Operational Amplifiers

for
Basic Electronics

http://cktse.eie.polyu.edu.hk/eie209

by
Prof. Michael Tse

January 2005
Where do we begin?
We begin with assuming that the op-amp is an ideal element satisfying the
following conditions:

Output resistance = 0 (perfect output stage)

Input resistance = ∞ (perfect input stage)
Differential voltage gain = ∞

+ + + +
vi vo vi ± Avi vo
– – – –

Since the gain A ≈ ∞, vi ≈ 0 if vo is infinite,

the two input terminals have same potential if vo is infinite
a “virtual” short-circuit exists between the two input terminals

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 2

 The 347 IC op-amp
The 347 is a Quad
JFET input op-amp
using biFET
technology.

1 14
– –
+ 2 13
+ +
– 3 12
4 V+ V– 11
5 10
6 + +
9
output stage 7 8
– –

single-ended output
Manufacturer listed spec:
Rin = 1012Ω; AVOL=100dB = 105
CMRR = 100dB
GBW = 4MHz (gain-bandwidth)
SR = 13V/µs
C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 3
The basics
An op-amp is a very high gain differential amplifier. In almost all applications
(except in comparator and Schmitt trigger), feedback is used to stabilize the
gain.

TWO GOLDEN RULES:

RULE 1:
The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage
difference between the two inputs zero.

RULE 2:
The inputs draw no current.

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 4

Example
Consider the following op-amp circuit. What is the voltage gain?
R2
Apply the Golden Rules:
ix
R1 0V – It first says that the output will try to set
vi
ix itself in order to make the difference
vo
+ between the inputs zero. That means, it
will try to make the –ve input 0 V
because the +ve input is 0 V.

Then, it says that the current flowing into

the inputs are zero.

Therefore,

This is the inverting amplifier.

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 5

Warnings
The Golden rules sometimes do not apply. NOTE CAREFULLY that Golden
Rule 1 says that “the output attempts to…”. The output attempts, but it may
fail to do what it wants to do!

Do Golden rules apply in the following circuits?

+ +
–
– –
+

– +
–1V
–
+ –
+
sq.
x2 x
C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 6
Other examples (where Golden rules work)

R2
Applying the Golden rules, we get

R1
–

vi + This is the non-inverting amplifier.

Here, simply

–
vo This is the voltage follower.
vi +

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 7

 Other examples (where Golden rules work)
More examples
Rf
R1
v1
R2
v2 –
R3
v3
+ This is the summing amplifier.

R2
R1
v1 –
R1 vo
v2 +
R2 This is the difference amplifier.

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 8

 Other examples (where Golden rules work)
More examples
C

R
vi –

+
This is the integrator.

C R
vi –
vo
+

This is the differentiator (theoretically).

In practice, this circuit won’t work!!!

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 9

Examples (where Golden rules do not work)

Comparator
The output cannot make
v1 + the two inputs equal!!!
vout
v2 Golden Rule 1 fails!!!
–

Since the voltage gain typically exceeds 100,000, the inputs must be within
a fraction of a millivolt in order to prevent the output from swinging all the
way to extreme positive or negative. It is assumed that the supply voltages
are +10 V and –10 V and that the gain is 100,000.
1. If v1 is larger than v2 by more than 0.0001 V, the output will
swing to +10 V.
2. If v2 is larger than v1 by more than 0.0001 V, the output will
swing to –10 V.

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 10

Examples (where Golden rules do not work)

Comparator
The output cannot make
v1 + the two inputs equal!!!
vout
v2 Golden Rule 1 fails!!!
–

But this simple comparator suffers from a problem if the input signals have
noise! The output may switch (jump up and down) when the signals are
close to each other.

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 11

Examples (where Golden rules do not work)
v1

Comparator
5V v2
v1 + t
vout
v2 – vout
5V ±

Suppose v2 = 5V (constant) and v1 is an input.

This circuit is supposed to compare v1 with 5V.

But if v2 has noise, the output may jump when v2 is near 5V.

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 12

Examples (where Golden rules do not work)
Schmitt Trigger — a better comparator
How does it work?
vin –
vout
A + Assume the op-amp is powered by
R2 ±10V, and now vout = +10V.

R1 Obviously, vin must be less than vA:

10R1
v in < = vA
R1 + R2

What happens if vin moves just above

10R1/(R1+R2)? Clearly, vout falls to
†
–10V because of comparator action.
Therefore, vA drops to –10R1/(R1+R2),
and vin must be greater than vA:
–10R1
v in > = vA
R1 + R2
C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 13

†
Examples (where Golden rules do not work)
Schmitt Trigger We have a situation similar to hysteresis.

10R1
vin – upper trip point =
vout R1 + R2
A +
R2 –10R1
lower trip point =
R1 + R2
†
R1
vin

† 10R 1
R1 + R 2
t
– 10R 1
R1 + R 2
vout

+10

–10

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 14

 Examples (where Golden rules do not work)
Schmitt Trigger

10V

vin –
vout
+
–10V
What are the upper and lower trip points?
90kW
10kW

+ 8V
–

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 15

Practical considerations

Finite input currents

Very small currents are in fact needed to bias the op-amp input stage. Circuits
that have no DC path to inputs won’t work!

None of these works!

C

x x
vi – vi –
vo vo
+ +

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 16

Practical considerations
Offset in integrator

The op-amp integrator is very easily saturated if there is a small lack of

symmetry in the input signals. This is because the error gets integrated quickly
and the output will soon move towards the maximum voltage.
C

vi –

+ R
In practice we need a discharge path to
prevent saturation. Usually R has to be C
big enough, so that the discharge rate
becomes insignificantly slow compared
to the signal frequency.
–

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 17

Applications
Current source
We see that vR is fixed by the voltage divider.

The op-amp will make sure that the voltage across

vR R is also equal to vR, which is fixed!
+
–
Therefore the current flowing down R must be
LOAD

Io
R
which is the load current.

Thus, this circuit provide a constant current

source for the load.

Note: the load is floating for this case!

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 18

Applications
Current source for grounded load

Again vR is fixed by the voltage divider.

Vcc
R The op-amp will make sure that the voltage at the
lower end of R is also equal to vR, which is fixed!
–
+
Therefore the current flowing down R must be
vR
Io
LOAD
which is very close to the load current (if base
current is small and op-amp draws very small
current).

Thus, this circuit provide a constant current

source for the grounded load.

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 19

 Applications
Current source for grounded load
(voltage controllable)
Here, vR is controllable/adjustable by vIN.
Vcc
R The current flowing down R, which is close to the
R2 load current Io, must be
–
Ix + Vcc - (Vcc - R2 Ix )
vR Io =
vIN Io R
+
R v
–
LOAD = 2 IN
R1 R
R1
Thus, this circuit provide a controllable constant
current source for the grounded load.
†

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 20

Other non-ideal behaviour
Example of input bias current
R2 Problem: Since ib flows into
both inputs, the negative input
side will have a slightly negative
R1
vi – dc voltage even when vi = 0,
ib vo whereas the positive input side is
+ still 0V because there is no
ib resistor there! Therefore, vi ≠ 0,
i.e., some unwanted offset!
R2

R1
vi –
Practical solution: ib vo
+
R1||R2 ib

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 21

Other non-ideal behaviour
Input offset voltage

Due to imperfect symmetry, some voltage has to be applied to the input to get the
output to zero. Typical value ≈ 5 mV.

The input offset voltage is a function of temperature (due to temperature drift of

device parameters).

Practical solution: In many applications, the dc gain is not needed. We can

simply drop the dc gain to 1.
+
For example, for the non-inverting amplifier, if we set
–
R1 = 2kΩ
C1 = 4.7µF

R1 R2
the cutoff frequency is
approx 17 Hz. C1
C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 22
Summary

We have studied the basics of op-amps, and some applications.

Basic rules of op-amp circuit analysis

Some practical considerations
Some applications

C.K. Tse: Operational Amplifiers 23