20% to 15% an effective reduction of load drive of 25%. Gas turbines are therefore very sensitive to combustion control.
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In the gas turbine on Oil platform the power developed by the gas turbine, less that part of it needed to drive the compressor, is used to drive the load, which may be a machine such as a generator, air compressor or pump. One of the great advantages of the gas turbine over other forms of prime mover is its high power/weight ratio. An important point to note is that, unlike other types of engine, the gas turbine needs to take in up to 70 times the amount of air actually needed for combustion. The excess is for cooling. This means that gas turbines have very large intake ducting, usually provided with screens and filters to prevent the entry of sea birds and other sizeable particles. In freezing weather the screens can become iced up and restrict the flow of air(not in UAE). Therefore, anti-icing equipment and blow-in doors are often provided (see para. 1.13). 1.4 SINGLE SHAFT AND TWO SHAFT TURBINES
The type of gas turbine shown in Figure 1.4 is known as a 'single-shaft' type that is, the power turbine, compressor and driven load are on a single, common shaft. The power delivered by the power turbine is divided between the compressor (about 70% to 80%) and the driven load (about 20% to 30%).
In some larger gas turbines the arrangement is different. A standard aircrafttype jet engine may be used, as shown in Figure 1.5, where the compressor turbine is only large enough to drive the compressor itself, with no driven load. But the exhaust gas which, in an aircraft, would go straight to jet is ducted to the input of a further power turbine on a separate shaft; its rotor is shown blue. This drives the load, and usually at a speed different from that of the compressor turbine. This is known as a 'two-shaft' gas turbine and has the advantage that it can be used with an existing proved aero gas-turbine design with only minor modifications to the jet end. The power turbine is a completely separate design, which need not even be in line with the compressor (though it usually is). The complete aero compressor/compressor-turbine unit is known as the 'gas generator', and the separate load-drive unit as the 'power turbine'.
In a single-shaft gas turbine the power turbine is usually coupled to the driven load (a generator- or compressor) through a gearbox. The compressor and power turbine therefore run at the same fixed speed, which is the generator speed multiplied by the gear ratio. In a two-shaft turbine the compressor and the power turbine can, and do, run at different speeds. The power turbine is coupled to the generator and runs at governed speed, but the compressor speed varies with the loading. At light load it will be idling, but as loading increases it increases its own speed up to full load, when it will generally be running much faster man the power turbine.
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Figure 1.5 Two Shaft Gas Turbine Set
1.5
FUEL
Like any other internal combustion engine, a gas turbine can burn gas or liquid fuel (usually diesel oil). Some turbines are designed for single-fuel burning that is, for gas only or liquid only whereas others may have been adapted for 'dual fuel'; they may be set to run on either fuel or, in some gas turbines, on a mixture of both. On oil platforms where gas is available the turbines will be for gas only or dual fuel. If dual, they will normally run on gas, with liquid fuel as a fall-back if gas pressure should fail. If this happens, the changeover from gas to liquid is automatic; the turbine does not stop, but an alarm is given. When gas pressure is restored the change back must sometimes be done by hand in slow time, but on some sets the change back is automatic provided that 'Gas Fuel' had been selected originally and the fuel selector switch had not been moved. There are exceptions to the arrangements described above. In some installations there is no automatic changeover, even from gas to liquid fuel. Gas turbines can operate on a variety of fuels which range from crude oil (with some de-rating of the turbine) through to fuel gas.
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1.6
SPEEDCONTROL
A governor always controls the turbine speed. In single-shaft sets the governor controls the shaft speed, but in two-shaft sets it controls only the power turbine speed and so the speed of the driven load. The gasgenerator shaft is free to take up its own speed, depending on the load, as explained below (see also Figures 1.6 and 1.7). In single-shaft turbines the governor controls speed by regulating the gas control valve or the liquid fuel valve. In two-shaft sets the governor itself is driven from the power turbine shaft but regulates the fuel input to the gas generator. This runs at such a speed as to provide just enough gas to the power turbine to keep it at its correct speed. Thus, as load increases, the gas generator speeds up, but the power turbine stays at constant speed. The skilled operator can detect load changes by the note of a two-shaft machine, but not with a single-shaft. Speed control is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
Figure 1.6 Single shaft Gas Turbine Control
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FIGURE 1.7 TWO SHAFT GAS TURBINE CONTROL.
1.7
STARTING
An external starter must start gas turbines. This may be electric, air-motor or even a diesel engine. For some sets a separate small gas turbine is used, which itself is electrically started. Electric Starting requires a separate battery and charger. Because in single-shaft machines not only the compressor and turbine but also the driven load (usually a generator) and gearbox must all be started together, the starting unit must be relatively heavy, and this precludes electric start, with battery, on any but the smallest machines. On the other hand in a two-shaft set the starter has only to spin up the compressor/turbine unit of the gas generator, so that the starter need only be quite small and is suited to an electric motor. On some of the largest sets the d.c. power for the starting motor is taken not from a battery but is rectified from the set's general a.c. supplies. This requires that auxiliary a.c. supplies for the turbine set shall be available before the set can be started. When the start button is pressed, but before the gas-turbine shaft actually begins to move, automatic circuits put into action a sequence programme which normally includes starting a lubrication pump to pre-lubricate the turbine, gearbox and generator bearings. In some machines the turbine hood is also purged with air to remove any gas present. When the lubricating oil pressure has reached a certain level, the start motor is actuated and begins to rotate and accelerate the turbine shaft (in the case of a two-shaft turbine, the gas-generator shaft only). When it reaches a certain speed, usually about 20%, fuel is admitted to the combustion chamber, which is by now receiving some air from the compressor. Automatic ignition by spark-plug and torch
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follows, and the hot burning gas passes to the power turbine in the case of a single-shaft set, or to the compressor turbine of a two-shaft set. The turbine gradually takes over the job of driving the compressor, and the starting motor steadily becomes off-loaded. When its load falls to a predetermined level, the electric start motor is switched off, or the mechanical start motor un-clutched and stopped. The ignition is also switched off. As the set runs up, a mechanically driven lubricating oil pump begins to deliver lubrication to the bearings. When its pressure reaches a certain level, the electrically driven pump stops automatically. The turbine is now self-sustaining, and the speed continues to build up until it comes under governor control and settles at its correct level. In a two-shaft set the gas-generator speed continues to build Lip, and the hot burning gas from it passes on to the main power turbine, which then starts to move by itself without any mechanical starting. Its speed too builds up until it comes under governor control, when the fuel to the gas generator is cut back and it settles down to its no-load or 'idling' speed. The power turbine, however, is now running at its controlled speed.
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1.8
STOPPING
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To stop the set, fuel is simply cut off, and the set runs down steadily. Part of the stopping sequence includes the starting of the electrically driven lubricating oil pump so that bearing lubrication continues as the set runs down and the mechanical lubricating oil pump becomes less effective. The electric pump continues to run for some time after the set has actually stopped. Some larger sets have a hydraulic ratchet arrangement which slowly turns the turbine rotor, after stopping, for up to 24 hours to prevent 'bowing' of the rotor due to uneven cooling. All sets are arranged so that, when the 'Stop' button is pressed or when a shutdown signal is given for any other reason, the associated generator supply breaker is tripped, if not already open, to off-load the turbine. Sometimes automatic provision is made to off-load the set gradually (except with an emergency stop) before the supply breaker actually trips. 1.9 PROTECTION
The turbine (as distinct from the electric generator) has a number of protective devices to guard against malfunction both during starting and while running. During starting each stage of the sequence is monitored to ensure that it is completed within a certain time; if it is not so completed, the start is 'aborted', and the set, if already moving, is stopped and the appropriate alarm given. During running other protection operates, including such obvious things as over speed, excessive vibration, loss of lubricating oil pressure, high lubricating oil temperature and excess exhaust temperature (which indicates a combustion fault). All these and other malfunctions shut the set down (having also tripped the generator breaker) and give the appropriate alarm. Alarms are visual and audible. The visual alarms are grouped into 'annunciator' lamp boxes on the control board, each lamp window being annotated with the fault it announces. At the onset of a fault the lamp flashes and a buzzer sounds. When the 'Accept' button is pressed the buzzer stops and the lamp burns steadily. It does not go out however until the fault has been cleared; even then a 'Reset' button must be pressed before the set can be started again. If a turbine stops during starting or shuts down during running, it should be possible for the operator to diagnose from the lamp indications the cause of the trouble. On some sets the starting sequence lamps, which merely monitor the starting stages but do not indicate a malfunction, are segregated from the fault lamps. On most platforms the turbine malfunction alarms are repeated in the Electrical Control Room, though they are usually grouped to reduce the number of lamps there.
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One of the most damaging things that can happen to a turbine is failure of lubrication. This can cause bearings to fail at high speed with probable catastrophic damage and danger to personnel. To guard against this all sets have not only the mechanically driven oil pumps and the a.c. electrically driven pumps for starting pre-lubrication, but also a d.c.-driven emergency pump fed from a battery, which operates automatically on failure of lubricating oil pressure. This is a vital piece of equipment, and it must be regularly tested to prove its proper functioning. 1.10 CONTROL
With every gas turbine there is a Local Control Panel, usually adjoining the control panel for the generator. The turbine control panel has instruments to indicate speed, temperatures and pressures at various points and fuel pressure, as well as controls for starting and stopping, for fuel selection and for setting the speed. There are a number of lamps in an annunciator panel to indicate malfunction, and others to indicate successful completion of each starting sequence step. On some larger sets the governor control occupies a complete panel on its own. 1.11 SPEED CONTROL
Control of speed by automatic governor is dealt with in Chapter 5.
1.12
WASHING
Air pollution, especially salt, can cause encrustation of the compressor blades, distorting their aerodynamic form and reducing the efficiency of compression. This shows up as higher exhaust temperature. When this situation occurs (and high exhaust temperature indication is a pointer; the compressor must be 'washed'. Turbine manufacturers make arrangements for this to be done at reduced turbine speed using water, with or without detergent or such as ground walnut husks or bran. The two methods are sometimes known, as 'Crank Soak' (liquids) and 'Abrasive Cleaning' (solids). Details of the recommended methods are given in the manufacturers' operations Maintenance Manuals. 1.13 ANTI-ICING (NOT IN UAE)
In freezing weather the air intake filter screens can become iced up; in this state they can severely restrict the intake of air and cause serious combustion problems. One way of dealing with this is to duct warm air from the engine to the area of the screens. On some makes of turbine this is taken from the exhaust ducting on others it is bled off the later stages of the turbine compressor.
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Blocked screens, whether due to icing or other causes, can bring about problems, and immediate steps should be taken to clear them. One feature which assists the air flow in the short term is the 'blow-in* door. This is a door, usually on the side of the intake and downstream of the screens, which is loosely hinged and is just kept closed by gravity. If the screens become blocked, the differential pressure across them increases, and the lower pressure inside the ducting sucks the door open, so allowing air to bypass the screens until action to clear them can be taken. The opening of a blow-in door gives an alarm co the operator. The door usually has a de-icing heater to prevent its becoming iced up.
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CHAPTER 2 A.C. GENERATORS

2.1 GENERAL
The principle of a.c. generation is fully covered in the manual 'Fundamentals of Electricity 2', where it is developed from Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction to the idea of a modern generator with a rotating field and a stationary armature. This chapter assumes familiarity with that concept and deals with the actual hardware. Chapter 3 discusses the various methods of excitation. Figure 2.1 shows, in cutaway form, a typical a.c. generator in the 15megawatt (20 000 hp) size range. The generator proper is enclosed in a box or 'hood'; this is both to exclude noise and to contain the closed ventilation system. It also assists purging before starting if gas has been present. The rotating parts are colored yellow and the stator blue.
Figure 2.1 Typical A.C. Generator
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The armature (normally the stator) windings carry the load current, which varies with the loading. These windings have resistance and generate heat at a rate proportional to the square of the current (W = I2 R). The field's exciting winding (normally on the rotor) also carries current. It too has resistance and generates I2 R heat. These two sources of heat, together with iron loss heating, combine to raise the temperature of the machine. All the heat must be taken away by the cooling system if the temperature rise is to be held below the designed limit. Since the stator heating varies with the square of the load current, doubling the load current gives rise to a four-fold increase in the stator heat generated. It is important therefore that the machine never becomes excessively overloaded. If it does, the cooling system may be unable to handle the heat, and dangerously high temperatures may result. The generator is cooled by a shaft-driven fan, which circulates air in a closed air circuit through all the windings. The air, in circulating, passes through air water hear exchanger. Here the heated water is discharged and the cooled air re circulated, as shown by the arrows in the figure. Temperature detectors at various points give warning of overheating; if it is seriously high and continues unchecked, the whole set is usually shut down. If the cooling system should break down for any reason, panels in the hood can be removed and the machine cooled by natural ventilation through the fan. Under these circumstances however the loading on the generator may have to be curtailed to a value well below its normal rating. The stator (armature) carries a 3-phase winding consisting of insulated conductors in slots round the inside face. These conductors must be insulated up to the full working voltage of the system. Serious or sustained excess temperature of the winding will cause this insulation to deteriorate or even to break down completely, resulting in an internal flashover and possibly complete write-off of the generator. The rotor windings, which provide the field, operate at a much lower voltage may be below 100V-d.c. So insulation is less of a problem. Nevertheless, if the automatic voltage regulator calls for too much voltage and therefore too much fields current it is still possible to overheat and damage the rotor.
2.2
ROTOR CONSTRUCTION
A.C. generators with rotating fields have rotors which fall into two types: salient pole and cylindrical. They are both shown in Figure 2.2. The salient-pole type is illustrated in Figure 2.2(a). It is common with offshore generators and also with the smaller sizes onshore. It consists of a solid iron motor body (square in the case of a 4-pole rotor) onto which pole pieces are bolted. Each pole piece carries one of the field windings as shown in the figure. The poles terminate in pole shoes which spread out the magnetic field in the air gap, but it should be noted that with the salient-pole arrangement
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the air gap, and so the air gap flux, is far from uniform. Some rotors have damper windings embedded in the pole shoes, but these are not shown in Figure 2.2(a).
FIGURE 2.2 A.C. GENERATOR ROTORS. The salient-pole rotor is commonly used with low speed while the cylindrical rotor normally used with higher speed. The cylindrical rotor (sometimes also called 'turbo type) is, as the name implies, completely cylindrical and has no projections. It is illustrated in Figure 2.2(b). The field windings are embedded and wedged into slots in the rotor surface in a similar way to the stator slots. (The overhang of the end windings has been exaggerated in the figure to make the construction clearer.) The rotor slots cover only part of the surface and are disposed either side of the poles, the whole field winding forming a spiral around each pole centre. The air gap is uniform, and consequently the air gap flux due to the field winding is almost purely sinusoidal around the gap, being maximum opposite each pole centre. The smooth surface also results in low windage resistance. Cylindrical rotors are very sound mechanically and are favoured for large, high-speed generators (3 000 or 3 600 rev/min), where centrifugal forces on a salient-pole rotor would present severe problems. Consequently cylindrical rotors are common with 2-pole generators and are sometimes used with 4-
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pole types. They are never used with six poles or more, where the rotor construction would become far too difficult.
2.3 INSULATION
Generator windings are insulated against the highest voltages to which they may be subjected, and the insulation must withstand a certain specified maximum temperature without deteriorating. There are many insulating materials with different and often conflicting properties. They are grouped into a number of classes, depending on the maximum temperature to which they will be exposed and on the insulating material used. The classification is as follows (in accordance with BS 2757 ).
Class Y A E B F H C.
Typical Insulating Material Cotton, silk, paper, etc., un impregnated Impregnated cotton, silk, etc.; paper; enamel Paper laminates; epoxies Glass fibre, asbestos (un impregnated ); mica Glass fibre, asbestos, epoxy impregnated Glass fibre, asbestos, silicone impregnated Mica, ceramics, glass, with inorganic bonding
Ultimate Temperature 90C 105C 120C 130C 155C 180C > I80C
Note: Asbestos no longer uses because of environmental conditions It should be noted that the classification letters do not follow an alphabetical sequence. This is because there were originally only three classes 'A', 'B' and 'C'. Later intermediate classes were added, and it was decided not to disturb the original well-understood three. Most platform and shore-installed generators are Class 'B' or 'F'. Certain of the higher-temperature insulation materials may be hygroscopic and therefore not always suitable in any particular environment, particularly where dampness is severe. It should be particularly noted that the classification depends on the ultimate temperature to which the insulating material may be subjected, for it is this which determines whether or not it will suffer damage when heated. It does not depend on temperature rise alone, for instance, the ambient temperature is 40C, a Class 'B' material may be used if the designed temperature rise will not exceed 90C, so making the ultimate maximum temperature 130"C. Designed temperature rises therefore must take into account the greatest expected ambient temperature in which the machine will operate.
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2.4
COOLING
All generators used on platforms and in shore installations are air cooled. The air is circulated past the stator and rotor windings by a fan on the generator shaft. The warmed air itself may be discharged to atmosphere and not used again ('Circulating Air' or 'CA'); or it may be water cooled in a separate cooler with a forced water circulation ('Circulating Air, Forced Water or 'CAFW'); or in a radiator-type cooler ('Circulating Air, Natural Water' or CANW). There are usually alarms if the air or water temperatures exceed certain limits. All the largest gas-turbine generators are CAFW cooled. The above letter coding was formerly in general use and is well understood. Recently however a new international coding system for cooling methods has been introduced for all rotating machines (BS 4999, Part 21) and is likely to be met with on modern drawings. It consists of the letters 'IC' followed by two digits The meanings of these digits are given below for typical platform or shore-installed generators; First Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
7
Second Digit 0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 free convection Self-circulation Integral component mounted on separate shaft Dependent component mounted on the machine Integral independent component Independent component mounted on the machine Independent and separate device or coolant system pressure Relative displacement
8 9
free circulation Inlet duct ventilated Outlet duct ventilated Inlet and outlet duct ventilated Frame surface cooled Integral heat exchanger (using surrounding medium) Machine-mounted heat exchanger (using surrounding medium) Integral heat exchanger (not using surrounding medium) Machine-mounted heat exchanger (not using surrounding medium) Separately mounted heat exchanger
Where it is desired to specify the nature of a coolant, the following letter code is used in conjunction with the cooling code:
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When nothing but air is used, the letter 'A' may be omitted. Thus a generator cooled by air with an internal fan and with an air/water heat exchanger using pressurised water from the platform system would be classified IC87, or IC8A/7W, instead of the former CAFW. The larger generators also have thermocouple-type temperature detectors embedded at various points in the windings. If anyone of them exceeds a certain temperature, an alarm is given on the control panel. The panel also has facilities for the operator to scan all the detectors in turn and to read off the actual temperatures.
2.5
EXCITATION AND VOLTAGE CONTROL
The different forms of excitation and automatic voltage control are dealt with in Chapter 3.
2.6
NEUTRAL EARTHING RESISTOR
The star points of all high voltage generators on platforms are earthed through a current- limiting 'neutral earthing resistor' (NER). Its purpose is to limit the fault current flowing through the generator if an earth fault develops anywhere on the system. The N E R is separately mounted near the generator and usually consists of a frame containing a heavy grid-type resistance element capable of carrying a large current for a short time. This short-time rating is possible because any heavy fault current will be quickly cleared by the earth-fault protection. NER are therefore given a maximum current rating for a maximum time For example 200A for 30 sec, they may also have a continuous current rating For example 25A cont.- to cover small earth leakage and harmonic currents which are not large enough to operate the protection. Their ohmic value goes down to about 10 ohms for the largest off shore generators. The NER unit sometimes contains also a current transformer to measure the presence of any earth fault current in order to initiate the protection
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INSULATED BEARINGS Bearings of a large machine arc often insulated to prevent stray currents from circulating through them. Such currents can arise from emfs being generated in the rotor shaft due to stray magnetic fields. Under fault conditions these stray fields can bc very large. Figure 2.5(a) shows how such currents may flow through the bearings. FIGURE 2.5
INSULATION OF BEARINGS. These currents, if allowed to flow, would arc across the bearing surface and cause small craters, which would eventually destroy the bearings. Figure 2.5 shows pedestal sleeve bearings, hut the same principles apply to ball and roller bearings. The current path of Figure 2.5(a) can be broken by insulating one or both bearings the insulation may be at the bearing housing or, more commonly, beneath the pedestal where it seats on the bed plate stool as shown in Figure 2.5(b). The insulation of only one bearing is more usual, but insulating both allows the insulation to be checked. For reasons of safety the shaft must be at earth potential. Consequently on most machines one bearing (the un insulated end if only one is insulated) is fitted with an earth strap, one end of which terminates in a brush running on the dry shaft. If the generator is of the 'over- hung' type with only one outboard bearing, such as with certain diesel-generator sets, this bearing is insulated and the earthing of the rotor shaft is made through the engine and coupling. The insulation of the pedestal is carried out by a shim of insulating material between base of the pedestal and its stool. The holding-down bolts are bushed with insulating material. Sometimes two insulating shims are used with a thin metal sheet between them. This enables the insulation resistance of each part to be measured separately, since the shaft and bed plate are normally both at earth potential. It is important that, where a bearing pedestal is insulated, no waste material or tools should be allowed to lean against it, as they would short-circuit the insulation.
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CHAPTER 3 GENERATOR EXCITATION AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

3.1 GENERAL
The excitation of a generators field system has already been mentioned in Chapter 2, as it is not possible to describe a.c. generators without referring to their field system and excitation. This chapter discusses the three practical methods of field excitation, which may be encountered.
Fig.3.1 A.C. GENERATOR EXCITATION 3.2 CONVENTIONAL EXCITATION
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Fig. 3.1(a) shows the conventional method described in the manual Fundamentals of Electricity 2, where a driven d.c. exciter (in this case beltdriven) feeds its d.c. output through slip rings to the main generator field. The output voltage is sensed by an automatic voltage regulator (AVR), which regulates the exciters field so that the exciter output holds the main field at whatever level is necessary to maintain the generator output voltage constant. AVRs are discussed later in this chapter. It will be seen that the control of voltage is a closed loop, and, like any other closed loop servo- mechanism it is subject to certain errors. 3.3 STATIC EXCITATION
Fig. 3.1 (b) shows a development where the rotating d.c. exciter is replaced by a static electronic exciter, which usually incorporates the AVR. Voltage sensing and excitation power are derived from the main generator output; excitation current is controlled by the AVR, rectified and fed in to the main field through slip rings, just as in the conventional case. This is called the static exciter method, and it should be noted that it still requires brushes and slip rings. It is not found on platforms but is widely used onshore, although not to any great extent in oil installations. 3.4 BRUSHLESS EXCITATION (GENERAL CASE)
A further significant development is shown in Fig.3.1 . Here the shaft-driven rotating exciter has been restored, but it now takes the form of an a.c. generator of the fixed-field type mounted on the main shaft itself. Its a.c. output is taken through connections inside the shaft, through a diode bridge which rotates with the shaft, to the main rotating field of the generator. The field is thus excited by d.c. without the need for brushes and slip rings. It will be seen that this exciter cannot be belt-driven; it must be integral with the main shaft. As with static excitation, voltage sensing and excitation power is derived from the main generator output. Excitation current is controlled by the AVR, rectified and fed in to the fixed field of the a.c. exciter. The a.c. output of the exciter follows the AVR signal, and its output current is rectified by the diodes which rotate with the shaft; the d.c. output from them is in turn passed to the generators main field. The field current thus follows the AVR signal almost exactly. It will be seen that the only link between the fixed and moving parts is the magnetic one between the exciter field and its rotating armature: no slip rings and brushes are needed. The method is for this reason called brushless excitation, and it will be found, in one form or another, an all platform and onshore main and auxiliary generators. The principal advantage of brushless excitation over the other two types is that the absence of brush gear and slip rings greatly eases the maintenance problem. And to avoid sparks that can cause fire in the flammable atmosphere
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3.5
BEHAVIOUR UNDER SHORT CIRCUIT
In the conventional case (Fig. 3.1 (a) excitation power is derived from a separate d.c. generator which is not affected by the voltage on the main generators output lines. However, with both static excitation and the brushless excitation described above (Fig. 3.1(b) and (c) excitation power (as well as sensing) is derived from the output of the generator itself true shunt excitation. Under normal conditions this is quite satisfactory, but under short-circuit conditions the generators output voltage will drop heavily it might even vanish. Under this low-voltage output situation the AVR will try to force up the excitation, but just at the moment it wishes to do so, it has no power available. Under these conditions a collapse of system voltage is possible. To overcome this a method is employed which makes use of the short-circuit currents themselves to provide the missing excitation.
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Fig.3.2 A.C. GENERATOR EXCITATION (2)
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3.6
BRUSH LESS EXCITATION (WITHOUT PILOT EXCITER)
Three heavy current transformers are arranged in the generator output lines as shown in Figure 3.2(a). Their secondary outputs are rectified and passed to the main exciter's field either in parallel with the normal excitation (as shown) or sometimes to a separate field winding in the exciter. Although they take the form of current transformers, these units, when used in this application, are referred to as 'short-circuit CTs'. Under short-circuit conditions when the generator output voltage is very low, the short-circuit CTs pick up the heavy short-circuit currents and, after they have been rectified, use them to boost the main exciter field, and so the main field. This serves to maintain the generator output voltage under short-circuit conditions - a necessary requirement in network operation so that protection may operate reliably. Short-circuit CTs are used generally with medium-sized generators with either static or brushless excitation where no 'pilot exciter' is fitted (see below) and where excitation power is drawn from the generator's output. This applies to most basic services generators on platforms and to some main sets.
3.7 Brushless Excitation ( with pilot exciter) With large brushless generators a different method is used. Instead of drawing excitation power from the generator output, the AVR has only a voltagesensing connection. The arrangement is shown in Figure 3.2 (b) The exciters field is powered independently from a separate high-frequency inductor-type generator called a 'sub-exciter' or 'pilot exciter'. It has permanent magnets as rotating field and is driven by the main shaft. It also provides operating power to the AVR itself. Only the voltage sensing leads to the AVR are taken from the main generator output. The AVR regulates and rectifies the power from the pilot exciter to the main exciter field. This in turn regulates the a.c. exciter output, and thence the d.c. rectified input to the main field through the diodes, to hold the generator output voltage constant. The pilot exciter is mounted on the main shaft, usually immediately next to the main exciter not exactly as in Figure 3.2(b), which is schematic only). It is usually arranged in a single enclosure with the main exciter and the diode plates. Figure 3.3 shows this arrangement. As in the conventional case, the excitation of the generator is now independent of the generators output voltage and so is maintained even under short-circuit conditions and without the use of short-circuit CTs. This is the arrangement on almost all platform main generators.
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3.8
THE DIODE BRIDGE
In Figures 3.1(c) and 3.2(a) and (b) the diodes are shown for clarity as inside the shaft between the exciter and the main generator. The exciter output is 3phase, and the diodes are in fact a 3-phase full-wave bridge, requiring six diode elements. Clearly they cannot be buried in the middle of the shaft, and in practice they are mounted on a rotating plate on the extreme end of the shaft at the exciter end, as shown in Figure 3.3 in green. This makes them easily accessible for inspection, testing or replacement.
Fig.3.3 GENERATOR AND DIODE PLATE A point on the use of diodes should be noted. If one of the six should fail, either by open or short-circuiting, harmonic currents flow in the main field circuit. These harmonics are reflected into the field circuit of the main exciter and are detected by a 'diode failure' relay tuned to respond to the principal harmonic frequency; the alarm (or trip) signal from this relay is time-delayed by 10 or 15 seconds to prevent false operation. A diode failure would have no discernible effect, from the consumer's point of view, on the generator's output voltage. The reduced d.c. output from the diode bridge with one diode faulty would lower the main field's d.c. current slightly, and with it the main generator's output voltage. This would be immediately detected by the AVR, which would increase the excitation until the voltage was restored, and the consumer would not be aware of it. However, the remaining healthy diodes might then be somewhat overloaded, and the situation should be corrected.
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With an open-circuited diode the condition would not be serious. The increase of exciter field current would be about 15%, which can be provided by the AVR and carried by the exciter field for some time. Nevertheless, it should be corrected as soon as possible. A short-circuited diode however is more severe, calling for a much greater increase of exciter field current, The AVR and exciter could well be damaged if this condition were allowed to persist. It is usual for the diode failure relay to give an alarm only, not to trip the breaker and shut down the set. When this alarm appears, generation should be transferred to another machine as soon as opportunity offers; the faulty set should then be stopped and the failed diode replaced. On some sets, however, the diode failure relay actually trips the set. CAUTION WHEN MEGGER TESTING A GENERATOR FIELD SYSTEM ALL DIODES MUST FIRST BE DISCONNECTED OR SHORTCIRCUITED TO PREVENT THE MEGGER VOLTAGE BEING APPLIED ACROSS THEM AND BREAKING THEM DOWN.
3.9
REGULATION RESPONSE TIME
A further important point resulting from the use of diodes should be noted. When output voltage falls, it is sensed by the AVR and the exciter field is increased. The increased exciter output voltage is passed by the diodes to appear as an increased d.c. voltage across the main field. This causes an increase of main field current at a rate depending on the R/L ratio of the whole field exciter loop. Therefore the increase is not instantaneous but, because the exciter resistance is appreciable, R is large enough to allow a reasonably quick response. In order to improve the response time when there is a drop of output voltage, the AVR is made to give the main exciter field a considerable boost, causing a big jump in its a.c. output voltage and so a large rise in the d.c. voltage applied through the diodes to the main field. It helps to overcome the field's natural sluggishness and to build it up more quickly. This is known as field forcing'. When the field has reached its new value and the output a.c. voltage is restored, the AVR removes the excess forcing current from the exciter's field. However, if there is an output voltage rise (for example due to the throwing-off of a large load) it is sensed by the AVR and the exciter field is reduced. The reduced exciter output voltage is now lower than that of the main field, and it is blocked by the diodes. The main field current, flowing in the highly inductive field system, 'flywheels' round the closed circuit formed by the field and the diodes. It decays slowly because it is damped only by the comparatively small resistance of the main field itself (small R/L ratio, and therefore longer time constant L/R.
Thus in a business system, whereas the response to a drop in output voltage is reasonably quick, reaction to a rise is appreciably slower. This is particularly
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significant after a short circuit has been cleared. During the period of the fault the voltage will have dropped and the AVR will have forced to the excitation, probably to its limit. When the fault is cleared this over excitation shows as a large overvoltage on the whole system, which is comparatively slow to recover. This could involve a risk to burnout of lamps or delicate apparatus.
3.10 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS (AVR) AVRs are of many different makes, and various types are found on platforms and onshore installations. All, however, have certain features in common when used with brushless generators. They are nowadays entirely electronic; they take their operating power from either the main output or the shaft-driven high-frequency subexciter (typically at 400 Hz), but they sense the voltage to be controlled from the output side of the generator before the circuit-breaker terminals. In highvoltage generators this sensing circuit is taken through a measuring voltage transformer of at least Class 0.5 accuracy The detailed electronic circuits are not discussed here, but power from the main output or the high frequency pilot-exciter is rectified through thyristors, which are controlled by the voltage-sensing circuits to provide the correct d.c. current to the field of the main a.c. exciter.
3.10
AVR SET-POINT
Like any closed-loop servo, an automatic voltage regulating system holds the voltage constant, within stated errors, at whatever level it has been set. This level is referred to as the set-point In an electronic AVR the set point is adjusted by a variable resistance ( rheostat), in the appropriate part of the circuit. On some generators this rheostat is outside the AVR proper and is mounted on the adjacent generator control panel for manual control; it is usually marked Raise Volts/Lower Volts. On other makes of generator it is arranged for remote control from some distant panel. In such a case the rheostat is motor-driven, the motor being controlled forward or backward by a 2-way-and-off spring-loaded switch marked as above. When used with a single generator, the AVR set-point control does indeed regulate the machines voltage output, but when used on a generator running in parallel with others, the prime function of the AVR control is not so much to regulate voltage but to adjust the sharing of reactive load between the generators, despite the marking of the control knob or switch. It does, however, have some effect on voltage level, but this is only secondary.
3.11
A.C.GENERATOR VOLTAGE REGULATION When a load is applied to the terminals of a generator previously running at no load and without AVR control, the terminal voltage will drop by an amount
Vo - V
100%
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which depends on the nature of the load. It is usually quoted at full rated load that is, at the full-load rated current and rated power factor and is expressed as a percentage of the no-load or system voltage. Thus, if Vo is the no-load voltage and V the generator terminal voltage at full rated load and power factor and with the excitation unaltered, then Is the percentage full-load regulation. In practice of course the reduced voltage V would be immediately detected by
Vo
the AVR, which would increase the excitation until the terminal voltage was restored to the system value Vo.
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CHAPTER 4 DIESEL GENERATOR SETS
4.1
GENERAL
In large onshore installations power is derived from the National Grid. On platforms the main generating sets are always driven by gas turbine, using the platforms own gas as fuel when available, with liquid fuel as an alternative in some cases. Onshore the grid supply can sometimes fails, and on platforms main generators may also fail, or under certain conditions they may be deliberately shut down. In either there is loss of main power supply, and it is important that there should be immediately available a quick-starting alternative supply and this means diesel generation.
All platforms, and most large onshore installations, have one or more dieselgenerator sets. In many cases they are arranged to start automatically on loss of main voltage and to switch themselves onto an emergency switchboard. It is never the intention that such generators should replace the lost main ones, but they should provide limited power for only really essential services such as some degree of lighting, safety, instrumentation, communications, fire and gas detection and so on.
Diesel-driven generators are also required for black-start conditions when no main generators are running out whose auxiliaries must be run in order to start them. Such diesel sets must of course be entirely self-contained, requiring no external assistance to start them.
The construction of a diesel engine is well known and will not be described here. It is usually multi-cylinder, turbo-charged and jacket-cooled through a water/air radiator, sometimes assisted by a cooling fan. It is usually batterystarted, and some sets have an alternative hydraulic starter, hand pumped, for use if the battery becomes discharged, for example after a prolonged shutdown. It is vitally important for diesels which drive emergency generators which are automatically started that the batteries are maintained fully charged ready for an instant start; also that practice starts should be exercised regularly.
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4.2
BASIC SERVICES
In all installations the really essential services, which it is vital to keep running even when the normal main power has been lost, are offshore termed Basic Services (it called also essential services or emergency). The diesel-driven generator is called the Basic Services Generator and its switchboard the Basic Services Switchboard, both shown in red in Figure 6.1. The system is usually at low voltage (415V), and positive steps are taken to see that the basic services generator does not feed back into any non-basic low-voltage services or into the high-voltage system. (There are however some exceptions to this practice.) Under normal conditions on an offshore platform the basic services switchboard is part of the complete 415V distribution system. It is in continuous use and is normally fed through an interconnector from a main 415V board, as shown in Fig. 4.1. If power on the main board fails the basic services board is isolated from it and can be fed direct by its basic services generator, which normally has sufficient capacity for that board and no more. The generator may start automatically on failure of the main 415V power, but quite commonly it must be manually started. The incomer circuit-breaker from the generator, is interlocked with the incomer from the main 415V board so that both cannot be closed at the same time; therefore the generator can never
Fig. 4.1--Typical Basic Services and Black Start Generator Arrangement
feed back into the remainder of the 415V system or, through the transformer, into the HV system (other than with the exceptions mentioned above).
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Auto starting is achieved by providing the basic service busbar with an undervoltage relay, which causes the interconnector to open on loss of main supply and the basic service generator to start. When the generator has started and run up, it closes its incomer breaker automatically and in so doing locks out the interconnector. Even when main power is restored, the interconnector breaker cannot be reclosed onto the basic services board until the operator has first opened the generator incomer breaker, so lifting the interlock. The normal interconnector incomer breaker can then be closed, and the system reverts to normal. The basic services generator is afterwards stopped manually and left in a condition to restart whenever needed. Where the start is manual no undervoltage trip is provided, but instead the act of manually closing the generator incomer breaker also trips and locks out the interconnector incomer breaker. When power is restored, the process is reversed manually. With regard to the exceptions referred to above, on some of the newer platforms larger diesel-generator sets are fitted which have a capacity appreciably greater than that needed only for the basic services switchboard and its essential loads. In those cases some limited feedback into the system is allowed to power other less essential but still important loads, such as utilities. In that case the interlock between the generator and interconnector breaker is not fitted.
4.3
AVAILABILITY OF BASIC SERVICES GENERATOR
A basic services generator is nearly always needed in a hurry, whether automatically or manually started. It is therefore always left in a ready-to-run state. If automatic, the selector switch is left on Auto, even if it had been turned to Local for the previous manual stopping. Ready-use fuel tanks are kept full, oil and water levels correct, battery fully charged and heaters on. These things are checked daily and always after the machine has been run. Where basic services generating sets are automatically started on loss of main supply, this feature is regularly tested to ensure that it functions correctly. Manual starts on all auxiliary sets are also regularly exercised.
4.4
BASIC SERVICES GENERATOR UTILITIES
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Most diesel engines are electrically started from a local battery, usually 24V. When the engine is not in use this battery is kept fully charged by a charger fed from the main a.c. system. An engine-driven (d.c. Generator) charges the battery when the engine is running. Basic services diesel generator unit is provided with ready-use fuel tanks with a capacity sufficient for at least 24 hours full-load running. As main suppliers are assumed to have been lost, fuel pumping facilities may not be available, and it may be necessary to refill the tank by hand-pumping from barrels. Each diesel generator unit is provided with a local control panel on or near the engine mounting, from which the output can be controlled and monitored for speed and voltage. No remote control is exercised from the Electrical Control Room on the generator and interconnector circuit breakers. All control is local, but there is usually some remote instrumentation in the Electrical Control Room.( some remote actions may be available as exception of the above)
Typical Emergency Generator Circuit
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CHAPTER 5 SYNCHRONISING OF GENERATORS

5.1 GENERAL
The idea of synchronising is not new. Every time you change gear in a car you synchronise the engine to the road speed so that, when the clutch is let in, both shafts are running at the same speed and there is no jerk. Conversely, if you synchronise badly there is a jerk and possibly a lot of noise. The same applies with electrical machines when they are put in parallel. Only offshore installations have main and subsidiary generators. Onshore there are only emergency generators, usually only one per installation. Consequently this chapter applies only to offshore installations. 5.2 D.C. GENERATORS
The simplest case of synchronisation occurs with d.c. generators, Figure 3.1 represents two d.c. generators, both on open circuit but about to be paralleled by a switch. Each is separately excited such that machine 'A' has an open- circuit voltage VA and machine 'B' VB. Machine "A' is assumed to be the 'running' generator, and machine "B' is the 'incoming' generator which is to be paralleled to A'. Before closing the switch which puts the two generators in parallel it is necessary only to ensure that their voltages are the same - that is, VB = VA; then the switch may be closed, and no sudden current will flow - there will be no electrical jerks'. If the voltages were different, suppose that VA is greater than VB. On closing the switch there will be a closed loop with the emfs VA and VB opposing one another. Since VA is greater than VB, there is a net clockwise emf in the loop, which will cause a clockwise current Ic to flow round it (shown in red), limited only by the resistances of the two armatures. This current appears suddenly as the switch is closed, putting a sudden load onto generator 'A', so causing it to slow with a jerk, and causing generator B' to motor, making it accelerate with a jerk. This circulating current, which occurs on closing the switch whenever VA and VB are not equal, is also called the 'synchronising current'. To avoid it and its consequent jerking effect on the system, the incoming machine voltage must first be matched to the voltage of the running machine normally done by trimming the field of the incoming generator.
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5.3
A.C.GENERATORS
With a.c. generators the problem is more complicated. It can be seen in the d.c. case how a circulating current is caused by differing opposing voltages. In d.c. this is straightforward, but in a.c. a voltage difference can be caused either by differing voltage amplitudes or, for the same voltage amplitudes, by differing phase. In Figure 5.2(a) the two voltages VA and VB are in phase with one another, but their amplitudes are different. At any instant such as time T, the instantaneous voltage of machine A' is TA and that of machine 'B' is TB. Therefore there is, at that instant, a voltage difference AB which will cause a circulating current to flow between the generators when the paralleling switch is closed. This is true at any instant other than a common voltage zero. In Figure 5.2(b) the two voltages have equal amplitudes but are displaced in phase, VB lagging on VA. At any instant such as time T the instantaneous voltage of machine 'A' is TA and that of machine 'B' is TB. Although the two voltages are equal in amplitude, there is still an instantaneous difference of voltage AB which will cause a circulating current to flow between the generators when the paralleling switch is closed. Therefore, even though the voltage levels, (as read by voltmeters) are the same, a difference of phase will still cause a circulating, or 'synchronising', current to flow between the machines, causing one to accelerate and the other to decelerate and to jerk them into phase with each other as the switch is closed.
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Fig. 5.2 Voltage and Phase Difference
Therefore, to prevent sudden circulating currents occurring and to achieve smooth paralleling, the voltages of both machines must first be equalised and the machines then brought into phase. This is described in para.5.4. There is one further requirement. As when changing gear in a car, the two generator speeds must also be equalised before paralleling. If this is not done, the faster machine will be jerked back and the slower jerked forward, which could cause serious mechanical problems in large machines, as well as to the couplings, gear trains and prime movers. If the two machines are running at different speeds before paralleling, this will show as different (frequencies on the frequency meters. Therefore a preliminary to synchronising is to equalise as nearly as possible not only the machine voltages but also their frequencies, using the switchboard voltmeters and frequency meters.
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5.4
SYNCHRONSING A.C.GENERATORS
It is assumed that one machine 'A' (the 'running' generator) is already in service on the busbars and is on load, and that a second machine 'B' (the 'incoming' generator) has been started and run up and is ready to be put in parallel with 'A' in order to share its load. Before this can be done the incoming generator 'B' must be synchronised with the running machine 'A'. As already described, the first step is to match the incoming to the running voltage by reference to the voltmeters on the two generator control boards, and by using the incoming voltage regulator to trim it. Similarly the incoming frequency is matched to the running frequency by reference to the two frequency meters and by trimming the incoming speed regulator. Note that the running machine controls should not be touched - the incoming machine is always matched to the running, not vice versa. It now remains to bring the generators into phase. Even after matching the frequencies by meter, the speeds will still not be exactly equal, and one machine will be slowly overtaking the other. As this occurs, their phase relationship will be steadily, but slowly, changing. The idea is to make this take place as slowly as possible and, as they momentarily pass through the inphase' state, to catch them at that point, to close the paralleling switch and to lock them there. There are two ways in which the correct phase may be detected - the first is by lamps, and the other is by an instrument called a synchroscope. 5.5 LAMP SYNCHRONISING 5.5.1 The 2-Lamp Method Synchronising by lamps makes use of the circuit shown in Figure 5.3; two lamps in series are connected across the same phase of each generator. Only when the two systems are in phase is the voltage across the lamps continuously zero, and both lamps are out. At all other times there is a voltage difference, and the lamps glow. This is known as the 'lamps dark' method of synchronising. The voltage phase vectors of both generators are shown. Machine No 1 is the 'running' and its vectors are in full line. Machine No 2 is the 'incoming' and its vectors are dotted. It is approaching synchronism with No 1.
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Fig. 5.3 Lamp Synchronising (2-Lamp Method) When the machine frequencies are nearly equal, the lamps are switched on and alternately glow and go out, giving a slow flashing appearance. The nearer the frequencies are to being equal, the slower the lamp flashing period. Therefore to achieve phase matching, the incoming machine's speed is slowly trimmed, until the lamps are flashing very slowly; then, as they are changing from bright to dark, the operator places his hand over the breaker control button or handle and, at the moment when the lamps go completely out, operates it to close the breaker. The lamps then stay out, but they should be switched off after completing the synchronising. NOTE The lamps could be connected to burn at their brightest, instead of being dark, when the systems are in phase, but this 'lamps bright' method is seldom used today. It is easier to detect the exact point of 'no light' in a lamp than to estimate when it is at its brightest. The 'lamps dark' method is almost universally found. It is necessary to use two lamps in series because, when the systems are fully out of phase (lamps at brightest), the voltage difference is then double the system phase voltage.
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5.5.2 The 3-Lamp Method An alternative method, know as 3-lamp synchronising is found on many platforms. It is shown in Figure 5.4. The three lamps are connected as shown: No.1 (yellow-to-yellow), No.2 (blue-to-red) and No.3 (red-to-blue). In the centre diagram the full lines refer to generator A (R1, Y1 and B1), and the dotted lines to generator B (R2, Y2 and B2). Machine B is shown approaching synchronism with machine A. With the lamps so connected, the voltage across No.1 lamp (Y1-Y2) is small, and the lamp glows dimly. The voltages across No.2 and No.3 lamps (B1-R2-B2) are large, and both lamps are bright. As synchronism is reached (left-hand of the three lowest diagrams), No.1 lamp goes out and the other two have equal brightness. When the two generators are 120o out of synchronism (centre of the three diagrams) it can be seen that it is No.2 lamp (B1-R2) which has no voltage and goes out. 120o later (right-hand diagram) No. 3 lamp (R1-B2) goes out.
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Fig. 3.4 Lamp Synchronising (3-Lamp Method)
Thus, as generator 'B' catches up with generator 'A', each lamp goes out in turn, and at a decreasing rate, as synchronism is approached. Finally, at synchronism, No.1 lamp remains extinguished long enough for the generator breaker to be closed. The lamps are arranged either in a triangle with No.1 at the top, or in a line with No.1 in the centre. They may be lettered 'A', 'B' and 'C' instead of being numbered. Depending on whether the order of going out is clockwise or anti-clockwise with the triangular arrangement, or left-toright or right-to-left with the in-line arrangement, the operator can determine whether the incoming generator is fast or slow - which cannot be done with the 2-lamp method.
5.6
SYNCHROSCOPE
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The synchroscope method is normally used on those offshore installations where they are provided, but the synchronising lamps are often retained as a fall-back in case the synchroscope should fail. Therefore synchronising by lamp should be regularly exercised where this facility is available.
Fig.5.5 SYNCHROSCOPE A typical synchroscope is shown in Fig. 5.5. It is an instrument with a movement similar to that of a power-factor meter, but with the two windings fed from the running and incoming voltages. Whereas in a power-factor meter the current/voltage phase relationship is fixed and the pointer is stationary, in a synchroscope the phase relationship between the two voltages is constantly changing and the pointer rotates continuously, the direction of movement depending on whether the incoming machine is rotating faster or slower than the running. The face is marked with arrows denoting FAST or SLOW; these terms always refer to the incoming generator. When the pointer passes through the 12 o Clock position, the machines are momentarily in phase. (Some synchroscope are marked + and -. The plus sign corresponds to FAST and the minus to SLOW).
5.7
SYNCHRONISING AT A SWITCHBOARD
Most switchboards control two or more generators, and some have section breakers or interconnectors to other switchboards, any one of which may have to be synchronised with running machines. It would not be economic to have separate synchroscope for each one, as it is used only infrequently. The practice is therefore to have one synchroscope (usually with back-up lamps) in a central or conspicuous position on or near the switchboard together with selector switches whereby any chosen machine may be made the incomer. Selection may be by manual switch, key or plug. The running side is usually taken from the busbar. Where the switchboard handles high voltage the incoming and running voltage signals are taken through voltage transformers. The synchroscope is provided with fuses and an isolating switch, as it is not good practice to leave it in circuit when it is not in use.
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To use the synchroscope, having selected which is to be the incoming generator, the voltages and frequencies are first matched as already described in para. 5.4. The synchroscope is then switched on; its pointer will be rotating. The incoming speed regulator is trimmed until the pointer is moving very slowly in the FAST direction. As it next approaches the 12 o'clock position, the hand is placed over the breaker control button or handle and, just before the pointer reaches 12 o'clock, it is operated to close the breaker. The synchroscope will then stop and remain locked in the 12 o'clock position as the generators remain in synchronism. Finally, the synchroscope must be switched off. The reason why the incoming generator should be running the faster is that, when the breaker is closed, it will immediately take up a small part of the load. If it were running slower, that load would be negative - that is, the machine would 'motor' - and a reverse power situation would exist. The generator's reverse power protection might then cause the breaker to trip. 5.8 AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONISING
Most offshore switchboards are provided with an automatic synchronising feature. This consists of a number of relays (usually in a single case) which compare the incoming and running voltages and frequencies as well as their phase relation. Should any of these be outside limits, the incoming voltage regulator or speed regulator is automatically trimmed. Only when all three are within predetermined limits is a signal given automatically to the circuit breaker to close. Here again there is usually only one auto-synchronising unit to each switchboard; it is connected automatically to whichever machine is being started so long as the synchronising selector switch is set to AUTO. Auto synchronising is usually reserved for generators only. All other synchronising for example across section breakers or interconnectors or on LV switchboards - is normally by hand. 5.9 CHECK SYNCHRONISING
In many instances, particularly with smaller generators and in the cases just mentioned, automatic synchronising is not used, and the exercise must be carried out manually by lamp or synchroscope. In such cases there is a danger that, if the manual synchronising is carried out unskilfully or by an operator under instruction, the switch could be closed at the wrong instant and severe damage could result to expensive machinery.
This can be prevented by 'check synchronising'. The equipment is similar to that used for auto-synchronising, but it does not automatically trim the incoming voltage, frequency and phase - it only monitors them. Nor does it carry out the final act of closing the circuit breaker automatically; these all have
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to be done manually by the operator. However it does inhibit the breaker's manual closing circuit so that, unless all three synchronising conditions are satisfied together, the operator cannot close the breaker even though he presses the CLOSE button. If the breaker then fails to close, the whole synchronising process must be repeated.
Some check synchronising units sense only phase angle difference and do not monitor voltage or frequency differences. They rely on manual adjustment of voltage and frequency and only inhibit the closing of the breaker when the phase angle difference is excessive. It should be noted that voltage difference will cause circulating reactive current only. Although this is not desirable, it does not cause any mechanical shock and consequent damage to the transmission or the turbine since no active power is involved.
When, and only when, the check synchroniser is satisfied that the voltages, frequencies and phase difference are within acceptable limits, (or, in the case of the 'phase only' type, that the phase difference is within limits), it closes a contact which 'arms' the circuit-breaker closing circuit, so permitting closure when the operator presses the CLOSE switch. The same contact on the check synchroniser also momentarily lights an IN SYNCHRONISM or READY TO SYNCHRONISE lamp, indicating to the operator that the breaker is ready for closing. Once this lamp has gone out again, he cannot close the breaker until it illuminates a second time.
Where check synchronising is fitted, it is brought automatically into circuit whenever a second or subsequent generator has been started and selected for switching on-line; it so serves as a protection against incorrect operation.
Check synchronisers may also be fitted across section breakers, interconnectors and LV incomers from transformers - in fact at any point in the network where it might be possible to close across two unsynchronised systems accidentally. They are also fitted across main generator incomer breakers even when auto synchronising is provided. They come into action automatically if manual synchronising is selected. Sometimes operators form the bad habit of holding the breaker control switch closed before synchronism is reached, and relying on the arming contact of the check synchroniser to complete the closing circuit. This is bad practice and must be avoided.
5.10
CLOSING ONTO DEAD BUSBAR
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If it is required to connect an incoming generator, or LV transformer incomer, onto a dead busbar, the check synchroniser will not allow it to happen because, one side being dead, the two sides can never be in synchronism. In that case the check synchroniser must be temporarily 'cheated' while the connection is made. On most switchboards a special switch is provided for this purpose. It is spring-loaded to return to the OFF position so that the check synchroniser cannot be left permanently out of operation. This cheating switch may be tagged CLOSE ONTO DEAD BUSBAR or CHECK SYNC. OVERRIDE or other similar wording.
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CHAPTER 6 LOAD SHARING

6.1 GENERAL
When two or more a.c. generators have been synchronised as described in Chapter 3, and they are feeding a common load, ideally they share that load between them in proportion to their sizes. However, to allow for flexibility in operating the system, each generating set is provided with field excitation and prime-mover governor controls whose settings affect not so much the voltage and speed of the sets but rather the share of the load taken by each when operating in parallel. 6.2 THE D.C. CASE
To see what happens when a power source is connected to an external circuit, consider first the simple d.c. system of Figure 6.1 (a), where a battery is shown as the source of d.c. power. The battery develops an emf of E volts and has an internal resistance of r ohms. Only the terminal voltage V is available to be measured, using a voltmeter. This voltage is used to drive the current IL through the load resistance of R ohms. When the battery is not supplying current, there is no internal voltage drop and V=E. when current IL is flowing, the direction of flow inside the battery is from the negative terminal to the positive and, is passing through the internal resistance r, it causes a voltage drop IL.r of opposite polarity to the battery emf. Thus the terminal voltage V is equal to E- IL.r
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Fig.6.1 D.C. SOURCES OF POWER
Figure 6.1 (b) shows two different batteries connected in parallel without an external load. The emf EA of battery' A' is assumed to be higher than the emf EB of battery 'B'. The difference between these emfs causes a circulating current 'c to flow out of battery' A' and into battery 'B', thereby discharging 'A' and charging 'B'; it is limited in value by the internal resistances of the two batteries in series. (In the example shown these resistances r are assumed to be the same.) Because the batteries are connected in parallel, they have a common terminal voltage V. In this particular example, V has a value mid-way between EA and EB; this is because the common circulating current causes equal voltage drops in each battery. The drop in battery' A' is subtracted from the emf EA and the drop in battery 'B' is effectively added to the emf EB' since it is being charged by battery' A '.
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6.3
A.C. GENERATORS
With a.c. sources of power, the principal ones involved in load-sharing are gas-turbine-driven generators. The electrical indicating instruments of one such generator are shown in Figure 6.2(a), and it is the interpretation of the readings of these instruments which enables the operator to adjust the output of each set to achieve correct parallel operation.
FIG. 6.2 A.C. SOURCES OF POWER
The governor and excitation controls of a generating set are represented in Figure 6.2(b). The emf E of the generator is controlled by setting the excitation current in the field coils; an excitation setting or 'volts adjust' control is provided to vary the emf produced by the generator. The governor or 'speed' setting varies the mechanical power supplied to the generator by the gas-turbine. Like the battery, the generator has an internal impedance, z ohms. This consists of both resistance (r) and inductive reactance (x), but the resistive component is so small that it may be disregarded and only the reactance x is considered.
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6.4
CONTROL OF GENERATOR LOADING
Consider now the effect of operating the volts adjust and the speed adjust controls of a generator which is running in parallel with another. Each operation will be considered separately and independently.
Fig.6.3 LOAD SHARING CONTROL
6.4.1 Voltage Adjustment In Fig. 6.3 EA and EB represent the generated emfs of two generators A and B running in parallel, and for simplicity assume that EA and EB have the same length and direction initially. If the excitation of generator B is now increased by operating the voltage adjust control in the RAISE VOLTS direction, The voltage vector EB becomes longer than EA but is still in the same direction. The difference between EB and EA is then a net emf e which causes a circulating current IC to flow from machine B to machine A. Since these machines have reactance but negligible resistance, the circulating current is limited by the combined reactance of the two machines and lags 90o on (e). This is shown in Fig. 6.3 (a). Since Ic is at right angles to EA and EB, generator B is producing, and generator A is receiving, lagging wattless or reactive power, as would be shown by their respective varmeters. (The varmeter of generator A would read in the negative sector unless prevented by a stop).
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Thus adjustment of the voltage control causes lagging reactive power, or vars, to circulate between the generators from the one with the higher to the one with the lower excitation. If both machines are already on load and producing vars for the system, raising the voltage setting on one generator increases its var-loading and decreases the var-loading on the other, so varying the sharing of reactive power between the sets, as indicated by different readings on their varmeters. Lowering the voltage setting has the opposite effect. Note that, although the control may be marked VOLTS ADJUST, with parallel generators it has little effect on the system voltage but becomes principally a reactive (or var) load sharing control.
6.4.2 Speed Adjustment Consider next the effect of operating the 'speed adjust' control of one of the generators. Suppose the speed control of generator 'B' is moved in the RAISE SPEED direction. This causes the fuel valve of generator B's prime mover to open more, so admitting more fuel and increasing the engine torque. It will drive the generator rotor more strongly in the forward direction of rotation. Since the rotor carries the field system, the emf of that generator advances relative to that of the other. In Figure 6.3(b), if EA is the emf of generator' A' and EB that of generator 'B " then EB is advanced in phase because of the rotor position, but its length is not altered since there has been no change in the excitation. The angle between the new rotor position and the old is called the 'power angle', symbol A. As before, the difference between the two emfs EB and EA is e; only this time it is a vectorial difference. The difference emf e, as before, causes a circulating current Ic to flow from machine 'B' to machine 'A'. As these generators have reactance but negligible resistance, the circulating current is limited by the combined reactances of the two machines and lags 90 on e. Since Ic is now almost parallel with EA and EB, generator 'B' is producing, and generator' A' is receiving, in-phase wattful or active power, as would be shown by their respective wattmeters. (The wattmeter of generator' A' would read in the negative sector unless prevented by a stop.) Thus adjustment of the speed control causes active power, or watts, to circulate between the generators from the one with the higher speed setting to the one with the lower. If generator 'A' were producing no other active load, receiving this power from generator 'B' would cause it to 'motor', and a reverse-power situation would be set up. If both machines however are already on load and producing watts for the system, raising the speed setting on one set increases its watt-loading and decreases the watt-loading on the other, so varying the sharing of active
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power between the sets as indicated by different readings on their wattmeters. Lowering the speed setting has the opposite effect. Note that, although the control may be marked SPEED ADJUST, with parallel generators it has little effect on the speed (and so on the system frequency) but becomes principally an active (or watt) load-sharing control. When used to its limit, it can off-load a generator completely onto any others remaining online - a normal operation before taking a generator off-line.
6.4.3 Summary Notwithstanding that the controls may be marked VOLTS ADJUST and SPEED ADJUST, when generators are running in parallel these controls have little effect on voltage or speed. They are used respectively to control the sharing of reactive and active loading between generators (as indicated by their varmeters and wattmeters), and each can be operated quite independently of the other. Thus: to adjust sharing of reactive load - operate the VOLTS ADJUST controls to adjust sharing of active load - operate the SPEED ADJUST controls.
Although the sharing of active or reactive load can be varied by operating the controls of one machine only, it is better practice to operate the controls of one generator in the RAISE direction and simultaneously those of the other in the LOWER. The two effects combine, and this method has the advantage of causing least disturbance to the system voltage or frequency. Thus, to increase the share of active load on generator' A', the SPEED AD JUST control of set' A' is turned in the 'raise' direction and at the same time the corresponding control of set 'B' is turned in the 'lower' direction. If this is done with skill, the re-sharing of active load will have been done without disturbing the frequency at all. If however there has been a small increase (or decrease) of frequency, this can be trimmed out by operating both controls in the same direction. A similar sequence is used for adjustment of reactive load sharing. Figure 6.4 gives an example of the instrument readings of two parallel-running generators at a given instant. Examination of the instruments shows that the common voltage (6.6kV in practice) is correct and the common frequency (50Hz) is also correct. But the varmeters and wattmeters show considerable imbalance of both reactive and active load-sharing. Generator 'A' is producing 9.5 Mvar and generator 'B' 6.7 Mvar (total 16.2 Mvar). If they were in balance they would each be giving 8.1 Mvar. The action to take, therefore, is to lower the voltage setting on 'A' and simultaneously raise the voltage setting on 'B' until both varmeters read 8.1 Mvar. This
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simultaneous action will avoid disturbing the system voltage, but if there is a small error after balancing the reactive loading, it can be trimmed out by raising (or lowering) both voltage controls together so as not to disturb the now correct sharing of reactive load.
Fig.6.4 GENERATOR INDICATIONS (LOAD BALANCE)
Similarly the wattmeters show that generator' A' is producing 12MW and generator 'B' 18MW (total 30MW), a considerable imbalance. If they were in balance they would each be giving 15MW. The action therefore is to raise the speed setting of' A' and simultaneously to lower that of 'B' until both wattmeters read 15MW. This simultaneous action will avoid disturbing the system frequency, but if there is a small error after balancing the active loading, it can be trimmed out by raising (or lowering) both speed controls together so as not to disturb the now correct sharing of active load. After both the active and reactive loads have been brought into balance, the MVAs are also automatically in balance and the two ammeters should give the same readings. Also the power-factor meters, if fitted, should give equal readings. Where power-factor meters are provided, they should not be used for balancing so long as both wattmeters and varmeters are fitted. Some installations however do not have varmeters. In that case balancing is achieved by first equating the wattmeter readings, using the speed controls as described above. Then the voltage controls are used until the two ammeter readings are the same. It is essential that these two steps be taken in that order.
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6.5
PRINCIPLES OF PARALLEL OPERATION
Although the governor control is usually designated 'speed adjust' - and indeed on single machines it does control speed - on parallel machines it is primarily an active load-sharing control, and speed control is only a secondary function. When used for active load-sharing, it does nevertheless slightly affect speed and hence system frequency. After the load share of one machine has been raised, the system frequency may have to be trimmed back by reducing the speed settings of both machines together until the system frequency is again within limits. Similarly, although the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) control is usually designated 'voltage adjust' - and indeed on single machines it does control voltage - on paralleled generators it is primarily a reactive load-sharing control, and voltage control is only a secondary feature. When used for reactive loadsharing, it does nevertheless slightly affect voltage and hence the system voltage level. After the reactive load share of one machine has been raised, the system voltage may have to be trimmed back by reducing the voltage settings of both generators together until the system voltage is again within limits.
6.5.1 Droop All control devices must have a 'droop' in order to give stable control, even though that droop may be very small. Droop is defined as the drop in the controlled output of a system for an increase in the controlling factor. For example, the speed of a governed generating set is in general not constant for all loads but falls slightly as the load increases, as explained in chapter 5 of manual 'Electrical Generation Equipment'. The fall of speed from no load to full load is called the 'speed droop' and is expressed as a percentage of the full speed. A 4% droop is typical for a mechanical governor, but electronic governors can have much smaller droops, down to % or less. The theoretical and ideal limit of 0% (which can never in practice quite be reached) is called 'isochronous'. In practice the small droop of electronic governors may actually have to be increased artificially when generators are run in parallel, as explained in para. 6.5.8. Similarly AVRs can never be absolutely perfect in operation. Although they aim to maintain the generators output voltage constant at all loads, nevertheless there will be some fall of voltage as the reactive load increases
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Fig.6.5 GOVERNOR DROOPS
Fig. 6.5 (a) illustrates a typical governor characteristic, somewhat exaggerated for clarity to show the droop in speed as the active (kW) load increases. Fig. 6.5 (b) shows the governor characteristics of a second, parallel set, and it is assumed that it is identical with the first.
Fig. 6.6 COMBINED GENERATING SETS
Both characteristics have been combined in Fig.6.6. The characteristics of set A is repeated from the previous figure, whereas that of set B is drawn reversed, with its speed axis on the right. The combined figure is thus quite symmetrical. Since, when paralleled the sets are locked in synchronism, their speeds are exactly the same; therefore the operating points of both are where the lines cross at O. AS is the common speed, PA is the load on set A and PB is the load on set B. AB is then total load on both and, by symmetry, PA=PB=1/2AB. That is to say, the load on set A is the same as that on set B, each being half the total load.
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Fig. 6.7 INCREASE OF TOTAL LOAD
If at any instant AB is the total load, Fig 6.7 (a) (which is a repeat of Fig. 6.6) shows that, by symmetry, each set takes half the load and that the common speed is AS. If now the total load increases to AB (Fig. 6.7 (b), the slopes are unaltered but point B moves out to point B. The figure remains symmetrical, but wider. Each set still takes half the new load (PA and PB), but the crossing point O is now lower, and therefore the common speed AS is a little less than before. Thus, if two identical generating sets have governors with similar characteristics, once set to share the load equally they continue to do so at all loads, although the common speed falls with increasing load.
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Fig. 6.8 ADJUSTMENT OF SPEED SETTING
6.5.2 Trimming and Governor Setting If the combined load is AB as before and the governors are equally set, the lines cross at O, and the sets share the load equally (PA=PB=1/2AB). If now the governor setting of set B is raised, the whole line of set B is raised to a position shown in full in Figure 6.8, though its droop angle is unaltered. The crossing point is now O. The load is divided PA to set A and PB to set B that is, they are no longer equal, the machine with the higher governor setting taking a greater share of the total load AB. Also, since O is a little higher than O, the common speed AS is increased to AS. This confirms the earlier statement that with paralleled sets, although the speed control is primarily used for sharing of active load, its use in this manner does nevertheless affect speed slightly, and it may be necessary to trim both sets down together to restore system frequency.
Fig. 6.9 ADJUSTMENT OF DROOP
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Thus, if the governor setting of one ('B') of two identical generating sets is raised, that machine takes a greater share of the load and the common speed is slightly raised, as shown in Figure 6.8. The same will occur if the governor setting of the other machine ('A') is lowered. Machine 'B' takes a greater share of the load, but the common speed will be slightly lowered. If both are done together, it is possible to adjust the sharing of load without affecting the speed at all.
6.5.3 Trimming and Governor Droop Whereas the droop of a mechanical governor is built into the mechanism and cannot usually be adjusted, that of an electronic governor, such as is used on most offshore installations, is usually adjustable from maximum down to almost zero, the minimum position being labelled 'isochronous'. If, instead of raising the governor speed setting of set' B' as in Figure 6.8, the droop setting were reduced, Figure 6.9 shows that the crossover point shifts from O to O', the load-sharing is altered from PA : PB to P'A : P' B and the speed is raised from AS to AS'. This achieves the same effect as altering the speed setting, but in an unsymmetrical manner, and it must never be used as a means of adjusting the sharing of load. Further, sets with different droops must not be run in parallel if it can be avoided. If it cannot - for example with two sets of different makes then the operator must be prepared to find the load-sharing ba1ance upset as load changes, and he must adjust the speed setting of one of the sets whenever it is necessary to restore balance.
6.5.4 Stability No governor is perfect; all are subject to operating tolerance, although the electronic types are better than the mechanical in this respect. Ideally the characteristics are straight lines crossing at 0, with equal load-sharing.
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Fig. 6.10 EFFECT OF GOVRNOR TOLERANCE
In practice the characteristic may lie anywhere within a band either side of the nominal lines-i.e. within the shaded areas of Figure 6.10. These bands may be of, say, 2% width for a mechanical governor when new (or more when worn) down to 1/2% for a good electronic governor. The crossover point O could therefore lie anywhere within the central diamond formed by the two bands, and the common speed anywhere between S1 and S2. The load-sharing point may lie anywhere between P1 and P2, and the sharing of load anywhere between P1A : P1B and P2A:P2B. So long as the diamond is small, this is probably acceptable. Wear on a mechanical governor, however, results in wider tolerance bands and consequently greater speedand load-sharing errors. If governors are used which have a very small droop (for example electronic governors set to low droop to achieve good speed regulation) even small tolerances can result in the diamond becoming very elongated, as shown in Figure 6.11. The sharing of load can then vary widely and can swing uncontrolled between P1 and P2, often without warning. The system is then unstable. It is therefore good practice not to use low-droop or 'isochronous' modes to obtain good frequency regulation when generating sets are in parallel, although the isochronous mode may be used for a single machine. Some generator systems with electronic governors have automatic changeover from ISOCH to DROOP when a second set is paralleled; in other cases the operator has to make the changeover by hand switch. Unstable load-sharing is often a signal that the change is needed or perhaps has been forgotten. Normally the level of droop used in the DROOP mode is set during commissioning and should never have to be altered by the operator. It is practice however not to change over between ISOCH and DROOP when going from single-machine to parallel-machine running, but to leave the control
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permanently in DROOP to ensure stable running at all times. This practice accepts that there would be loss of frequency with increasing load if the governor were the only control provided. However, most offshore installations have an overriding frequency control unit which holds the overall system frequency effectively constant irrespective of governor droop. This is described in sub-para. 6.5.6.
Fig. 6.11 TOLERANCE WITH LOW DROOP LEADING TO INSTABILITY
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CHAPTER 7 LOAD SHEDDING

7.1 GENERAL
In an onshore installation the duty Electrical Operator has no control over his supply source and is only concerned with distribution. He can only proceed on the assumption that his source is infinite and that he can supply his full load at all times. This is not the case with offshore plant. Consequently this chapter refers only to offshore installations (can be applicable to DAS case also), where the operator can control his supply source and has knowledge of its limitations. In Chapter 1 it is stated that ideally a power system should be run with firm capacity - that is, with enough generators connected - so that the sudden loss of the largest of them would not leave the remainder overloaded. If this is done, and a generator fails, it is not necessary to reduce the load. This however is an ideal state of affairs. In certain conditions it may not be possible to have spare generating capacity connected. When an offshore installation is in full production and the load is high there may not be enough generators installed to provide this margin, or perhaps one of the large sets is unserviceable due to breakdown or maintenance. In either case the loss of a running generator would produce a crisis condition, with the remainder overloaded. It would then be necessary as a matter of urgency to remove the overload before the over current protection of another generator operated and caused it to trip, so aggravating the situation. Indeed this could lead to a Catastrophic loss of all main generators.
7.2
ACTION
Such a crisis can only be prevented by quick operator action as soon as he realises that the whole system 'is in a state of overload and may become unstable. Indeed, if such a possibility existed, he should already be aware of it, and the loss of a running generator would be the signal for immediate action. This action consists of removing load from the system in order to bring the total remaining load within the capacity of those running generators that are left; it is called 'load-shedding'. To be effective the amount of load shed at each step should be appreciable - that is, of several megawatts - and the operator should make use of the megawatt-meters on his control desk or panel. In this context 'load' means active load only, i.e. megawatts. No account need be taken of the reactive load (megavars), as this may be assumed to be a more or less constant proportion of the active load. In other words, the power factor may be assumed to remain reasonably constant both before and after
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load has been shed. The generator ammeter should only be used as an indication of when the generator current is approaching its trip value. The need for load shedding may arise from any of three causes: (a) Acute: Sudden loss of a running generator while there is an insufficient margin of connected generators on the system. (b) Threatening: Need to shut down a running generator while there is insufficient margin of connected generators on the system and no more are available. (c) Threatening: Growth of load on the system when there is no more generating capacity available to be connected.
In the 'acute' case (a) action must be immediate; there will be no time for consultation, and therefore a prearranged plan must have been prepared. In the 'threatening' cases (b) and (c) there will, in general, be time to consult with the Control Room Supervisor and load can be shed under more controlled conditions.
7.3
SHEDDING CONTROL
Only certain operations are open to the technician at the electrical control desk. From which it can be seen that the operator can start and stop generators and control the high-voltage incomer, bus-section, transformer feeder and interconnector switchgear. He can also control the 415V incomer and section switchgear but cannot control from the electrical control desk the switchgear that feeds individual high-voltage motors or any of the 415V distribution. Therefore from that position the operator can only remove very large parts of the load by isolating whole sections of the system, which in general would be far too drastic as a load-shedding exercise, except as a last resort to save a total shutdown. Since it is necessary to shed fairly large units of load, this in practice means the high-voltage motors, which range in size between about 300kW and over 9000 kW. Shedding loads smaller than this would hardly be effective. It should be remembered, however, that, just because a motor is rated at, say, 3600kW, it may not be taking full load. Therefore the shedding of such a motor may not always achieve the full results expected. All high-voltage motors on an offshore installation are part of the process, injection or gas compression systems and are probably controlled from the process control desk in the Platform Control Room or from the gas compression control panel in the Gas Compression package. Shedding such motors, when not done automatically, is therefore carried out by the Control Room Supervisors on the advice of the Electrical section. Where the platform and electrical control rooms adjoin each other this presents no problem, but on
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some installations they are remote from each other, and communication must be by telephone. It is obvious that instructions must be absolutely clear, and the exercise should be regularly practised (but not implemented).
7.4
PLANNING
As load-shedding involves stopping certain aspects of processing, the first units to be shed must be those which upset the process least; this usually meant the water injection units which have motors up to 3600kW, whose disconnection would contribute in great measure to restoring stability to the system. (This statement was true at one time, but priorities for shedding are constantly changing.) In general a systematic plan of shedding must be worked out with the Production Supervisor, and each successive stage must be clearly specified, stating from what position the tripping must be carried out, and by whom. As this plan may have to be put into action at a moment's notice and by whoever is manning the control rooms at the time, it is essential that it be regularly exercised (short of actual tripping) by all personnel who may have to carry it out. The Electrical operator on duty must at all times be aware if his system is in such a condition as to be vulnerable to the sudden loss of a generator, and he must be ready to put the load-shedding plan into immediate operation. He must inform the Control Room Supervisor whenever this is the case, and he must make sure that his relief on the next shift knows it.
7.5
AUTOMATIC LOAD SHEDDING
7.5.1 Direct Shedding On Oil offshore installations the pre-planning will have been carried out during the design stage, and the whole sequence of load shedding is then predetermined and can be carried out automatically. In a simple case such as an installation which has only two main generator sets, the act of disconnecting or the self-tripping of one of them while they are in parallel automatically sheds certain large loads. Such a system is shown in Figure 7.1. If either generator comes off the board the two very large gas compression motors are immediately tripped (if running), as well as three of the six 2500kW water injection pump motors, Moreover, when only one generator is running and connected, none of these motors can be started.
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Compared with the sequence load-shedding system described in para. 7.5.3, this direct method of shedding is a 'blunt instrument'; it takes no account of the actual loading on the generators or of the load being taken by the motors to be shed, or indeed of those which are running. All are tripped simultaneously. If further shedding is needed, it must be carried out manually.
Fig. 7.1 AUTOMATIC DIRECT LOAD SHEDDING OF HV MOTORS (BTENT A) On certain offshore installations, with more complicated networks, such as the typical one shown in Figure 7.2 which has four 15MW main and two 2.5MW secondary generator sets, a more sophisticated system is used which sheds large loads in sequence as the situation demands and which also gives warning of impending sheddings. The shedding sequence is programmed and is put into effect by a number of logic circuits inside a special Load-shedding Panel. It takes account of the number of generators running and connected at any instant and the actual total load on them. The difference is the power margin currently available. It also calculates what would be the margin if the largest running generator failed. Such a margin might well be negative, indicating that the loss of the generator would overload the remainder. The logic also measures the actual loading on all the running motors selected for sequential tripping, and it thus determines how many should be tripped if a generator should fail. In Figure 7.2 the various motors which may be shed are numbered in sequence (1 to 6) , Group 1 consists of seven 3600kW water injection motors on the Main board which are shed in a predetermined sequence. Motors 2 to 4 are the three very large gas compression motors (9240kW, 7140kW and 7140kW), also on the Main board. Group 5
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Fig.7.2 AUTOMATIC SEQUENCE LOAD SHEDDING OF HV MOTORS (TYPICAL)
Consists of six 300kW oil transfer and booster pump motors on the Production board which are shed together, giving a unit of 1800kW. Finally, No.6 is not a motor but is the feeder from the Production board to the drilling package transformer, rated 4600kVA. A typical load-shedding panel is shown in Figure 7.3. On the left-hand side is a mimic diagram of the high-voltage power supply system with lamps to indicate which generators are running and connected and which section breakers and interconnector breakers are closed. The generator indicator lamps also have a pushbutton operation, whose purpose is explained below. There is also an OFF INORMAL/TEST switch; in the NORMAL position load shedding is in operation, and in the OFF position it is not in use. The use of the TEST position is explained below. On the right-hand side of the panel, displayed vertically, is a list, starting with the least important, of all those HV and other motors which may have to be shed. Against each are two lamps: a yellow warning lamp tallied WILL BE STOPPED and a red tripped lamp HAS BEEN STOPPED. When the logic has selected the motor or motors next to be shed, their yellow lights illuminate; if
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and when the motors are actually tripped, the yellow light goes out and the red light comes on. An alarm is also given in the platform control room. The Control Room Supervisor should always be informed when any yellow lamps illuminate, or if there is any change in them, so that he is forewarned that the electrical system is 'vulnerable' and that therefore he could lose certain items of process plant if a generator should fail.
Fig.7.3 TYPICAL AUTOMATIC SEQUENCE LOAD SHEDDING PANEL To enable the logic calculations to be made, the network is assumed to be in one of two states: (a) (b) both HV section breakers closed and one or both interconnectors between HV switchboards closed at both ends; both interconnectors open and the Production board section breaker closed.
State (a) means that the whole network is electrically a single unit and that up to all four 15MW sets and both 2.5MW sets (if running) are paralleled. State (b) means that each HV switchboard is on its own; in that case automatic load shedding will operate on the Production board only. Provided that the panel is switched on and that condition (a) above is met, LOAD SHEDDING ON lamps burn against both Main and Production busbars on the mimic. If condition (b) only is met, only the Production LOAD HEDDING ON lamp burns. The two load shedding lamps are of course extinguished when the main switch is set to OFF, but if one or both of these lamps is not lit
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when load shedding should be in operation, the operator should determine the cause. Other features of the load-shedding panel are a FAULT SUPPLY lamp which illuminates if either of the two alternative 24V d.c. auxiliary supplies fails, and an OFF lamp which indicates when the supply to the tripping relays has failed. All these lamps, as well as the yellow and red shedding lamps on the righthand side, are restored by the RESET button when the fault has been corrected or the shed load reconnected. Inside the panel is a MW chart recorder which makes a continuous trace of the total mega-watt loading on the system.
7.5.2 Testing When it is desired to test the internal circuits and operation of the automatic sequence panel, the selector switch is turned to the TEST position. The mimic should be showing lights corresponding to those generators that are running and connected to the busbars, and also lights indicating which bus-section breakers and pairs of interconnector breakers are closed. It should also be showing one or both LOAD-SHEDDI NG ON lamps. On the right-hand side yellow lamps should be burning against the names of those motors next selected for tripping (if any). For testing the shedding which would follow a generator failure the mimic combined lamp/pushbutton of the generator selected as faulty is pressed and held. This simulates loss of that generator. If the largest running set has been chosen, all the selected yellow lamps on the right-hand side change to red, indicating that the motors concerned would have tripped (but do not actually trip under these test conditions). Further yellow lights will also appear indicating the next stage of shedding. When the pushbutton is released the selector switch springs automatically back to the NORMAL position, and the red shedding lights change back to yellow. The above description is that of a typical load-shedding panel of one particular make and of how it operates on that particular network. It IS given as an example only. The networks of other offshore installations may differ, and the load-shedding panels, where fitted, are tailored to suit them and may be of different construction.
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CHAPTER 8 GENERATOR PROTECTION

INTRODUCTION Cost is always a major consideration in determining the protection to be applied to a power system or to a particular unit of apparatus. It is well to be alert to this as we discuss generator protection. The degree of protection will vary widely. There is no standard recommendation that can be offered. In planning protection, it is necessary to take into account the initial cost of the generator and the cost of repair. Perhaps of greatest importance is the cost to the operator and owner of any interruption of service that may result from a generator failure. Large utility generating stations and very large generating units are beyond the scope of this chapter. Consideration is limited to unit generators which are commonly found in larger industrial plants and commercial operations. Ratings may be in the range from 500 KVA to as high as 25,000 KVA. The abnormal conditions which may plague a unit generator of the type just described include: (1.) (2.) (3.) (4.) (5.) (6.) (7.) (8.) (9.) Overload and excessive heating External short circuits Single phase or unbalanced current due to external conditions Faults within "the generator windings Loss or under-excitation of the generator field Out-of-step operation Motoring Over speed Mechanical vibration
(10.) Bearing overheating or failure
PROTECTING THE GENERATOR FROM EXTERNAL CONDITIONS Overload, external shorts, external single phase loads and unbalanced load currents exist because of something external to the generator. They can, however, lead to a generator failure if they are not promptly corrected or if the generator is not promptly disconnected from the faulty circuitry.
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Excessive current from an overload condition or due to a balanced external fault causes abnormally high winding temperature, particularly in the stator. If not interrupted, it will lead to a winding failure. The higher the current magnitude, the less the time without damage. Time-overcurrent relays have the characteristics needed to protect from balanced overcurrents. Generators, however, have relatively high transient and synchronous impedances. In fact, the synchronous impedance for many generators exceeds a per unit value of 1.0. This means that if a voltage regulator is not in operation, fault current from the generator upon reaching the synchronous time period will drop to a level below full load generator current. This is accompanied by a very low terminal voltage. Normally a voltage regulator is in operation, but even with the forcing action of the regulator, synchronous fault current will only be three to four times rated. A voltage controlled or voltage restrained device 51V is therefore applied at the generator terminals and is co-ordinated with the 51 devices in the power system. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are very effective in detecting overtemperature. A resistance wire, most often 10 ohms at 250 C, is imbedded in the stator winding between the top coil side in the slot and the lower coil side. This resistance forms the fourth leg of a sensitive bridge. The bridge can accurately measure temperature at the RTD location to within a degree or two. The bridge arrangement can be incorporated into a relay (device 49) and used to alarm and/or trip for over-temperature. Unbalanced external faults cause severe heating in a generator. Negative sequence components in the fault current cause double frequency currents to flow in the rotor. These damage the forgings, retaining rings, damper windings, etc. A negative sequence current relay (device 46) can be applied at the terminal CTs to sense and protect from external unbalanced faults. Because generators have very low zero sequence impedance, they are usually grounded through a resistor or reactor. External or internal winding ground faults are best sensed by using a current transformer with a secondary time-overcurrent relay in this grounding lead. The relay is a device 51G.
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SENSING INTERNAL FAULTS Internal faults most often start as ground faults in a winding. Differential protection is the most effective scheme for detecting faults in a generator stator.. The field of a synchronous generator is somewhat more difficult to monitor. Loss of field relays are designed to sense abnormally low field or complete loss of field excitation. This relay is energised from the terminal CTs. It functions somewhat like a distance relay in that it monitors the impedance "looking into" the generator stator. A loss of field relay will detect some out-of-step conditions. More complete protection is available by including a power factor relay (device 55). A single ground on the field of a synchronous machine will cause no damage. It should be detected, however, so it can be cleared before a second ground develops. A field ground relay (device 64) can be applied to the d-c field to detect grounds.
MISCELLANEOUS RELAYS AND MECHANICAL PROTECTION Motoring of generators was discussed in Chapter VII. Anti-motoring power relays (device 32) are used to protect the prime mover. Overspeed protection can best be sensed by devices associated with the prime mover and its governor. Thermal relays of various types are available to monitor and alarm and/or trip for bearing over-temperature. Mechanical devices are also available to monitor vibration and to alarm or trip when this becomes excessive.
TYPICAL GENERATOR PROTECTION It was stated at the beginning of this chapter that it is impossible to recommend the protective relays for a specific generator without complete information about the application. We can provide some general guidelines for single unit generators used in industrial or commercial applications. Figure 1 on the following page shows in one-line form a level of protection that may be appropriate for a small generator (1000 KVA or less). It may be practical with some small units to use three 51V overcurrent relays at the stator terminals rather than including one device 46. Figure 2 is a level of protection more appropriate for a larger generator, provided it is operating as a single unit.
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Fig.1 PROTECTION FOR SMALL INDUSTRIAL GENERATOR
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Fig.2 PROTECTION FOR LARGE INDUSTRIAL GENERATOR
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Generators and electrical safety: ADMA OPCO HSE regulation 19/20 and other relative regulations have to be implemented while working with generators.
Important Safety Points Isolate and prove dead, apply earth where required, obtain isolation certificate or danger notice tag, permit to work on electrical apparatus and any other relative permits (cold-hot) Carry out toolbox meeting with your team when necessary. Remember, Generators in oil company is of brush less type But spark may be produced at fault condition. Look for any sign of spark or flash over or spots of over heating Check the integrity of rotors earth brush if fitted. Check all earth connections including earth resistor. Check no lube oil leaks High insulation resistance means leakage current is at minimum. Make sure the rotating parts safe guards are firmly secured. Check the integrity of any flameproof equipment attached to generator. Reverse power, over speed protection are important for generator safety.

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Basic Training

INTRODUCTION TO GAS TURBINES

Figure 1.1 Steam Turbine System 1.3 THE GAS TURBINE

Figure 1.3 Compressor

Figure 1.5 Two Shaft Gas Turbine Set

Figure 1.6 Single shaft Gas Turbine Control

FIGURE 1.7 TWO SHAFT GAS TURBINE CONTROL.

Control of speed by automatic governor is dealt with in Chapter 5.

CHAPTER 2 A.C. GENERATORS

Figure 2.1 Typical A.C. Generator

EXCITATION AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

NEUTRAL EARTHING RESISTOR

CHAPTER 3 GENERATOR EXCITATION AND VOLTAGE CONTROL

Fig.3.1 A.C. GENERATOR EXCITATION 3.2 CONVENTIONAL EXCITATION

BEHAVIOUR UNDER SHORT CIRCUIT

Fig.3.2 A.C. GENERATOR EXCITATION (2)

BRUSH LESS EXCITATION (WITHOUT PILOT EXCITER)

THE DIODE BRIDGE

REGULATION RESPONSE TIME

CHAPTER 4 DIESEL GENERATOR SETS

Fig. 4.1--Typical Basic Services and Black Start Generator Arrangement

AVAILABILITY OF BASIC SERVICES GENERATOR

BASIC SERVICES GENERATOR UTILITIES

Typical Emergency Generator Circuit

CHAPTER 5 SYNCHRONISING OF GENERATORS

Fig. 5.2 Voltage and Phase Difference

Fig. 3.4 Lamp Synchronising (3-Lamp Method)

CLOSING ONTO DEAD BUSBAR

CHAPTER 6 LOAD SHARING

Fig.6.1 D.C. SOURCES OF POWER

FIG. 6.2 A.C. SOURCES OF POWER

CONTROL OF GENERATOR LOADING

Fig.6.3 LOAD SHARING CONTROL

Fig.6.4 GENERATOR INDICATIONS (LOAD BALANCE)

PRINCIPLES OF PARALLEL OPERATION

Fig.6.5 GOVERNOR DROOPS

Fig. 6.6 COMBINED GENERATING SETS

Fig. 6.7 INCREASE OF TOTAL LOAD

Fig. 6.8 ADJUSTMENT OF SPEED SETTING

Fig. 6.9 ADJUSTMENT OF DROOP

Fig. 6.10 EFFECT OF GOVRNOR TOLERANCE

Fig. 6.11 TOLERANCE WITH LOW DROOP LEADING TO INSTABILITY

CHAPTER 7 LOAD SHEDDING

AUTOMATIC LOAD SHEDDING

Fig.7.2 AUTOMATIC SEQUENCE LOAD SHEDDING OF HV MOTORS (TYPICAL)

CHAPTER 8 GENERATOR PROTECTION

(10.) Bearing overheating or failure

Fig.1 PROTECTION FOR SMALL INDUSTRIAL GENERATOR

Fig.2 PROTECTION FOR LARGE INDUSTRIAL GENERATOR

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