A Guide For P.S. Design Project Spring 2014 PDF

2014 Bilkent University 1
BLKENT UNIVERSITY
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

A GUIDE

FOR

POWER SYSTEM DESIGN
PROJECT

EEE-495

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Design-II

Spring, 2014

NUR YILDIRIM
M.Sc. E.E.

CONTENTS:
1. Introduction
1.1. Description of the Project 3
1.2. Topics 8
Appendix 1.1. Bilkent Power Plant 9
Appendix 1.2. Possible Connection Points of Bilkent Power Plant 11
Appendix 1.3. Cost Data for Bilkent Power Plant 12
Appendix 1.4. Cost Data for Transmission system 13
Appendix 1.5. Notes for Bilkent Power Plant Feasibility Report 3.2 14
2. Basic Concepts on Power Systems
2.1. Introduction 16
2. 2. Phasor Notation 16
2. 3. Series and Parallel Circuit Models of Typical Loads 16
2. 4. A Simplified Circuit Model for a Two Generator Power System 17
2. 5. Three Phase Systems, Real and Reactive Power, Power Factor 19
2. 6. Reactive Power and Voltage Control 24
2. 7. Automatic Generation Control 27
2. 8. Energy 28
2. 9. Symmetrical Components 28
2. 10. Per Unit System (p.u.) 29
2. 11. Electricity Generation and Consumption 32
2. 12. Generation Planning 34
2. 13. Transmission Planning 35
2. 14. Interconnections 36
2. 15. Stability 37
3. Components of Power System
3.1. Generators 39
3.2. Transmission System 40
4. Power System Analysis
4.1. Introduction 45
4.2. Bus Admittance Matrices 46
4.3. Power Flow Studies 50
4.4. Power Flow Solution Methods 53
4.5. Power System Software 55
4.6.ShortCircuitAnalysis 56
4.7. Contingency Analysis 59
5. Cost Evaluation
5. 1. Basic Concepts in Electricity Generation Cost 60
5. 2. Basic Definitions and Formulas for Cost of Generation Calculations 60
5. 3. Steps for Cost of Generation Calculations 61
5. 4. Steps for Cost of Transmission Calculations 62
6. Turkish Power System-2013
6.1. 380 kV Generation and Transmission System 63
6.2. Power System Development Between 2000-2013 64
6.3. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) 68
6.4. Electricity Sector Reform 69
6.5. Electricity Market Grid Regulation 73
6.6. Interconnections 80
References 84
1- INTRODUCTION

Electrical Engineering Department of Bilkent University has decided to develop a
realistic project under the Project Course EEE-495. The project to be developed in this
semester is related to Turkish electric power system and will cover;
a) Preparation of feasibility study for connection of new elements (such as loads,
transmission lines, generations, interconnections) to the existing grid considering technical
rules, economical facts and environmental aspects,
b) Comparison of the results obtained above, decision making for realization of the best
results.

1.1- Description of the Project

1.1.1- The project
Electricity consumption of Turkey increases by 4-6 % each year except the years of
economical crisis. That means new generating facilities (generators) should be added to the
existing system to meet the increasing consumption each year.
A natural gas fired combined cycle power plant with a total maximum capacity of 450
MW will be invested to meet the increasing electricity consumption by a group of investors
(students of EEE495 course !).
The aim of the project is preparation of a feasibility report to find out possible
connection points for this new power plant to the existing Turkish power system considering
the following constraints:
- Technical rules.
- Electricity market rules.
- Economical facts.
- Environmental restrictions.

1.1.2. The software
The Power System Analysis software package PSS-E (Power System Simulator-
Engineering) will be used for technical studies (Ref. 11).
PSS-E is capable of performing steady state and dynamic studies of power systems.
Power Flow Analysis, Short Circuit Analysis and N-1 Contingency Analysis modules of PSS-
E will be used for the target project.
Power flow studies are performed to check if a power system is working within the
limits defined by the regulations under steady state conditions with contingencies. Voltage
levels and phase angles, line loadings, load-generation balance and short circuit current levels
are the quantities to be checked.

1.1.3. Base Case Solution
The results of Power Flow Study of Turkish Power System of the year 2013 summer
peak load will be considered as Base Case Solution.
Although the studies are usually performed for two critical system load conditions as
(section 2.11) peak load and minimum load, only the peak load conditions will be
considered in Bilkent PP project.

1.1.4. Project Configuration and Single Line Diagram
- The 450 MW natural gas combined cycle power plant (NGCC) of this project
will be named as BILKENT-PP.
- Project configuration and single line diagram is shown in Appendix 1.1.
- BILKENT-PP will be connected to different transmission lines and different
substations of the existing 380 kV system as shown in Fig A.1 in Appendix 1.1.
- The characteristics of the transmission lines will be 2B Cardinal 954MCM.
2B means there are two conductors per phase and 954MCM is the cross sectional
area the conductors.
Electrical characteristics (R/km, X/km, Y/km) of new (additional) transmission
lines for single circuit, are given in Appendix1.1.
- The electrical characteristics of BILKENT-PP are given in Appendix 1.1.
In this configuration there are 3 generators (Units). Two of them are natural gas
generators and one of them is steam turbine generator. In order to increase energy
production efficiency and for environmental protection (reducing polluting gas
emissions from the gas generators), exhaust gases of gas generators are used to run
steam turbine generators. That is why the gas generators are usually combined with
steam generators, forming generator blocks. This type of operation is named as
Combined Cycle Operation. Typical Combined Cycle Operation Blocks are
formed by combining two gas generators and one steam generator.

1.1.5. Work Program and Time Schedule of the Project
Each group will be formed by 3 students. Report 1 will be submitted at the beginning of
4
th
week will be about forming of the groups and general comprehension of the project.

1.1.5.1. Base Case Runs
Base case is the Turkish power system solutions for 2013maximum (summer peak) load
condition obtained from Turkish Electricity Transmission Company.
This system include all of the 380 kV transmission and generation systems at Anatolian
and Thrace regions. Additionally, all of the 154 kV transmission and generation systems are
represented in Thrace region.
In other words, 380 kV transmission lines, all generators connected to 380 kV buses
(nodes) through their generator transformers, series capacitors and shunt reactors of 380 kV
system in Anatolian and Thrace regions and additionally all generators connected to 154 kV
buses through their generator transformers, all 154 kV transmission lines and all 380/154 kV
autotransformers in Thrace region are represented in this version of power system data.
Several load flow and three phase short circuit studies will be performed to get familiar
with PSS-E software and Turkish power system.
(4 weeks).

1.1.5.2. Data Preparation for BILKENT-PP
The generation and transmission data for BILKENT-PP and its connections to existing
power system will be prepared. (1 week)

1.1.5.3. Connection of BILKENT-PP to the System and Establishment of New
Load-Generation Balance (Scaling)
The connection of 450 MW (3 units) new generation into the existing system will cause
an unbalance in supply and demand of the base case. There are several approaches to restore a
new generation-load (supply-demand) balance after the addition 450 MW generation into the
system:

- Decrease the generations of the existing power plants by a percentage to be
calculated by dividing the 450 MW with the total generation of the existing
system.
- Increase all the active and reactive loads by a percentage to be calculated by
dividing the 450 MW with the total load of the existing system.
The first approach is a reasonable one however the second approach can also be adopted
because construction of Bilkent power plant will take a few years and system loads will also
increase during this time interval (typically 4-6 % each year). Either first or the second
approach has chosen, the modified base case will be obtained with the connection of new
power plant through its new connection lines and with new generation- load balance.

1.1.5.4. Site Selection for Bilkent PP Connection (Report 3.1)
Each group member will connect BILKENT-PP, to different substations and
transmission lines of 2013 summer peak load system as shown in Appendix 1.1 considering
Appendix 1.2. Since each project group member will connect the new power plant to different
substations and lines, each group member will form different modified base case systems with
the addition of new power plant and scaled loads. The active and reactive loads will be scaled
by the amount of additional active generation with a power factor of 0.97.
The power flow analysis will be carried out by each group member and group report
Report 3.1 will be prepared including individual reports of group members and presented by
each group member.
The results of each power flow study will be evaluated in accordance with
(Transmission System Supply Reliability and Quality Regulation Ref. 10.7, Annex-3 and
Annex-7) before going into other analyses, like contingency and short circuit.

The Report 3.1 (maximum 5 pages plus PSS-E limit checking results and sld for each
case as attachment) will contain the following information:
1- Introduction.
2- The selection criteria of the connection transmission lines and substations selected by
each one of the group members App. 1.2.
3- Each group member will prepare a table for her/his connection trials showing the
following power flow results;
- Swing bus active and reactive power production.
- Total active power generation, total active load and total active transmission
losses.
- Number of limit violations for bus voltages higher than 1.05 pu and lower than
0.925 pu.
- Number of limit violations for branch flows higher than 90% of summer load
rating.
- Transmission system usage and operation costs of the selected sites.
4- Slider diagrams showing Bilkent PP and its connection buses Fig. A.1 for each case
study.
5- The final selection of the best connection point, among the studied ones by the group
members, regarding the power flow results and the other reasons of their selection.
(2 weeks)

1.1.5.5. Three Phase Short Circuit Calculations
Each group will study three phase short circuit conditions at every bus (Node) of 380 kV
and 154 kV as described in Appendix 1.5. Three phase short circuit calculation results will be
evaluated in accordance with Ref. 10.7 ,Item.6.
(1 week)

1.1.5.6. (N-1) Contingency Analysis
Each group will study line, transformer, load, shunt, generating unit outages (one
outage at a time) in the Bilkent system as described in Appendix 1.5.
(1 week)

1.1.5.7. Evaluation of Technical Results
Electricity Market Grid Regulation [Reference 10.5] and Transmission System Supply
Reliability and Quality Regulation [Reference 10.7] will be used for technical evaluation of
voltage, current, line loadings, SC current limitations and total transmission losses.
The results of analyses defined in sections 1.1.5.3, 4 and 5 will be controlled to inspect
if there are unacceptable line and transformer loadings, voltage levels and short circuit
currents. The total transmission losses and swing bus conditions will also be checked.
- For the connections that are found technically unacceptable (for example the power
generated by the plant may not be injected into the system at the selected location or
short circuit limitations may be exceeded, etc.). There are other ways to satisfy the
requirements like bus splitting, connection to other substations, connection to lower
voltage level, reduction in the ratings of BLKENT PP etc. Each one of these solutions
needs quite a number of new studies that means time and some new feeders,
autotransformers and transmission lines that means additional investments which are
out of the scope of this project.
(2 weeks)

1.1.5.8. Economic Evaluation (Cost of Generation/kWh)
In this section each group will calculate the cost of production (cents/kWh) of Bilkent
PP for their selected connection site by using the information given in Chapter 5 of this
document.
The project described above has generation and transmission facilities. Therefore
cost/kWh analysis will include capital investment costs and operation and maintenance costs
of generation and transmission facilities. The necessary data is given in Appendices 1.3 and
1.4 for power plant and transmission facilities respectively.
(1week)

1.1.5.9. Reporting Details of Bilkent PP Feasibility Report
Final Report (Report 3.2) Feasibility Report of the project must contain the following
sections and details:
Name of the report: Feasibility Report of 450 MW Bilkent Power Plant Connection to
(Name of the substation) and (Name of tr. Lines)
Content
1. Summary (50-100 words)
2. Introduction
- Aim of the project
- Description of the project including a very short explanation about R 3.1.
- General information about Turkish power system such as;
o Total generation,
o Total load for peak and minimum load conditions,
o Total transmission losses,
o Breakdown of the installed power and generated energy according to the
fuel types and generation companies,
o Any other information found useful by the students
for the year 2013. They are available on TEIAS web page, in the 2013 Annual
Report and/or Statistical Reports.

3. Technical Section
- Basic information about combined cycle natural gas power plants including
environmental aspects.
- Description of power system at 2013 summer peak load before and after the
connection of Bilkent PP.
- Explanation about power flow study, scaling, limits for voltage levels- branch
flows- transformer loadings and limit checking results of bus voltages and
branch- transformer flows.
- Power flow results showing limit checking of bus voltages and branch flows.
- Power flow results showing swing bus production, total system losses, total
generation and total load with their proper units. The results should be in
tabulated form as described in App. 1.5. PSS-E output reports will be presented
as attachments.
- Power flow diagrams (subsystem diagrams) showing the system around Bilkent
PP and its connection buses at the main system before and after the connection
(at least 25 buses). See the explanation in App. 1.5.
- Observations and comments on the connection study considering the limitations
in Ref.10.7, Annex-8 and Annex-3.
- Explanation on the purpose of performing short circuit analysis.
- Results of three phase short circuit calculations (1.1.5.5) with the comparison of
the SC levels before and after Bilkent PP connection and limit checking of short
circuit levels considering the limitations in Ref. 10.7, Item-6. See the
explanations in App. 1.5.
- Explanation about n-1 contingency analysis and contingency files considering
n-1 descriptions in Ref. 10.7, Item12. See the explanations in App. 1.5.
- The Convergence Tables (complete) and Contingency Legends (con. File)
- Comments on n-1 contingency analysis results.
- Results of technical evaluation.

4. Economic Section (Cost of Generation/ kWh at Bilkent PP)
- Description of cost items of Bilkent PP; capital cost, operation and maintenance
costs.
Include the following paragraph in the report; Expenses for preparation of
feasibility report, license fee and land necessary to build the power plant are
included in capital investment cost. Cost of finance and interest during
construction will not be taken into account.
- Unit cost tables of generation and transmission facilities (App 1.3 and 1.4) of
this document.
- Calculations of generation and transmission costs and overall results of
economic evaluation (cost/kWh) as described in Chapter 5. See the
explanations in App. 1.5.

- Results of economic studies including comments on NG gas price sensitivity
studies, annual NG consumption, comparison with the electricity market prices
and economic feasibility of Bilkent PP.


5. Conclusion
The main conclusion of the report should give very short information about important
findings of the studies and your comments on those for each section and final comments on
the result of overall feasibility.
6. Appendix
7. References.

Important Note
Please keep in mind that the readers usually start reading with the introduction and
conclusion sections of a report. If they are interested in the subject they will read other
sections in detail. Therefore introduction and conclusion sections should explain very clearly
your aim of preparing the report, the subject of the study and your comments on your
findings.

Checking overall report
Group members are responsible for all parts of the report. Therefore every group
member should check the parts prepared by other group member seriously.

1.1.5.9. Grading the Results and Presentation
Groups will discuss the technical results and economics of connection alternatives.
Groups will have presentations and debates on several aspects of electricity at the end of
semester.

1.2- Topics of the Course
- Basic concepts of power system.
- Components of a power system.
- Configuration and voltage levels of existing Turkish power system.
- Daily and yearly load curves, load duration curve of Turkish power system.
- Generation and load balance of Turkish power system.
- Power system analysis software PSS-E used in the Project.
- Advanced studies for power system design and testing.
- Laws and regulations published in order to establish electricity market in Turkey.
- Turkish electricity sector organization after Electricity Market Law no 4628.
- The realization of the project described in section 1.1.

APPENDIX-1.1

BILKENT POWER PLANT (BILKENT PP)

The power plant to be studied by the PROJECT GROUPs will be named as
BILKENTPP.
The power plant will have one block (Figure A.1):

The Block will have two gas turbines named as GT1, GT2 with generator step up
transformers named as TR1 and TR2 and one steam turbine named as BT1 with generator
transformer BTR1.

The block is connected to a common 400kV bus of the power plant through the
transformers shown in the Fig.A.1.

Figure A.1. Single line diagram of Bilkent Power Plant.

The common 400kV bus of the power plant is connected to the buses of the existing
400kV system through new and existing transmission lines as shown in Fig A.1. The
characteristics of 35 km new lines connecting Bilkent PP to the existing system are 2B
Cardinal 954 MCM where 2B stands for bundles formed by 2 conductors per phase and
954 MCM (72 mm
2
) stands for the cross-sectional area of each conductor.


APPENDIX 1.1 (cont.)

Electrical Characteristics of BILKENT PP Gas Turbines (GT1, 2) generator (each):
Power rating: 173.5 MVA
Cos u: 0.8
Qmin = -43 MVAR
Output voltage (rated voltage): 10.5 kV
Short Circuit reactance (transient) XD: 30.2% at machine base power
Vs = 1.03 pu

Electrical Characteristics of BILKENTPP Steam Turbine (BT1) generator:
Power rating: 216.0 MVA
Cos u: 0.8
Qmin =-50 MVAR
Output voltage (rated voltage): 15.75 kV
Short Circuit reactance (transient) XD: 21% at machine base power
Vs= 1.03 pu

Electrical Characteristics of gas generator transformers (all identical):
Primary: Delta connected.
Secondary: Y-connected with grounded neutral.
Primary Voltage: 10.5kV
Secondary Voltage: 400 kV
Power rating: 180 MVA
Tap Positions: 2x2.5 % (Vmax=400+20kV, Vmin=400-20 kV)
Number of Taps: 5
Tap steps: 4*10kV
Impedance: 12 % at transformer base power

Electrical Characteristics of steam generator transformer:
Primary: Delta connected.
Secondary: Y-connected with grounded neutral.
Primary Voltage: 15.75kV
Secondary Voltage: 400 kV
Power rating: 200MVA
Tap Positions: 2x2.5% (Vmax=400+20kV, Vmin=400-20 kV)
Number of Taps: 5
Tap steps: 4*10kV
Impedance: 12 % at transformer base power

Electrical characteristics of 400 kV 2B Cardinal 954MCM transmission line (single
circuit):
Series resistance: R = 0.0343ohms/km,
Series (inductive) reactance: X = 0.307 ohms/km,
Shunt (capacitive) admittance: Y = 3.43 mho/km.
Rate A: 889MVA, Rate B: 1057MVA, Rate C: 1431MVA


APPENDIX-1.2.

CONNECTION POINTS OF BILKENT POWER PLANT

1. The connection buses of the base case system:
Each group member will choose one 380 kV connection transmission line and
substations in Thrace area and the other(s) in Anatolian area.

2. Site selection criteria:
The following items can be considered while selecting the connection buses of the
Bilkent PP;
- The closeness, availability and capacity of the natural gas pipeline infrastructure.
- The closeness of high electricity consumption areas.
- The cost of land necessary for the new power plant.
- The cost of transmission charges for the year 2014.
- The transmission system availability and capacity. For example high voltage buses
of power plants and/or buses connected with a single line to the system (end buses-
weak connection) should not be chosen as connection buses.


APPENDIX-1.3

COST TABLE FOR BILKENT NATURAL GAS COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT
*

Minimum Load (MW): 100

Capacity (MW): 450

Heat Rate (kcal/kWh): 1670 (average)

Calorific Value of Fuel (kcal/ m
3
): 8347

Fuel Cost ($/1000 m
3
): 320 and 360

Forced Outage Rate (FOR) %: 10

Maintenance Days: 25

Maintenance Outage Rate (MOR) : (25/365)

Fixed Operation & Maintenance Cost ($/kW-year ): 4.20

Variable Operation & Maintenance Cost: 0.0

Emission Factor NOX: 220.87

Capital Cost ($/ kW): 750

Plant Life: 25 years

Construction Time: 3 years

Discount Rate (%): 10

$ = 2.2100 TL

*The values in the table are taken from TEIAS A.S.


APPENDIX 1.4

COST TABLE FOR TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
*

1. Transmission Lines
2B Cardinal 954 MCM (single circuit): 155 000 $/km

2. Generator Unit Transformers
380/13.8 kV, 315 MVA: 3 500 000 $/ transformer

3. 380 kV Feeders
Transmission line feeder (2 main+1 transfer): 630 000 $/feeder
Transformer feeder (2 main+ 1 transfer): 588 000 $/feeder
Transfer feeder (2 main+ 1 transfer): 288 000 $/feeder
Coupling feeder (2 main+ 1 transfer): 385 000 $/feeder

4. Transmission Operation & Maintenance Costs
Energy Market Regulatory Authority Decree on Transmission Charges 2014:
- Decree no 4814 dated 31.12.2013 will be used for transmission system usage and
operation charges,

*The costs indicated in items 1,2,3 are taken from TEIAS A.S. approximated for the
year 2010.


APPENDIX 1.5

Notes For Bilkent Power Plant Feasibility Report 3.2
(Supplementary Document for Reporting Section 1.1.5.9 of this document)
1) An example Table for comparison and easy understanding of the differences
between cases:
RESULTS

CASES
Total
Generation
(MW)
Total
Loads
(MW)
Total
Losses
(MW)
Swing Bus
Active &
Reactive
Generation

Voltage
of the
Bus/Buses
where
Bilkent is
connected
(Write
name)
(kV)
Voltage ,
P and Q
generations of
Bilkent PP
(kV)
(MW)(MVar)
Short Circuit
Level of
Bilkent and
Connection
Bus (Write
name)
(kA) (kA)
Before
Bilkent
Connection

After
Bilkent
Connection

*These are the basic information expected for this part of the report. More information can
be put in the table depending on the reporters. Too many information makes the table
crowded and difficult to understand.
Selected computer outputs for the verification of the table will be attached.
Please dont forget to add your Comments about the results shown in the Table.

2) Power Flow Diagrams
The following points should be considered for power flow diagrams of the studied region:
- A4 size minimum 25 buses. Show generator buses with dot notation and dont count
them in 25 buses.
- Geographical positions of buses should be considered.
- Every word or number on the diagram should be readable.
- Circuit breaker and transformer connections should be kept as short as possible.
- Transmission lines do not pass over the buses that they are not connected.
- Bilkent PP is placed in such a way that it can be easily identified.
- Bus voltages in kV & in p.u. with its angle, all loads on buses, shunts connected to
buses or branches will be shown.

Before and after Bilkent connection diagrams will be printed by using fit the whole
diagram to page printing property of PSS-E and placed in the report.

3) 3 Phase Short Circuit Calculations
Short circuit calculations will be performed at each bus of your subsystem (25 buses or
more) except low voltage buses of generators and circuit breaker buses. The results will be
in polar form kA, total short circuit current and s.c. current contributions from
neighboring buses will be in the same PSS-E output report and all reports will be attached
to the Report 3.2.
The s.c. studies will be performed and the results will be prepared before and after Bilkent
PP connection.
A list showing bus names, bus numbers, bus kV levels and the total sccs in kA
(magnitude) will be prepared before and after Bilkent PP connection and included in the
report together with the comments on the results and comparison with the sc current
withstand limits.

4) N-1 Contingency Analyses
These analyses will be performed at Bilkent PP 380 kV bus and its connection buses in
the main system for the conditions defined in Ref.10.7 (item- 12, page 9) and outlined
below:
a) N-1 contingency for Bilkent bus (single element outage at a time)
- Disconnect one of the Bilkent PP units.
- Disconnect one of the unit transformers.
- Disconnect each one of the transmission lines connecting Bilkent to the main
system buses.
b) N-1 contingency (single element outage at a time) for first and second connection
buses
- Disconnect all of the tr. lines.
- Disconnect generating units (only one unit will be enough if they are identical
units).
- Disconnect generating unit transformers (only one unit transformer will be
enough if they are identical).
- Disconnect shunt reactors and/or capacitors.
- Disconnect series compensation units (series capacitors).
- Disconnect step down (load) transformers.
- Disconnect loads that are directly connected to the 380kV buses.
Prepare con, sub files for the above conditions. Prepare mon file to check voltages
for -%10 and +5% range and branch flows exceeding 90% of the lowest rating among rates A,
B and C.
Description of contingency cases (contingency legend) and comments on the results will
be in the report. The computer results will be attached to the report.

5) Cost Calculations
a) Total cost of generation composed of generation cost and transmission cost
components will be calculated with four decimal accuracy at each step.
b) The fuel cost sensitivity analyses for 320 $/ 1000 cubic meter and 360 $/ 1000
cubic meter will be performed.
c) The total cost results will be compared with electricity market marginal prices
(average for 2013).
d) Annual natural gas consumption of Bilkent PP will be calculated by using average
heat rate.
e) $ = 2.21 TL

6) Appendices
Appendices should have content, page number, headings.

7) The report should not exceed 20 pages excluding appendices.

2. BASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO POWER SYSTEMS

2. 1. Introduction

Electric power systems are balanced three phase interconnected networks.
Interconnected means three basic components of an electric power systems; namely
generation, transmission and distribution are connected to each other and works as a single
system.
The transmission system is formed by high voltage (e.g. 380 kV, 154 kV) transmission
lines, transformers and associated equipments linking generating sources to distribution
systems which are formed by medium and low voltage (34.5 kV and lower) distribution
lines, transformers, etc. feeding the industrial and domestic consumers.
The advantages of interconnected power systems are:
- Security of supply in both generation and transmission.
- Increase in quality of supply.
- Reduction in investment and maintenance costs.
- Reduction in system losses.
- Reduction in spare capacity needs for system frequency control.
Generation, transmission and distribution components of power systems should have
design standards which mentioned in detail in Grid Code (ebeke Ynetmelii) in order to
maintain system security and quality of supply. Power systems need planning studies to meet
the above requirements with optimum investments and to create an easily operable and
expendable systems.

2. 2. Phasor Notation
Time domain and frequency domain expressions for sinusoidal signals (voltages and
currents) are related through the following definitions:
) ( ) ( u + = wt Cos V t v
m

where Vm is the amplitude, u is the phase and e=2tf is the angular frequency.
Usually we are interested in only the amplitude and phase of the signals. A short hand
notation for amplitude-phase description of the signals is provided through Euler notation as
follows:
) ( ) ( | |
|
jSin Cos e
j
+ =
) Re( ) ( ) (
) ( u
u
+
= + =
jwt
m
e V wt VmCos t v
The pair Vm and u are used to form the phasor expression V as follows:

u u u
u
sin
m m m
j
m
jV Cos V V e V + = Z = = V
From now on we will use this notation to denote amplitude and phase of voltages and
currents.

2. 3. Series and Parallel Circuit Models of Typical Loads
In power systems typical loads are inductive and modeled either as parallel or series
connected R-L circuits as shown in Fig. 2.1. A parallel Rp-Lp load can always be converted
into a series connected Rs-Ls load through the relations shown in the figure.

Fig. 2.1. Series/ parallel conversion of R-L type loads.

2. 4. A Simplified Circuit Model for a Two Generator Power System
In order to get insight on the typical power system analysis concepts lets consider a two
generator system connected to a load through transmission lines as shown in Fig. 2.2.a. The
source voltages are VA and VB respectively, with source impedances Zg1 and Zg2.
Fig. 2.2.b shows a lumped element circuit model for the transmission lines. It consists of a
series combination of a resistor and inductor surrounded by two shunt capacitors.
Fig. 2.2.c shows the possible R-L models for the load.
Fig. 2.2.d shows the complete circuit to be analyzed.
Given the source voltages, theoretically it is possible to find voltage, current, real and
reactive powers over the load using Node Equations or Mesh Equations approaches.

Fig. 2.2. A two generator power system.

In order to simplify the analysis problem further, we may ignore the shunt capacitors of
transmission lines. Then impedances of generators can be combined with series impedances
of the transmission lines, shown as Z1 and Z2 in the circuit of Fig. 2.3. The load impedance is
shown as ZL. Analysis of this circuit is easy, as described below:

Fig. 2.3. Calculations on the simplified two generator power system.

- Given the source voltages, the only unknown node voltage VB of the load can be
found using the node equation (KCL) at node B as described in the figure:

bd cb ab I I I = +

ZL Z Z
b
2
b c
1
b a V V V V V
=

ZL Z Z
Z Z
1
2
1
1
1
2 1
a
b
+ +
+
=
Vc V
V

- Knowing Vb, the currents can be calculated:
1
b a
ab
Z
V V
I
= ,
2
b c
cb
Z
V V
I
= ,
ZL
b V
Ibd =

- Then the complex powers supplied by the generators can be calculated using the
definition
a a
ab
a a
Q j P + = =
*
I V S
c c
cb
c
Q j P + = =
*
I V S
c

- The complex powers delivered to load can be calculated:
L L
bd
b L
Q j P + = =
*
I V S

- Finally, the complex power on the transmission lines can be calculated:

TL TL
cb
b c
ab
b a TL
Q j P ( ( + = + =
* *
)I V - V )I V - V S

- In order to check power conservation theorem, we can show that complex power
generated in the sources is equal to the sum of complex powers given to the load
and the transmission lines:
TL L c a
S S S S + = +


REMARK:
In actual power system analysis, the above problem is usually posed as follows:
- Given the desired PL and QL on the load.
- Given the voltage Va and real power Pa of the generator at node-A.
- Given the limits Qa,min and Qa,max of generator at node-A.
- Given voltage Vc and phase Oc of generator at node-C.
- Find reactive power Qa and phase ua of generator at node-A and voltage Vb and
phase ub of the load at node-B.
Can you suggest an approach to solve such a problem?

2. 5. Three Phase Systems, Real and Reactive Power, Power Factor

Fig. 2.4.a shows a Y-connected three phase power generation, transmission and Y-
connected load system. The source voltages have equal magnitudes with 120 degree phase
difference:

where Vp is magnitude of phase-to-neutral voltage or simply phase voltage.
The three phase load impedances are shown as ZAN, ZBN, ZCN.
The junction points n and N are termed as neutral points.
Line-to-Line voltages (or Line Voltages) are can be calculated through the definitions given
in Fig. 2.4.b or c. It can be shown that

The currents IaA, IbB and IcC are termed as Line Currents.

Figure 2.4. a) Y-connected three phase source and load system. b) Definitions of line-to-line
voltages. c) Graphical calculation of line-to-line voltage Vab (The other voltages can also be
calculated in the same way).

If the load impedances are identical (ZAN=ZBN=ZCN=Z) then the system is called as
Balanced Three Phase system. In a balanced system, using mesh equations, it can be shown
that for such system the net current passing through the neutral connection, INn is always zero.
Hence voltages of the nodes n and N are the same.
Fig. 2.5 shows a Delta connected three phase source and load system. In these systems
phase voltages are identical to line-to-line voltages while line current magnitudes are related
to phase current magnitudes through

with the same 120 degree phase difference between adjacent line voltages and currents.

Fig. 2.5.Delta connected three phase source and load system.

Lets consider the Y-connected version only.
Denoting the impedance of one phase of the load as

the voltage-current relation on one phase of the load, for example on branch A-N will be

where Ip is the magnitude of the phase current:

The complex power supplied to one phase of the load is defined as

Here P is termed as real power (or active power) and Q is the reactive power:

Magnitude of complex power is

The total complex three phase power S
3|
generated by all three sources is

Real and reactive powers are of the most important parameters / variables of power systems.
Therefore they deserve special attention. The parameter cos defined above is very
important in power systems, deserving a special name. It is termed as power factor (pf):

It should be noted that if Cos u = 1 then real power P will be maximum while reactive power
Q will be zero. This condition can only be satisfied if the load impedance has no reactive part.
This point is seen clearer by describing the real and reactive powers in terms of the resistance
R and reactance X of the impedance Z as follows:
Using the definitions,

The complex power taken by the impedance Z can also be found as

Thus giving

Thus, the real and reactive powers taken by an impedance Z are directly proportional to the
resistive and reactive parts, R and X respectively.

As examples for calculation of complex power, lets consider the series and parallel R-
L-C circuits shown in Fig. 2.6.

Figure 2.6. Series and parallel R-L-C elements.

In the series R-L-C element of Fig. 2.6.a the total impedance is:

where

with f being the frequency. In this expression the total reactance is


Here XL is the reactance of inductor and XC is the reactance of capacitor:

Thus, the reactive power has two components: Inductive reactive power QL and capacitive
reactive power QC calculated as follows:

with

It is seen that QL and QC always tend to cancel each other. The condition Q=0 implies X= 0
which means

That is, theoretically it is possible to make the total reactive power zero in the RLC element
by adjusting L and/or C values.
In case of shunt arm parallel connected G-L-C elements, complex, real and reactive
powers are calculated in terms of admittance parameters as follows:

The total admittance is

where

is the conductance,

is the total susceptance with BL and BC being the inductive and capacitive susceptances (or
simply admittances):

The complex power can be calculated as follows:


Here P is the real power, QL is the inductive component and QC is the capacitive component
of the reactive power. It is seen that QL and QC always tend to cancel each other. The
condition Q=0 implies B= 0 which means

That is, theoretically it is possible to make the total reactive power zero by adjusting L and/or
C values.

{Note: In power system practice it is said that capacitors generatereactive power while
inductors absorb reactive power, to mean that reactive powers generated by capacitors can
be compensated (eliminated) by adding inductors and vice versa.}

In power systems the aim is to transmit real power to the loads. However it is seen that
the reactive parts of the impedances in the system lead to reactive power Q also. Reactive
power flow cause unnecessary increase in current levels, hence increased losses over the
transmission lines. Also real power generation capability of the generators and real power
carrying capacity of transmission lines will be limited by the reactive power flow. Reactive
power may also decrease voltage levels at load locations beyond acceptable limits while at
some other locations overvoltages may develop. For these reasons it is desirable to minimize
the reactive power. In order to minimize the reactive power (Q), it is clear that the power
factor (p.f.) of loads should be made close to unity.

2. 6. Reactive Power and Voltage Control
Reactive power is unavoidable in a power system because of the reactance and charging
capacitance of transmission lines and reactive parts of the loads. If it is not controlled it may
cause overvoltages resulting in damages in system equipment in minimum load hours or
excessive voltage drops at load points at peak load hours resulting again in some damages in
system and/or customer equipment. Further, high reactive currents in the system necessitate
increased ratings of the system equipment like generators, transformers and transmission lines
which is a very costly task.
Reduction of reactive power increases the active power generation capacity of the
generators and active power carrying capacity of transmission lines and transformers. In other
words system installed capacity is utilized in more efficient way by controlling reactive
power. Reactive power control and hence voltage control can be made by means of:
- Shunt capacitors; to compensate or reduce reactive part of the loads and hence
increase power factor which results increase in voltage at load buses.
- Shunt inductive reactors (usually termed as reactors); to reduce bus voltages.
- Generators; to increase or decrease generator output voltages according to
system requirements, by using their capability curve (see sec 2.6.4 and table 4.1
in sec 4.3)
- Transformer taps; to increase or decrease transformer bus voltages.

2. 6. 1. Shunt Capacitive Compensation in Reactive Power Control
Since reactive parts of the usual loads are inductive in nature, in practice power factor
correction at load ends is made by introducing capacitive reactance in parallel with the load
impedances (Fig. 2.7). This is termed as shunt capacitive compensation or power factor
correction. The capacitive reactance compensates the inductive reactance of the load.

Fig. 2.7. Shunt capacitive compensation.

They can be placed at various locations within the distribution systems. They can also
be connected to low voltage side of the 154 kV transformers of the transmission system. In
Turkish power system the power ratings of shunt capacitors connected to low voltage side of
154 kV transformers are chosen as 5, 10, 20 MVAR. Shunt capacitor ratings are set as 20%
(maximum) of the transformer power rating to avoid resonance conditions at 3
rd
,

7
th
and 9
th

harmonics and to limit the maximum voltage variations to 2 % during switching of shunt
capacitors.

2. 6. 2. Shunt Inductive Compensation
Figure 2.8.a shows a lumped element circuit model used for power transmission lines.
Neglecting resistive losses, a Pi-section formed by a series inductor surrounded by two shunt
capacitors is sufficient to simulate the transmission line. The reactive powers created in the
series inductance and shunt capacitances can be calculated in terms of the node voltages V1
and V2 as follows:
The reactive powers in the capacitors C1 and C2 are calculated as follows:

The current IL and reactive power QL in the series inductor are found as follows:

So, the net reactive power over the transmission line is the difference between capacitive
and inductive reactive powers:

Inspection of the above formulations shows the following facts:
- QL is dependent on IL. Since the current over the line may vary greatly in a day
depending on the load requirements, the inductive reactive power QL can change
greatly.
- Since the voltages V1 and V2 over the line are close to each other and assumed to
be constant (at e.g. about 380 kV), the capacitive reactive powers QC1 and QC2
remain constant, independent of the current over the line.
So it is clear that the net reactive power taken by the transmission line varies greatly.
For example during minimum load hours the real power hence the current in the series
inductor decreases. An extreme case appears during line energization activities. A line is
energized from one end while the other end is open circuited. Thus no real power flows over
the line. The current in the line takes its minimum value needed for the reactive powers of
capacitors and series inductor. Since the current IL is decreased in such cases the reactive
power of the inductor become much less than the reactive power of the capacitors. In order to
keep the steady state voltages within accepted limits, shunt inductors (usually named as shunt
reactors) are switched on. They are connected in parallel with shunt capacitors to compensate
capacitive reactive power (Fig. 2.8.b).
Shunt reactors are connected to high voltage buses or transmission line ends.
The power ratings of shunt reactors used in 380 kV Turkish power system are 60, 80,
100, 120 and 150 MVARs.

Figure 2.8. a) Lumped element circuit model of power transmission lines.
b) Shunt inductive compensation. c) Series capacitive compensation.
2. 6. 3. Series Capacitive Compensation
In case of very high voltage long transmission lines (380 kV in Turkish power system) it
may be necessary to compensate the series inductive reactance of the transmission lines. This
is done by connecting a bank of capacitors in series with transmission line to decrease its net
inductive reactance (Fig. 2.8.c). This leads to the following results:
- Increase in active (real) power carrying capacity.
- Improve system stability.
- Voltage control.
Series capacitors are connected to transfer high amounts of power to heavily loaded
centers. Series capacitors are installed near the midpoint of the lines under consideration.
Impedances and current limitations of the existing series capacitors are shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2. Series capacitors in Turkish power system
380 kV Line Installation Place Reactance (ohm) Current Rating (Amps)
Temelli-Adapazari Dokurcun 25 1600
Temelli-Tepeoren Dokurcun 25 1600
Temeli-Yeilhisar Aaren 45 1600
Kayabasi-Osmanca Kayabasi 33 1400
Kayabasi- Sincan Kayabasi 33 1400
Kayabasi-Kangal Kayabasi 33 1400
Kayseri-Golbasi Kayseri 35 1250
Kayseri-Golbasi Kayseri 35 1250
Elbistan A-Sincan Urgup 2*33 1600
Elbistan B-Sincan Urgup 2*33 1600
Ataturk-Yesilhisar Goksun 45 1600
Ataturk-Yesilhisar Goksun 45 1600
Adana-Erzin Erzin 30 850
Adana-Seydisehir Seydisehir 30 850
2. 6. 4. Generators in Reactive Power and Voltage Control

A useful application of the reactive power (Q) appears in the interconnected systems
where there are many sources and loads. In such systems all of the generators may be required
to generate capacitive or inductive reactive power just to keep the voltages at all nodes within
certain limits (max. 10 %). Generators are the most natural sources of reactive power in a
system. Generators can control both real and reactive powers together with the voltage level
by means of their excitation systems and control units.
A generator can be operated in inductive reactive power mode (reactive power
generation mode, overexcited) or capacitive reactive power mode (reactive power
absorption mode, underexcited). In other words generators can absorb or generate reactive
power dictated by the system, limited by their capability curves. For example Figure 2.9
shows the active and reactive power limits of a generator. The capability curves are given by
the manufacturer for each generator.
Generator units can produce or absorb reactive power without generating active power
in accordance with their capability curves. This working mode is called as compensator.

Figure 2.9. A typical generator capability curve.

Generator output voltage magnitude and phase are set by the active and reactive power
requirement of the system. The voltage and reactive power control of a generator is done
through feedback control circuits of excitation system which is called automatic voltage
regulator (AVR).

2. 7. Automatic Generation Control (Active Power and Frequency Control)

Frequency of a power system is one of the most important parameters indicating the
quality of supply. System frequency is 50Hz (60 Hz in some countries) as long as the balance
between production and consumption (including the losses) is preserved. But power systems
are always subject to load variations, changes in generation. In such cases the system
frequency and programmed load flows through interconnection lines (to other regions or
countries) will change.
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) aims at meeting the varying load demand
continuously and economically (Economic dispatch) in an optimal way taking the generation
and transmission system constraints into account.
Power produced by a generator is set by controlling the mechanical power output of a
turbine by opening or closing valves of steam or water. If the system load increases the
system frequency decreases. The generated power output must increase to find a new
equilibrium by opening the valves wider. If the load decreases the opposite action takes place.
Speed governor is a device sensing the speed deviation or a power change command
and converts it into appropriate valve action. Since the speed governor does not generate
enough force to operate steam or water valves a motor interposed between governor and
valves. The deviations from nominal speed or frequency are used as control signals to cause
appropriate valve action automatically provided by governor mechanism.
Each generator units turbine governor has regulation characteristic curve named as
droop curve. Droop is the change in frequency as percentage of nominal frequency while
generator output reaches from no load to full load value. Droop can be expressed as
L/f=1/R (MW/Hz).
Generation control in interconnected power systems is achieved within seconds by
feedback control mechanism of speed governors of generating units. This is called primary
control. Following the primary control; power commands calculated by automatic
generation control program in control centers sent to generator units joining frequency
control for secondary regulation of speed governors. This is called as secondary control and
its realization take several minutes.
AGC rules are defined in every detail in Electricity Market Grid Regulation (Ref.10).
The nominal frequency is 50 Hz and should be kept within the limits of 49.95 Hz and 50.05
Hz. Overall system power reserve should be kept at least 2-2.5 % of the total demand.

2. 8. Energy
Real and reactive energy generated by the sources or absorbed by loads are calculated as
time integral of complex power between specified time limits. In practice a time averaged
power is multiplied by time duration to get a rough idea on the energy.
The usual time duration is a year or 8760 hours or its fractions.

2. 9. Symmetrical Components
Power systems are aimed at operating under balanced three phase conditions. A balanced
system must have the following conditions:
- Identical source voltages with 120 degrees phase difference.
- Identical transmission system parameters (transmission lines, transformers, etc.).
- Identical loads.
Clearly, these conditions are difficult to maintain under varying load and transmission
system conditions. Voltages, currents, real and reactive powers and frequency of the
generators are effected by various factors like changing power demand in different phases,
various kind of asymmetric faults, etc.
- In order to maintain a constant voltage within acceptable limits under the demanded
power and maintain a constant frequency under varying load conditions, feedbacks are
used from the system for controlling these parameters.
- Balanced three phase system requires identical transmission lines in all three phases.
This condition is approximated by transposing the transmission lines so that the each path
from sources to loads will have approximately equal transfer functions.
- The most difficult part is providing identical three phase loads. In general they are not
controllable. However roughly equal load conditions may be approximated by connecting
similar loads to each phase.

Balanced systems has many advantages. One advantage is related to analysis of the
system. A balanced three phase system can be analyzed as if it is a single phase system
which has only one loop, hence simplifying the analysis greatly. Power Flow studies (power
flow, voltage, current, impedance, etc.) are carried out on one phase. The resulting voltages
and currents will be the same in the other two phases with the exception of 120 degree phase
difference. This approach can also be used for analysis under balanced disturbances, like three
phase open circuits or three phase short circuits.

If there is an unbalance in the network, then the analysis of the three phase network is
carried out by decomposing the unbalanced three phase circuit into three balanced three phase
circuits with specially adjusted excitations. The approach is named as symmetrical
components technique. The decomposed network is characterized by three different sets of
excitations and impedances: Positive Sequence, Negative Sequence and Zero Sequence
networks. The voltages and currents obtained from these sequence networks are then
superposed to get the complete solution. This approach is used for example in case of
asymmetric disturbances such as single phase opening or single/double phase to ground short
circuit faults or line-to-line short circuits.

2. 10. Per Unit System (p.u)
In power system analysis a special normalization system is used termed as Per Unit
System for ease in calculations, comparison and interpretations of the results.
The definition for per unit (pu) quantities is as follows:

Quantity in per unit = Actual quantity/ Base value of the quantity (2.7.1)

The quantities of interest in power systems are voltages (volts), currents (amperes),
impedances (ohm), real power (Watts), reactive power (Vars) and complex power (VA).

Spu = S / SB, Vpu = V / VB, Ipu = I / IB, Zpu = Z / ZB = Rpu+ jXpu (2.7.2)

where SB, VB, IB and ZB are the base quantities, Spu, Vpu, Ipu and Zpu are their per unit values.
The normalized (p.u.) variables (voltage, current, impedance and power) must satisfy
the same equations as the actual variables. For example Ohms law for impedance is

V = Z I (2.7.3)

where V, Z and I are all complex numbers. The base variables VB, ZB and IB are selected as
real numbers satisfying the relation

VB = ZB IB (2.7.4)

The base power is defined as the real number

SB = VBIB (2.7.5)

From the definitions given in Equations 2.7.4 and 2.7.5 it is seen that specifying only
two of the four base quantities (SB, VB, IB, ZB) is sufficient to determine the other two.
Usually SB and VB, are specified and the other two are calculated as follows:

IB = SB / VB (2.7.6)

and

ZB = VB / IB = VB
2
/ SB (2.7.7)

The base power may be taken as magnitude of three phase power or magnitude of single
phase power. If SB is the single phase power then the three phase base power is

SB
3|
= 3 SB (2.7.8)

If we set the base phase voltage as VB, then the base line-to-line voltage VBLL will be

VBLL = 3 * VB (2.7.9)

The base current can also be calculated in terms of the three phase base power and line-to-line
voltage as follows:

IB = SB / VB = (SB
3|
/3) / ( VBLL/ 3) = SB
3|
/(3 VBLL) (2.7.10)

Similarly, we can calculate the base impedance using either three phase or single phase
quantities:

ZB = VB
2
/ SB = (3 VB
2
) / (3 SB ) = (3VB)
2
/ (3 SB) = V
2
BLL / SB
3|
(2.7.11)

Per Unit impedances calculated using a given set of base quantities can be transformed
into another set of base quantities using the following formula:

Zpu,new = Zpu,old (VB,old / VB,new)
2
(SB,new / SB,old) (2.7.12)

In Turkish power system we use the following three phase base power:

SB
3|
= 100 MVA = 100,000 kVA (2.7.13)

The standard base line-to-line voltages of Turkish power system are as follows:

VBLL = 380kV, 154kV, 34.5 kV, 15.8kV, 10.5 kV, 6.3 kV (2.7.14)

For example if we set SB
3|
as the three phase base power and choose VBLL as line-to-line base
voltage then the base current and base impedance can be found using 2.7.10 and 11.

For example for SB
3|
= 100 MVA = 100,000 kVA and VB = 380 kV the base current is

IB (ampere) = SB (kVA) / (3 * VBLL (kV) ) = 100 000 / (3 * 380) = 152 Amps.

Then the base impedance can be found as

ZB (ohms) = [VBLL (kV)]
2
/ SB
3|
( MVA) = 380
2
/100 = 1444 ohms

The base currents and base impedances calculated at 100 MVA base power for standard
voltage levels of Turkish power system using definitions given in Eqs. 2.7.10 and 2.7.11 are
shown in Table 2.1:

Table 2.1. Base voltage, current and impedances for Turkish power system
Base Voltage Calculated Base current Calculated Base Impedance
(kV) (Amps) (ohms)
__________ _________________ ____________________
380 152 1444.0
154 375 237.16
34.5 1673 11.90
15.8 3654 2.5
10.5 5498 1.1
6.3 9164 0.4

As another example, consider the voltages on the two sides of an 380 kV to 154 kV
transformer (turns ratio = n= 380/154 = 2.4675). For example if the actual voltage on the
primary side is V1 = 391.4 kV then the actual voltage on the secondary side will be
V2 = V1/ n = 158.62 kV. On the other hand the per unit value of the primary voltage is
calculated by dividing V1 by its base value of 380 while the per unit value of the secondary
side is found by dividing V2 by its base value of 154 giving identical per unit values:

V1pu = 391.4 / 380 = 1.03 pu
V2pu = 158.62 / 154 = 1.03 pu

Thus, the effect of transformer is eliminated if only the per unit values are used,
simplifying the calculations appreciably.
The actual magnitudes are calculated by multiplication of the p.u. values by base values.
For example 1.03 p.u. voltage is 391.4 kV if it is at 380 kV bus, 158.62 kV if it is at 154 kV
bus.
A per unit impedance calculated in one base can be converted into per unit impedance in
another base using the following formula starting from the idea that Zpu depends on Zb but
Zactual (ohms) does not. The relationship between the old and new values can be written as:

Zactual = Z
old
p.u. Z
old
B = Z
new
p.u. Z
new
B and Z
new
p.u.= Z
old
p.u. *[ Z
old
B / Z
new
B ] (2.7.15)

Substituting the base values of Z in terms of line voltages and three phase powers;

Z
new
pu = Z
old
pu x [ V
old
B(kV)/V
new
B(kV)]
2
x [S
new
B(kVA)/S
old
B(kVA)] (2.7.16)

The advantages of p.u. system are;
-Comparison and interpretation of results are easy.
-Voltage levels of primary and secondary windings of transformers will be identical,
hence cannot be mixed. For example if the network includes a transformer then it would be
advantageous to select different base voltages for the two sides of the transformer so that the
per unit values of the primary and secondary voltages and currents will be identical, thus
eliminating the transformer.
- Per unit values of Phase-to-Neutral and Line-to-Line voltages will be identical, hence
cannot be mixed.

2. 11. Electricity Generation and Consumption

Electricity is generated in a power system always follows consumption including system
losses. There is a balance between generation and consumption.
The following definitions are very important since they are the most critical conditions of a
power system considering transmission losses, system stability, and security of supply. In
other words they indicate quality level of a system.

2. 11. 1. Electricity Consumption, Peak Load (Demand) and Minimum Load

Electric Energy Consumption is expressed in terms of energy (MWh, kWh). Daily
consumption, monthly consumption and yearly consumption are the total energy consumed by
the system loads including total losses in one day or in one month or in one year respectively.
Peak Load is expressed in terms of active power (W) and indicates maximum active power
(loads plus losses) measured within a year. Peak loads was reached during winter period
(December or January) in Turkish power system before 1990s. Another peak load started to
be experienced during summer time in parallel with the increasing tourism activities and
economic growth of the country. One of the above mentioned peak loads is greater than the
other depending on climate conditions and economic growth of the referred year. A typical
daily load curve showing winter peak load day and total energy consumption during that
specific day at January 28, 2008 is shown in Figure 2.10.
The diagram in Figure 2.10 indicates system characteristics. In highly industrialized countries
load curves are smoother which is desirable in order to minimize generation investments.
Minimum Load is realized when the system active power needs are at the minimum level for
the year under consideration.

Figure 2.10. Daily load curve
(Note: Taken from TEAS website)


An example of yearly load curve showing the above definitions is given in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2. 11. A typical yearly load curve.

2. 11. 2. Load Duration Curve

Load duration curve shows system total loads in hourly basis and helps the system
developers in their decisions for new investments. Load duration curve for the year 2008 is
given in Figure 2. 12.

Figure 2.12. Load duration curve of 2008 (Note: Taken from TEA website)
2. 11. 3. Load Forecast

Every year load forecasts in terms of peak load and energy consumption are prepared for
the next year, next coming five, ten to twenty years (short, medium and long terms)
considering load growth trends, new coming loads, economic and social parameters.
Distribution Companies also prepare load forecasts of their regions.
Load forecast is very important in order to decide timing of the new investments for
generation, transmission and distribution. In cases that there is no relation between load
forecast and new investments, insufficiency or excess amounts in supply can be expected in
the whole system or regional blackouts may be met due to the lack of transmission and/or
distribution investments.
The above mentioned load and energy forecast methodology has changed with the
electricity market regulation Law and related Decrees. The load forecast responsibility is
given to Distribution Companies.

2. 12. Generation Planning (Capacity Projection)
The aim of generation planning is to meet the load and energy demands in an optimal
way taking environmental issues also into consideration. The optimization covers investment
costs, operational costs, fuel costs, maintenance costs and cost of investment with a certain
amount of spare capacity in order to create a reliable generation system.

Spare capacities of power and energy are necessary in a power system for the following
reasons:
- Great differences may arise between load forecasts and realization.
- Generator units may need revisions or maintenance for longer periods than
expected.
- Water incomes of hydro power plants of reservoir type may decrease depending on
climate conditions.
- Quality and/or amount of coal may decrease for coal fired units.
Spare capacity is in terms of MW and spare energy is in terms of MWh. Working hours
of different types of power plants in a year are usually different. For example thermal units
can operate 7000-8000 hours while hydro units or renewable units can operate much less
hours, typically 2000-3000 hours in a year depending on water incomes, wind speed etc.
Hydro power plants of reservoir type have great share in installed capacity in Turkish
power system. Thus the following definitions are important while considering energy
production of hydro power plants;
- Project energy is the energy producing capability under normal water income
conditions
- Firm energy is the energy producing capability under drought climate conditions
Generation planning concept of the optimum investment and operating costs has changed
after the publication of Electricity Market Law and related Decrees. It is named as Capacity
Projection showing only power and energy requirements of the system for short, medium and
long terms taking into consideration of the generation licenses given to the investors by
EMRA. The Capacity Projection report prepared by TEIAS can be seen in the website of
TEIAS.

2. 13. Transmission Planning
Transmission planning is necessary to maintain supply quality and continuity to create
an easily operable and expandable transmission system and also to reduce the transmission
investment costs. This way the environmental impacts are also reduced.
Transmission systems are usually planned for the next coming one-to-ten years.
The following information is necessary for transmission planning:
- The capabilities and operational limitations of the existing and new generators that
will be commissioned (starting to operate) in the forthcoming years.
- Load forecasts for each one of the existing transformers and the regional load forecasts
for the year to be studied.
- The existing transmission system and the new lines and /or substations to be
commissioned for the year to be planned.
- The generation scenario to meet the total demand of the system for the planning year.
The regional load forecasts help to decide the regional priority of new generation
investments according to generation plans which shows the total generation needs. The
connection possibilities of new big loads and new generators to the existing transmission
system are investigated and new transmission lines and/or transformers (substations) if
necessary. The aim is to find out technically feasible and economically optimum solutions to
satisfy the conditions expressed in the first paragraph.
At each step of transmission planning system reliability is checked. The reliability
criteria are usually based on contingency (uncertainty of occurrence) analyses which are
also very useful for system operation. Contingency analyses are performed to check the
system reliability:
- At the occurrence of N-1 contingencies (only one system element is out of service).
- Control of the adequacy of measures taken at the occurrence of N-2 contingencies
(two system elements are out of service simultaneously).
- Connection of new generation and/or transmission facilities (generators, transformers,
transmission lines, shunt elements, etc.) to the existing systems.
- Changing the system configuration due to failures and repair of system elements.
- Periodical maintenance of transmission and generation facilities.
- Determination of the most suitable configurations when system separated into islands
after disturbances.
N-1 Contingency:
In case of any one of the system elements is out of service as a result of failure;
- none of the customers will be disconnected,
- system stability will be preserved,
- system will stay interconnected (not separated into several small transmission
systems).
N-2 Contingency:
In case of any two of the system elements are out of service simultaneously, in order to
prevent partial or total black outs, if necessary, some of the selected loads and / or generators
may be disconnected. The loads or generators to be disconnected are decided as a result of a
series studies.
N-1 and N-2 contingencies are defined in Transmission System Supply Reliability and
Quality Regulation (Ref.10.7 item-12)
The following analyses are performed for transmission planning for summer peak load,
winter peak load and minimum load conditions of the system for the year under
consideration:
- Power (Load) Flow Analysis is performed for specific load and generation conditions
of the system and is the basic analysis for the rest of the studies. Power flow analysis
shows the steady state conditions, voltage levels, transmission losses, transformer and
line loadings (complex power carried by the line), power transfer capacities of the
system.
- Short Circuit Analysis is performed to check the SC current withstand limits of
system elements.
- Contingency Analysis is performed to check the system conditions and to find
solutions, if necessary, for N-1 cases as a result of system failures.
- Stability Analysis is performed to check the quality of the system stability, whether
total or partial black outs will be developed or not as a result of N-1 cases.

Transmission planning concept of the optimum investment and operating costs has
changed after the publication of Electricity Market Law and the related Decrees. In the new
market operations, generation investments are decided by private sector regarding the size,
place and commissioning time. Upon the application with necessary documentation to
EMRA, Transmission Company performs studies mentioned above for the reliable connection
of new generator to the existing system. Transmission Company is responsible for the
construction of new connection line/lines and any other lines, substations to reinforce the
system to keep the quality standards.
The related generation and transmission investments should be done in parallel and
commissioned at the same time. If this rule is taken into consideration for new investments
there would not be insufficiency in generation or insufficiencies in regional transmission
capacities. On the other hand there may be over investments in transmission which is costly
and sometimes cause difficulties in operation.
These difficulties are overcome to a certain extent by the application of 7-10 years
transmission analysis report called Connection Opportunities Report to help investors.
This methodology is not applied in Turkish power system yet.

2. 14. Interconnections

Interconnections are the transmission lines and necessary equipment which connect
power systems of different companies (utilities) to each other.

In Turkey interconnections are used for connection to other countries power systems. The
existing interconnections of Turkey are Bulgaria, Greece, Georgia, Nahcevan (Azerbaijan),
Iran, Iraq, Syria. The capacities for import or export of energy can be found in TEIAS website
(Ref.10).
The following technical applications can be used for interconnections:
- Synchronous parallel operation: Different power systems work as if they are single
power system. Each power system must have automatic generation control (AGC)
facilities in order to control frequency of the interconnected systems and power flows
on tie lines (tie line bias control).
Synchronous parallel operation of Turkish power system and European
interconnected power system, through Bulgaria-Greece interconnections of Turkey,
has started on September 2010.
- Isolated region operation: A small part of a power system, depending on technical
constraints and the interconnection contract, disconnected from main system and is
fed by the neighboring power system through an interconnection line. Examples of
such operation are Georgia, Nahcevan (Azerbaijan), Iran, Iraq and Syria.
- Directed generation operation: A power plant or some units of a power plant near
the border, depending on technical constraints and the interconnection contract, is
disconnected from main system and connected to neighboring power system through
the interconnection line. Examples of such operation are Georgia, Nahcevan
(Azerbaijan), Iran, Iraq and Syria.
- Direct Current DC connection: DC interconnections are preferred in cases where
synchronous parallel operation is not possible and in cases of transferring bulk
amount of power from one system to the other. Turkey- Georgia interconnection
(under construction) is the example of this type.
There are several types of DC connections. Two commonly used ones are as follows:

- DC back to back, inverter-converter at sending or receiving end plus AC
interconnection line
- AC/DC- DC transmission- DC/AC, inverters at both ends plus DC
interconnection line.
The most favorable interconnection type is the synchronous parallel operation since
all of the following benefits can be obtained by operating the power systems
synchronously:
- Sharing spare generating capacities.
- Prevention of possible black outs under loss of generation as a result of serious
failures.
- Savings in generation costs.
- Using natural resources of different countries in rational way between countries. This
leads to both environmental protection and investment reduction.
- Increase in green energy trade.

2. 15. Stability

Power system stability is one of the main considerations together with the voltage and
frequency control in the design and operation of power systems. Stability considerations play
very important role in reliability of operation of a power system.
Power system stability can be classified into three categories as follows:
- Steady state stability.
- Transient stability.
- Dynamic stability.

Major system disturbances (sudden changes) usually involve the transition in the system
performance from steady state (prior to disturbance), through transient state (immediately
after disturbance, when automatic regulating devices of the system are not yet effective)
through dynamic state (when the automatic regulating devices affects the performance of the
system in its reaction to the original disturbance) and finally back into the steady state
operating mode.

Steady state stability
Capability of a power system to remain in synchronism following gradual or relatively
slow changes in the amount of power being carried through its transmission network is termed
as steady state stability.
The steady state stability of a power system depends on the characteristics of all the
basic elements of the system, namely generators, system load, transmission network between
generation and load, as well as on the presence and effectiveness of automatic control devices.
The most important factors contributing to steady state stability are the robustness of the
transmission system (well interconnected system) and presence of continuously acting well
designed automatic voltage regulation on the generators.

Transient stability
Capability of a power system to remain in synchronism during major disturbances
(sudden changes) resulting from either the loss of generation or transmission facilities, sudden
or sustained load chances or momentary faults.
Major factors affecting transient stability of a power system may be summarized as follows:
- The strength of transmission system.
- The electrical characteristics of generators under various transient conditions
(modeled through the parameters named as transient reactance or subtransient
reactance) and mechanical characteristics modeled through inertia of turbine
generator set.
- The speed of fault clearance in case of short circuit that means faulty piece can be
isolated from the rest of the system by circuit breaker action usually within five
cycles (100 msec) and can be restored to service after clearance of fault (auto
reclosure).
- The speed of excitation systems and automatic voltage regulators systems of
turbine which can respond to a system disturbance involving reduction in system
voltages and can act toward restoration of adequate voltage levels.

The time required for the first swing during the oscillations of a synchronous machine,
following a sudden system disturbance depends on the characteristics of the turbine generator
set and of transmission network. In most cases this takes place within the first second of the
disturbance. This is about the period of time during which the automatic speed governor
control is not yet effective. After the first swing period, the effect of automatic speed governor
control needs to be taken into account and the phenomenon enters the domain of dynamic
stability.

Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability refers to the ability of a power system to remain in synchronism after
the initial swing of the rotors and until the system has found a new steady state equilibrium.
The period of dynamic stability begins at about 1 to 1.5 seconds following the disturbance,
when the automatic speed governor control begins to change the turbine power input to the
generators and continues until a new condition of steady state equilibrium has been reached at
about 0.5 minutes to several minutes following the initial disturbance. Power system stability,
together with the voltage and frequency control, is one of the fundamental considerations in
design and operation of power systems.

3. COMPONENTS OF POWER SYSTEM

An example of single line diagram showing generation, transmission and distribution
systems including transformers, loads and feeders are shown in Figure 3.1. The components
of power system will be explained briefly in the rest of this section.

3. 1. Generators (Power Plants)

Generators generate the power and energy to meet their internal consumption plus load
demands of transmission and distribution systems plus overall system losses. They also
control system frequency and voltage.
Types of generators are usually classified by their primary resources as follows:
- Hydraulic:
Utilize water power. Main types are reservoir, run of river, and pumped storage.
- Thermal:
Utilize natural gas, liquid fuel, hard coal, lignite, gasified coal
- Nuclear:
Utilize nuclear resources
- Renewable:
Utilize small size water, geothermal, wind, solar power

Mixed generation systems are always advantageous regarding power systems operation.
Turkish power system has almost all types of power plants accept nuclear, solar and gasified
coal.
The breakdown of power and energy generation by primary resources will be given in Turkish
Power System section.
Generators are installed at the places where primary resources exist for coal, hydro,
geothermal, wind. Site selection for natural gas fired power plants are much more easier since
the extension of gas pipelines are possible keeping in mind that it is a costly job and effects
the cost of generation. Site selection considerations for nuclear power plants are much more
complex than the other types. Being closer to load centers are preferred, if possible, while
generation site decision made in order to reduce transmission investment cost and
transmission losses.
Unit size of a generator depends on overall system size such that loss of largest unit would not
cause any instability and blackout. Number of units depends on stock size of primary
resources and system consumption needs. Transmission system carrying capacity should also
be taken into consideration in order to avoid costly transmission investments and
environmental issues.
Generators of an interconnected power system are capable of controlling;
- the system frequency with the help of their governors which controls active power
output of generators and
- the system voltage with the help of their excitation systems and automatic voltage
regulators (AVR) which controls reactive power output of generators.

3. 2. Transmission System

Transmission systems, starting from high or very high voltage bus of generator step up
transformers, transmits the generation to the distribution systems and to the load centers
connected directly to transmission system through step down transformers. High and very
high voltage transmission levels of Turkish power system are 154 kV and 380 kV
respectively.
An example of a typical single line diagram of a power system is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. A typical single line diagram.

Transmission system composed of;
- Overhead transmission lines (transmission lines).
- Underground cables (cables).
- Switching stations.
- Series capacitor stations.
- Substations.

3.2.1. Transmission Lines

Towers: Transmission lines are carried by different types of towers. Tower dimensions
effects electrical characteristics of lines. Reactance of a line is directly proportional to
distance between phases and susceptance of a line is inversely proportional to the hight of
conductor from ground.
Types of conductors: ACSR type of conductors are commonly used in Turkish power
system. Aluminum strands are wound about a core of stranded steel in ACSR type.
The characteristics of an aerial conductor is effected by three factors; temperature, frequency
and current density.
Current carrying capacity is increased by using two, three or four conductors in parallel
per phase which is also named twin bundle, triplet bundle or four bundle.

Ground Wire: There are ground wires, in addition to phase conductors, placed on top
of the towers above phase conductors for protection against lightning. Cross sections of 96
mm2 and 70 mm2 steel ground wires are used in 380 kV and 154 kV lines respectively.
Ground Wire with Fiber Optics: OPGW type of ground wires are used for
communication, protection, automation purposes. Maximum radius of 15.2 mm and 13.5 mm
steel with optical fiber conductors are used in 380 kV and 154 kV lines respectively.
Representation of Transmission Lines: The circuit model of transmission lines used
for power flow analysis is shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Circuit model of a transmission line.

3. 2. 2. Loading of Transmission Lines:
Generally theoretical current carrying capacity of transmission lines are calculated
according to different climatic conditions;
- Thermal capacity.
- Economic capacity.
Current carrying capacities of lines are affected by the air temperature, conductor
temperature and velocity of wind. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 show 380 kV and 154 kV line loadings
(capacities) for different cross sections used in Turkish power system as examples.
Lines have different names for different cross sections.

Table 3. 1. Characteristics of 380kV overhead transmission lines
Type of Conductor

380 kV
Cross Section
of Conductor
mm
2

Current
Carrying
Capacity
(A)
*
Economic
Capacity
(MVA)
Thermal
Capacity
(MVA)
2B, Rail, 2*954MCM 2*517 2*755 500 995
2B,Cardinal,2*954MCM 2*547 2*765 500 1005
3B,Cardinal,3*954MCM 3*547 3*765 750 1510
3B,Pheasant,3*1272MCM 3*726 3*925 1000 1825
*This table is valid for conductor temperature 80oC Air temperature 40oC,
velocity of wind 0.25 m/sec.

Table 3. 2. Characteristics of 154kV overhead transmission lines
Type of Conductor

154 kV
Cross Section
of Conductor
mm
2

Current
Carrying
Capacity (A)
*

Economic
Capacity
(MVA)
Thermal
Capacity
(MVA)
Hawk,477MCM 281 496 50 132
Drake,795MCM 468.4 683 80 182
Cardinal,954MCM 547 765 97 204
Pheasant,1272MCM 726 925 130 247
*This table is valid for conductor temperature 80oC, Air temperature 40oC,
velocity of wind 0.25 m/sec.

The rating tables for different types of conductors and cables are given in
Transmission System Supply Reliability and Quality Regulation (Ref. 10.7, Annex3). PSS-E
uses three different types of ratings while checking transmission system loading percentages
such as winter rates, summer rates and spring rates as indicated in Ref document.

Line loadings (current/power carrying capacity) of an interconnected system are
actually calculated by stability studies. Such studies performed under selected operating
conditions will reveal how much current or power can be carried before stability is lost.

3. 2. 3. Cables
Cables (underground) are usually used in 34.5 kV distribution systems especially in
heavily populated areas. There are cable applications in transmission system at some areas
within cities where new investment of overhead lines are impossible. Golbasi-Balgat 154 kV
cable in Ankara is one of among many examples. There are lots of cable applications in
downtown areas of Istanbul and Izmir in 154 kV and even 380 kV levels. Besides new cable
investments in transmission voltage levels, some old overhead lines are replaced by cables in
heavily populated areas since the cities are expanding very quickly.

The cables used in 380 kV system are cupper XLPE type with 2000 square mm cross
sectional area. The current and power carrying capacities are 1500 amperes and 987 MVA.
The cross section of 630 mm
2
or 1000 mm
2
cupper XLPE 154 kV cables are used in 154 kV
system. The current carrying capacity of 1000 mm
2
cable is 935 amps., economic and thermal
loading capacities are 150 and 250 MVA respectively. Cables in transmission systems are not
commonly used because:

- Investment costs are high,
- Produces lots of reactive power (in long distances) which causes over voltages in the
system especially at minimum load conditions. The compensation of excess reactive
power needs new investments,
- Underground cable installations are not secure in the areas without infrastructure.

3. 2. 4. Substations
Substations are formed by:
- Control and secondary equipment building containing transducers, metering
equipment, protection relays, power line carriers as data and voice communication
equipment, remote terminal units (RTU) and a substation control room for operation,
and
- Switchyards (open air installations) containing buses, transformers, feeders with
circuit breakers, isolating switches, insulators, line traps for communication, lightning
arresters, shunt reactors and capacitors, etc.

A typical 380 kV load connection substation switchyard single line diagram is given in Figure
3.3.

Figure 3.3. A typical 380 kV substation switchyard single line diagram.

A typical 380 kV generator connection substation switchyard single line diagram is given in
Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4. A typical 380 kV generator switchyard single line diagram.

The diagrams shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4 are taken from Transmission System Supply
Reliability and Quality Regulation (Ref.10.7).


3. 2. 4.1. Transformers

Generator step up transformers; connect each one of the generator units to 154 kV or
380 kV switch yards and / or transmission lines. There are three phase, two winding
transformers with / Y connection. Generator side winding is and system side winding is Y
with solidly grounded neutral. The power ratings of generator transformers are the same as the
generator ratings.
Autotransformers; connect different transmission voltage levels and transfer bulk
amount of energy from high voltage system to lower voltage system. These are three phase,
two winding 380 /154 kV, Y / Y or three winding 380 / 154/ 34.5 kV, Y /Y / with solidly
grounded neutrals of Y windings transformers. The power ratings of autotransformers are 150
MVA and 250 MVA in Turkish power system.
Step down transformers at 154 kV level; are usually three phase, 154 / 34.5 kV Y / Y
to feed distribution system with winding. The neutral points of Y connected primary and
secondary windings are solidly grounded. In some cases secondary side neutral are grounded
over resistance to ease single phase reclosure to maintain three phase balanced system after
single or double phase short circuit failures.
Step down transformers at 380 kV level; are used to feed bulk loads in distribution
system level. These are 380/34.5 kV three phase transformers with Y / windings where
primary side neutral is solidly grounded and secondary side grounded over grounding
transformer. Transformers have tap changers in order to control voltage at secondary side.

3. 2. 4. 2. Switchyard Equipment

Buses (busbars) are the conductors where the switchyard equipments are connected.
The bus configurations are standardized for different voltage levels. Two main and one
transfer bus exist in 380 kV substations. The configurations can be seen in the annexes of
Grid Code.
Circuit breakers are the switches operated under voltage and isolate the circuit when
there is a fault or maintenance.
Isolating switches are the switches connected at both sides of circuit breakers and
operated after the operation of circuit breakers for complete and secure isolation.
Insulators are used to isolate energized parts of the system from the rest of the system.
Line Traps are filters for the equipment used for data transmission and voice
communication over transmission lines.

3. 2. 4. 3. Equipment Measurement and System Protection

Measuring instruments; voltage transformers, current transformers, voltage, current
and power measuring meters and various transducers.
Remote terminal units; analog and digital data collection and processing equipments
for regional and central System Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA).
Protection equipments; different types of relays to protect system components against
hazardous failures.


4. POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

4.1. Introduction
The purpose of a power system is to deliver the power that customers (consumers)
require in real time. Power is generated and transmitted to the customers within acceptable
voltage and frequency limits upon their demand.
A power flow calculation determines the state of the power system (power flowing on
transmission lines and voltages on buses) for a specified configuration and generation / load
conditions of a power system. It represents a steady state condition as if that condition had
been held for sometime. In fact line flows and voltages fluctuate constantly due to changing
loads. However these small fluctuations can be ignored in calculations.
The solution depends on regulating capability of generators, shunt elements (capacitors
and/or reactors), tap changing under load transformers as well as specified net interchange
between individual operating systems.
The system information obtained as a result of power flow calculation is essential for the
continuous evaluation of the current performance of a power system (operation) and for
analyzing the effectiveness of alternative plans for system expansion (planning) to meet
increased load demand.
A single phase representation is adequate since power systems are usually balanced.
The model is appropriate for solving steady state powers and voltages of the
transmission system.
The formulation of power flow solution is based on operational considerations of power
system as well as mathematical considerations.
There are four quantities associated with each bus: Real power and reactive power,
voltage magnitude and the phase angle.

Types of buses in a power system are:
- Load buses where loads are connected,
- Generation buses where generators are connected (supplied by generators),
- Swing bus which must be a generator bus to provide the additional real and reactive
power to supply the transmission losses which are unknown until the final solution is
obtained,
- PSS-E introduces fourth type of bus which is unenergized bus.

In power flow analysis transmission system is modeled by a set of buses interconnected
by transmission lines. Network topology is defined by introducing R, X, Y parameters of
transmission lines between buses, impedances of transformers and tap changing limits, shunt
elements (reactors, capacitors) either connected to buses or transmission lines and capacitors
connected in series with the transmission lines.
Generators and loads are connected to various buses of the system inject and remove
power from the transmission system.
The formulation of load flow problem can be in impedance form:

Ebus= [Zbus]* Ibus
or

Ibus= [Ybus]* Ebus


where; I= vector of injected node currents, [Ybus]= bus admittance matrix and
Ebus= vector of node voltages

Since [Ybus] bus admittance matrix finds wide spread application in power system analysis
only bus admittance matrices will be studied in this text.
-
4.2. Bus Admittance Matrices

4.2.1. [Ybus] Representation of a Transmission Line
The circuit model of transmission lines used for power flow analysis is shown in Fig.
4.1.

Figure 4.1. Circuit model of a transmission line

Z12= Z21= R+jwL

Y
12= Y
21= 1/2*jwC

Y12= Y21=1/Z12= 1/(R+jX) = R/(R
2
+X
2
) jX/(R
2
+X
2
) = G12 jB12

I1= Y12*(V1-V2) + Y12/2*V1 = (Y12+Y12/2)*V1 Y12*V2 = Y11* V1 - Y12*V2

I2 = Y12*(V2-V1) + Y12/2*V2 = -Y12*V1 + (Y12+ Y12/2)*V2= -Y21*V1 + Y22*V2

Bus admittance matrix representations of a transformer, off nominal turns ratio transformer
and source (voltage-current) transformations can be found in Ref. 2, chap.9 and in other
reference books.

4.2.2. [Ybus] Representation of a Three Bus Transmission System (Example)

In Figure 4.2 derivation of admittance matrix of a power system with three buses and two
generators is described together with power flow equations.

- Fig. 4.2.a shows conceptual schematics where transmission lines are shown as heavy
lines. Bus-1 and bus-2 (nodes) are generator buses while bus-3 is a load bus.

- Fig. 4.2.b shows the lumped element models of transmission lines. The total series
inductance and loss resistance of the transmission line are shown as series impedance
R + jX. The capacitance C of the line to ground is split into two parts and placed on
the two sides of the series element with admittance Y/2 where Y= jwC. In the
derivation of admittance matrix, series admittance of transmission lines are needed.
Therefore the expression for series admittance is found as Y= 1/(R + jX) = G + j B.

- Fig. 4.2.c shows the lumped element circuit model of the complete power system
circuit where the nodes are now replaced by busses to ease drawing of the schematics
and the transmission lines are represented by their lumped element equivalent circuits.
It should be noted that the shunt capacitors of transmission lines appear as shunt
elements at respective nodes while the series impedances Rik + j Xik (i, k = 1,2,3)
appear as mutual elements between buses. In the figure, the admittance versions of the
series impedances are defined as Yik = Gik - j Bik = 1/(Rik + j Xik).

- Fig. 4.2.d describes the formation of admittance matrix of the circuit formed by the
buses by excluding the load impedance at load bus (bus-3).
o First, the total bus currents I1, I2 and I3 are evaluated in terms of bus voltages
and admittances at respective buses.
o Then total self admittances of the buses (Y11, Y22 and Y33) are formed.
o Then the current vector I is formed as product of admittance matrix Y and
voltage vector V.

- Fig. 4.2.e shows the expressions for complex powers at buses in terms of admittance
matrix parameters and bus voltages. According to conservation of complex power
principle, the sum of all complex powers must be equal to zero. Therefore any solution
must satisfy this condition.

Figure 4.2. Admittance matrix and power flow in a power system with two generators.


Figure 4.2. Admittance matrix and power flow in a power system with two generators.

4.3. Power Flow Studies

Power flow equations mentioned in section 4.2 must be solved under the following
constraints:
- On load buses the real and reactive powers (loads) must be specified because these
are demanded by the consumers. That is, the demand of the consumer appears as the
most important constraint in the solution of power system equations. For example in
the system of Fig. 4.2 P3 and Q3 at bus-3 must be specified.
- On generator buses, voltage magnitude, real power to be generated and reactive
power generation limits of the generators are specified.
- However we cant specify these parameters to all generator buses because the
conservation of complex power principle must be obeyed. Therefore we assign one
of the generator buses as swing bus to satisfy the conservation of complex power
principle. On swing buses only voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified
leaving real power and reactive power as free parameters to satisfy the conservation
of complex power equation.
The solution must satisfy Kirchhoffs laws. That is, the algebraic sum of all currents at a
bus must equal to zero and algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal to zero. At a
given node the algebraic sum of complex powers must also be equal to zero. That is, the
incoming real and reactive powers are equal to outgoing real and reactive powers
respectively.
For example in the system of Fig. 4.2 lets assign bus-1 as swing bus and bus-2 as
generator bus. Then
- In generator bus-2, we can specify the voltage magnitude |V2|, real power P2 and
reactive power limits Q2min and Q2max of generator 2.
In the swing bus-1 we can specify only the voltage magnitude |V1| and phase angle u1. The
real power P1 and reactive power Q1 of the swing bus have to be calculated to satisfy the
following power balance equations:

Generated Complex Power = Consumed Complex Power
or in more details:
P1 + P2 = P3 + PTL
Q1 + Q2 = Q3 + QTL
where PTL and QTL are real and reactive powers on transmission lines which are unknown
before solving the system equations. Thus, in these equations we can specify P3, Q3, P2
while the swing bus parameters P1, Q1 and Q2 will be found from the above equations
together with PTL and QTL. That is, in general words,

Generated total Real Power = Total Real Power consumed by loads and transmission
lines.

Generated total Reactive Power = Total (net) Reactive Power required by the
reactive part of the load and reactive components of the system (shunt inductors,
shunt and series capacitors, transmission lines, etc).

These balances are the basic constraints in a power system and power flow calculations.
The difference between generated complex power and complex power required by the system
(including the power used up in transmission lines) will be supplied by the swing bus
generator.
The following table shows bus types and the basic parameters which must be specified at
the beginning of a power flow solution.

Bus Type

P

Q

V

Angle

Comments
Load

+ +

Active and reactive loads
must be specified (+)

Generator

+ +
when
Q
min
Qg Q
max

Active power generation and
generator bus voltage level
(Vscheduled) and reactive
power generation limits
(Capability Curve in sec. 2.6.4)
must be specified (+)

Q
min
= minimum VAR limit
Q
max
= maximum VAR limit

Generator
+ +
when
Qg Qg
min

or
Qg Qg
max

+

Vscheduled is held as long as
Qg is within its limits.

If Q limits are reached then
Vscheduled is changed by
power flow (essential for
solution)

Swing

+

+
Swing bus Vscheduledand its
angle must be specified (+)

Swing bus must adjust
complex power (P and Q) to
hold its voltage constant
(essential for solution)

Table- 4-1. Power flow bus specifications

The following quantities are calculated at the end of power flow solution:

- Magnitude and phase angle of voltages at load buses.
- Reactive power generation (inductive reactive power) or consumption (capacitive
reactive power) and voltage phase angle at generation buses.
- Active and reactive power generation at swing bus.
- Transmission losses which are unknown before the solution.
- Active and reactive power flows on the transmission lines and transformers.

Important notes about power flow solutions:
1- All the specified and calculated parameters are displayed at each node.
2- A single solution is associated with a specified system configuration and constraint set.
Any change in the above constraints or system configuration ends up with another solution.
3- If the system configuration and/or constraints are unrealistic then a solution cant be
found.

4.3.1. Swing (Generator) Bus
In a power system generation and consumption should be balanced. That is, the following
formulas should be satisfied:

Generated Total Real Power = Total Real Power consumed by loads and
transmission lines (transmission active power losses).

Generated total Reactive Power = Total (net) Reactive Power required by the
reactive part of the loads and reactive components of the system (shunt inductors,
shunt and series capacitors, transmission lines, etc).

The active power losses of transmission lines and reactive power requirements of
transmission lines and other reactive components are unknown before the power flow
solution. This fact necessitates the use of swing generator concept in the power flow analysis
to compensate the unknown real and reactive powers to satisfy the power balance equations.
That is, the real and reactive power equations above can be written as follows:

Pgen+ Pswgen= Pload+ Ptransm losses
Qgen+ Qswgen= Qload+ Qtransm Line + Qreactive elms

In order to satisfy the above equations Pswgen & Qswgen are allowed to exceed the actual
physical limits Pswmax - P swmin and/or Q swmax - Q swmin of the swing generator.

The constraints for swing generator are its voltage magnitudeand angle only. P and Q
limits of the swing generator are not constraints for the mathematical solutions of power
flow studies! P and Q limits of the swing generator are used to check whether the physical
limits of the machine are exceeded or not in the end of a specific solution. I n case of limit
violation, the following corrective measures should be taken by PSS-E users.

4.3.2. Corrective Measures for Swing Generator in Case of Active and/or Reactive
Power Limit Violations Occur in a Power Flow Solution

If P and Q limits of the swing generator are exceeded in the analysis then the following steps
should be applied in order to bring swing bus generation back into its physical limits:

Case 1: Active power limits are exceeded;
a) If Pswgen > Pswmax then active power of some or all of the other in service generators
with Pgen<Pmax are increased up to their Pmax levels. If this is not enough to bring SW
generator back into its P limits then some of the generators which are out of service can be
switched to in service and analysis are repeated until Pswgen < Pswmax.

b) When Pswgen is negative or less than Pswmin , if the difference is not large, then active
power of other generators are decreased in small steps. If this is not sufficient then one or
more units of any power plant can be switched to out of service and analysis are repeated
until Pswgen> Pswmin.

Case 2: Reactive power limits are exceeded;
a) If Qswgen Qswmax then SW generator bus voltage will be reduced until Qswgen Qswmax.

c) If Qswgen Qswmin then SW generator bus voltage will be increased until
Qswgen Qswmin.

4.4. Power Flow Solution Methods

Power flow calculation is a network solution problem. The voltages and currents are
related by the following equation:

Ibus= [Ybus]* Ebus where;

I is the vector of total currents flowing into the network nodes.
V is the vector of network nodes.
Y - is the bus admittance matrix.

The equation above is a linear algebraic equation with complex coefficients. The solution
for the unknown quantities (either I or V) could be obtained by application of widely used
numerical solution techniques for linear equations.
The terminal conditions at each bus of a power system are normally described in terms of
active and reactive power.

Si = Vi Ii* then the bus current can be written

Ii = (Pi + jQi)*/Vi*

The above current equation is nonlinear and cannot be readily solved by linear equation
matrix solution techniques. Because of this, power flow solutions are obtained by procedures
involving iterative techniques.
There are two basic iterative techniques that are in wide spread use in industry:
- Gauss- Siedel and
- Newton Raphson

The other techniques are the improved versions of these two.

4.4.1. Gauss- Siedel Solution Algorithm

For easy understanding, let us use d.c. representation of the example circuit used in
section 4.2.2.


Figure 4.3. A three bus DC circuit.

In this figure;
Bus 1 is swing bus with V1 specified.
Bus 2 is generator bus with power P2 specified
Bus 3 is load bus with power P3 specified

Bus currents can be written in terms of bus voltages and bus admittances:

I2 = Y21 V1+ Y22 V2+ Y23V3 or

V2 = [ I2 (Y21 V1 + Y23 V3)] / Y22

Substituting I2 = P2V2 in the equation we get

V2 = [(P2 / V2) (Y21 V1 +Y23 V3)] / Y22

Similarly we can write,

V3 = [- (P3/ V3) - ( Y31 V1 + Y32 V2)] / Y33 where I3 = - P3 /V3

Steps in Gauss Siedel iterative solution technique:

Step 1: Assign an estimate of V2 and V3 (for example V2 = V3= 1.0 pu). Note that V1 is
fixed since it is swing bus.
Step 2: Compute a new value for V2 using initial estimates for V2 and V3.
Step 3: Compute a new value for V3 using the initial estimate for V3 and just computed
value for V2 .
Step 4: Repeat step 2 and step 3 using the latest computed voltages V2 andV3 until the
solution is reached. One complete computation of V2 and V3 is one iteration.

Iterations are said to converge when the difference between voltages obtained in
successive cycles is less than a specified value. However voltage convergence criteria is
usually not reliable. Convergence criteria in terms of powers is more reliable. Based on the
last computed value of V2 and V3 powers on bus-2 and bus-3 are calculated (e.g. as P2 and
P3) and compared with specified P2 and P3. Iterations stopped when the differences P2
P2and P3 P3 is less than a specified convergence tolerance. These are termed as
Voltage Mismatch check and Power Mismatch check.
The power mismatch tolerance is generally specified in the range of 0.01 to 0.0001.

The a.c. version of the d.c. bus voltage equations will be;

(
(
= + =
1
1 1
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 *(
1
i
i
k
N
i k
m
k ik
m
k ik
m
i
i i
ii
m
V Y V Y
V
jQ P
Y
V i= 1, 2, , N-1
where
N: number of busses.
m: present iteration number.
i, k: bus indexes.

4.4.2. Newton Raphson Solution Algorithm
This algorithm is left with the students to study with the reference books 1,2,3,4,11.

4.5. Power System Software

Power systems are analyzed using professional software. In this project the software
PSS-E
TM
(Power System Simulator Engineering) will be used (See Ref. 11). PSS-E is an
integrated set of programs that handles the following power system analysis calculations:
- Power flow and related network analysis function
- Balanced and unbalanced fault analysis
- Network equivalent construction
- Dynamic simulation
This software will be used for the connection of Bilkent power plant to Turkish power
system, to perform steady state power flow, short circuit and contingency analysis of balanced
three phase power system.
PSS-E can handle power systems up to 150000 buses, 300000 branches, 33050 generators
and 60000 transformers.
Program Application Manuel (two volume) and Program Operation Manuel of PSS-E
software are available and given as reference document Ref.11.

PSS-E uses different iterative solution techniques which are mainly;
- Gauss Siedel,
- Modified Gauss Siedel iteration with series capacitors,
- Full Newton Raphson iteration,
- Decoupled Newton Raphson
- Fixed Slope Decoupled Newton Raphson.

Load flow studies are usually performed for three different extreme load conditions of a
power system:
- Winter peak load.
- Summer peak load.
- Minimum load.

Solutions which satisfy those extreme conditions are sufficient for decision makers.

A base case is established for each load condition and used for further steady state and
transient studies such as planning new elements necessary for system development and
contingency analysis. Using those base cases balanced and/or unbalanced short circuit and
transient stability studies can be performed, if necessary.

The results of power flow studies are also used to check power system performance
quality and reliability such as;
- Bus voltages and phase angles, load flows (active and reactive powers) in transmission
lines and transformers and shunt elements should be within acceptable limits. If some of
these parameters exceed the limits then the relevant system equipments (e.g. measuring
transformers (voltage and current), power transformers, and shunt and series elements)
must be replaced with properly rated ones.
The capacities of overloaded power transformers are increased by adding a new
transformer in parallel with the existing one or feeder replacement between transformers
if it is possible. The capacities of overloaded transmission lines can be increased by
changing system configuration or investing a new transmission line. Bus splitting and
feeder replacement are used to reach technically and economically best solutions to
overcome overloading of transformers and transmission lines. If a new investment is
decided to solve overloading problem, during the realization period some measures are
taken in order not to damage system equipment. Those measures can be bus splitting,
feeder replacement and limitation of generation.

- Energizing rules of new transmission lines, transformers, shunt or series elements or
reenergizing rules of such elements isolated from the system following a disturbance can
be settled. Those rules need to be revised by performing new power flow studies when
system configuration changes.

4. 6. Balanced and Unbalanced Fault Analysis

Power systems are three phase balanced systems and operate under balanced conditions.
The balanced operation of power systems may change due to some unavoidable failures since
most of the components of power systems operate in open air. Transmission line faults are the
most common ones. Main reasons of faults are:
- Stormy weather conditions
- Usually faults are triggered by lightning strokes which may cause the insulators to
flash over.
- Wind and ice loading may also cause insulator strings to fail.
- Ice load on phase conductors of transmission line may cause break off the
conductors.
- Big birds may cause faults (short circuit) between phases.
- Lack of maintenance
- Dirt on insulators due to fog, salt may provide conduction paths.
- Broken insulators.
- Tower collapses.
- False commands from protection system.

Faults are classified as balanced and unbalanced faults depending on the type of
failure.
Balanced short circuit means three phases to ground short circuit which is the most
severe case but it happens rarely (Fig. 4.4).

Figure 4.4. Three phase to ground short circuit (balanced fault)

Unbalanced faults may happen in one of the following forms (Fig 4.7. a,b,c,d):
1. Single phase to ground faults
2. Double phase (line to line) faults
3. Double phase to ground faults
4. Open phase faults

Figure 4.7. Types of Unbalanced faults

Balanced and unbalanced fault analyses are performed on the selected power flow
solutions of critical system conditions like peak load, minimum load.
PSSE short circuit module needs only transient or sub transient reactance data for each
generator unit for balanced short circuit calculations.
Unbalanced system analyses methods (symmetrical components, section 2.9 of this
document and Ref. 1,2,3,11) are used for unbalanced fault calculations since the balance
between three phases is no longer exists.
PSSE short circuit module needs for negative and zero sequence network impedances of
transmission lines, generators, transformers and also winding connection types (, Y with or
without grounded neutral) of transformers to decide connections between sequence networks
for unbalanced short circuit calculations (Ref.11).
Only balanced short circuit applications with PSS-E will be explained in this document
and will be studied for Bilkent Power Plant Project.
The theoretical information about synchronous machines should be reviewed
which can be found in Chapter 3 of Ref.3 J. J. Grainer and W. D. Stevenson, Jr.
Power System Analysis McGraw Hill, before going into short circuit analysis. The
section 3.9 of the mentioned reference is about Short Circuit Currents and Chapter 10
of the same reference is about Symmetrical Faults. There are solved and unsolved
problems in Ch.3 and Ch.10 in addition to the theoretical information.

4.6.1. Short Circuit Calculations With PSS-E

The short circuit module of PSS-E is used to calculate short circuit currents at any point
(buses, any point along the transmission lines) of the power system at a defined load
generation balance condition and system configuration. Therefore power flow study should be
performed before short circuit analysis. The short circuit applications are usually performed
on the system buses.
The power flow study results (bus voltages, reactive generations of generator units) are
the pre-fault (steady state) information for a short circuit study. Additionally generator
transient or sub transient reactances are necessary to represent generators in a short circuit
study. The solution for large systems is made by using Ibus= [Ybus]* Ebus.. But Ybus matrix is
different than power flow studies. The reason for this difference is the representation of load
admittances in the related diagonal elements of Ybus matrix. Load admittances are calculated
by using total complex power of load (constraint for power flow) and bus voltages obtained
from power flow solution (Yk= S
*
k/Ek
2
at bus k). Generators are represented (with an internal
voltage behind their transient or sub transient admittances) as current sources in parallel with
their transient or sub transient admittances obtained by the conversion of voltage sources to
current sources;
Ip = Ygp* Ep + ( Sp/EP)
*
at the generator bus p where Ep is the generator scheduled voltage
(constraint for power flow) and Sp is the complex power generated by the generator connected
to bus p (Pp is constraint for power flow and Qp is calculated by the power flow). Ip is placed
in p
th
row of current vector.
Following parameters are calculated by PSS-E when three phase to ground short circuit
fault is simulated:
- Fault Current (Initial Symmetrical rms Fault (Short Circuit) Current or
Withstand Current), ISC: Total short circuit current flowing from all generators to
the faulty bus and hence to ground immediately after a fault.
- The Short Circuit Current Contributions: Short circuit currents flowing from
each connected branches/ transformers to the ground through faulty bus.
- Short Circuit Impedance, ZSC: Thevenin impedance of the system seen from the
short circuited bus which can be calculated by dividing the voltage of the relevant
bus before fault with the total short circuit current.
- Short Circuit Power: Total complex power flowing to the short circuited bus.

4.6.2. Selection of Circuit Breakers and Short Circuit Current Standards

The short circuit current levels are very important in a power system for the protection
of the existing system equipment when a new generation and/ or transmission facilities are
added to the system and system configuration changes due to unavoidable reasons like
equipment failures and/or maintenances.
Short circuit analyses are performed for the proper selection of circuit breakers.
The currents which flow in different parts of a power system immediately after the
occurrence of a fault differ from those flowing a few cycles later just before the circuit
breakers are called upon to open. There are two important factors on the circuit breaker
selection:
1. The magnitude of short circuit current flowing immediately after fault is called
as short circuit withstand current or initial symmetrical rms fault current
which is determined by representing each machine by its subtransient
reactance in series with its subtransient internal voltage.
2. The magnitude of short circuit current which the breaker must interrupt is called
as interrupting current or interrupting capability which is the level of short
circuit current after 4-6 cycles (80- 120 msecond) depending on the speed of
breaker operation.
Circuit breakers have ratings determined by the maximum instantaneous current which
the breaker must withstand and later interrupt.
The following controls can be done by using the results of short circuit studies:
- Withstand capacities of existing circuit breakers whether they are capable of
opening the transmission line, transformer or any other shunt elements
immediately after the failure,
- Decision making on the capacities of new circuit breakers for system
extension,
- Relay settings for protection,
- Limitation of phase to ground currents (for unbalanced faults) by introducing
grounding resistances to the neutral points of Y connected transformers.
Short circuit current withstand capacities of switchyard equipment are given in
Transmission System Supply Reliability and Quality Regulation (Ref. 10.7, item-6) as:

50 kA for 380 kV, 31.5 kA for 154 kV and 16 kA for 34.5 kV

These are standard short circuit current levels determined by the above mentioned
regulation for Turkish power system. If these limits are exceeded in the case studies then
power system engineer should study other options to bring short circuit current levels within
the standard limits. There are many ways to limit short circuit currents like bus splitting by
using two main busbar configuration of substations or connecting the new element to other
busses or connecting part of the new generation to other voltage level are some of those
precautions. The most proper one among those should be chosen and applied for each case.

4. 7. Contingency Analysis

This subject is explained in Transmission Planning section of this document (2.13) and
also can be found in PSS-E manuals Ref.11.

5. COST EVALUATION

Electricity demand increases year by year in parallel with the increase in population,
industrial plants, desire for better life standards etc. Electric power systems, both generation
and transmission, need to be developed in order to meet the increasing demand. In the first
four chapters basic technical requirements in expansion of power systems were explained.
In this chapter the costs associated with electric power generation and transmission
expansion will be explained and the methodology for calculation of $/ kWh cost of Bilkent
Power Plant will be described.

5. 1. Basic Concepts in Electricity Generation Cost
There are two distinct figures of merit in discussing and comparing the economics of
power generating technologies:
1. Capital Investment Cost, expressed in $/kW of installed capacity that denotes
the capital outlay necessary to build a power plant including feasibility report,
license fee, land requirement for construction of power plant plus its
transmission facilities, etc..
2. Power Generation Cost, expressed in $/kWh of generation, that represents the
total cost of generating electricity.
The block diagram in Figure 5.1 outlines the cost items of power generation
technologies. The dashed line in Fig 5.1 indicates that fixed investment charges are a function
of capital investment costs.

Figure 5.1. Categories of costs for power generating technologies

5. 2. Basic Definitions and Formulas for Cost of Generation Calculations

Capital investment costs: Described in 5.1.
Power generation costs: Described in 5.1.
Fixed investment charges: The costs associated with the initial capital investment cost
in power generation costs.
Fixed costs: The costs are independent of electricity generated by the plant.
Variable costs (expenses): The costs that are directly related with the amount of
electricity generated by the plant including auxiliary fuel consumed in low quality lignite fired
power plants and lime stone for flue gas desulfurization (FGD) installations, etc.
Operation and Maintenance costs (O&M): The costs associated with the operation
and maintenance of a power plant. There are fixed and variable O&M costs as indicated in
Fig. 5.1.
Fuel costs: The total cost of fuel that is required monthly or yearly for the target
electricity production in the specified period.
Variable fuel costs: The cost of auxiliary fuel used in lignite fired power plants to
increase thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency: Electrical energy generated/ Heat produced by fuel consumed.
Forced outage rate (FOR): The percentage of scheduled generating time a unit is
unable to generate because of forced outages due to mechanical, electrical or other failure.
Maintenance outage rate (MOR): The percentage of days in a year necessary for
regular scheduled maintenance of a unit.
Loss of load probability (LOLP): The portion of time during a year when the available
generation is expected to be unable to meet the system load.
Constant money analysis: An analysis made without including the effect of inflation
although real escalation is included.
Discount rate: The rate of interest reflecting the time value of money that is used to
convert benefits and costs occurring in different times to equivalent values at a common time.
Present value (present worth): Present valuing is a mathematical process by which
different monetary amounts can be moved either forward or backward from one or more
points in time to a single point in time.
Rate of return on investment: The interest rate at which the present worth of annual
benefits equals the present worth of annual costs.
Heat Rate: The amount of energy in kilocalories required to produce 1 kWh of electric
energy.
Annual gas consumption calculation:
Annual Generation (kWh) = Max. production (MW)*CF*8760h
Annual Calorific Consumption(kcal) = Annual Generation (kWh) * Average Heat Rate
(kcal/kwh)
Annua Gas Consumption (m
3
)= Annual Calorific Consumption (kcal) / Calorific Value
of Fuel (kcal/m
3
)

5.3. Steps for Cost of Generation Calculations

Cost of generation of Bilkent Power Plant can be calculated by using the definitions in
Section 5.2 and cost data in Appendix 1.3 as described below:

Capacity Factor (CF in %) = (1-FOR)*(1-MOR)

Capital Recovery Factor (CRF) = i *(1+i)
n
/ [(1+i)
n
-1] where
i % discount rate
n plant economic life in years

Calorific Cost of Fuel ($/ 10
6
kcal ) = Fuel Cost / Calorific Value
= 320 ($/1000 m
3
) / 8347 (kcal/m
3
)
= 320 ($) / 8347*1000 (kcal) =0.03834 $/1000kcal
=38.34 $/ 10
6
kcal

A) Fixed Investment Cost (cents/kWh)

A= 100*[Capital Investment Cost ($/kW)]*CRF/ [(Hours in a Year) * (CF (%)) ]

B) Fuel Cost (cents/kWh)

B= 100*[Fuel Calorific Cost ($/kcal*10
6
) ]* [Heat Rate (kcal/kWh)]

C) Fixed O&M Cost (cents/kWh)

C= 100*[Fixed O&M Cost ($/kWyear)]/ [(Hours in a year)*(CF (%))]

D) Variable O&M Cost ($/MWh)

D= Variable O&M Cost ($/MWh) (App.1.3)

Total Generation Cost (cents/kWh) = A+B+C+D

5.4. Steps for Cost of Transmission Calculations

Cost of transmission of Bilkent Power Plant will be calculated by using the
configuration in App. 1.1 and substation layout described in Ref. 10.7 Transmission System
Supply Reliability and QualityRegulation page 50 (top figure) for power plant connection
and cost data given in Appendix 1.4. Electricity Transmission Tariffs will be used to calculate
transmission fixed O&M costs. The same methodology described in Fig. 5.1 and formulation
in 5.3 can be used excluding fuel cost and variable O&M costs.

E) Fixed Investment Cost (cents/kWh)

E= 100*[Capital Investment Cost ($/kW)]*CRF/ [(Hours in a Year)* (CF (%))]

F) Fixed O&M Cost (cents/kWh)

F1= 100* System Usage Cost($/kWyear)/ [(Hours in a year)*(CF (%))]
F2= 100* System Operation Cost($/kWyear)/ [(Hours in a year)*(CF (%))]
F= F1+F2

Total Transmission Cost= E+F (Cents/kWh)

Grand Total Cost for Generation +Transmission(cents/kWh)= A+B+C+D+E+F

Important notes:
- Use four decimal points for cost calculations.
- Perform fuel cost sensitivity analysis.
- Compare your total cost TL/MWh with the electricity market prices and make
comments on the feasibility of your investment.
6. TURKISH POWER SYSTEM BETWEEN YEARS 2001 and 2013

General information on Turkish Power System in year 2012 and developments within
past 13 years will be given in this chapter. Part of the information in this chapter are taken
web pages of EMRA and TEIAS.

6.1. 380 kV Generation and Transmission System

Turkish electric power system has three basic components generation, transmission and
distribution. This is a balanced three phase, highly meshed system.
Generation facilities (power plants) in almost every type except nuclear and gasified
coal, with different capacities connected to transmission and distribution voltage levels.
Transmission system mainly has two voltage levels 380 kV and 154 kV. Transformers
connect higher voltage levels to lower voltage levels. Distribution system is connected to
transmission system through transformers. Distribution system voltage levels are 34.5kV,
15.8 kV, 10.5 kV, 6.3kV and finally 220 volts phase to neutral used for domestic purposes.
The following diagram Fig. 6.1 of the year 2010, taken from Turkish Electricity
Transmission Companys web page shows only 380 kV transmission network (usually called
400 kV), power plants connected to 380 kV voltage level and interconnections at 380 kV,
220kV, 154 kV levels with neighboring countries.

400 kV INTERCONNECTED SYSTEM

BLACK
SEA
MEDITERREN
EAN
ALTINKA
YA
EREL
BULGARIA
FILIP
PI
H.UU
RLU
KAYAB
AI
AN
KIRI
TREBOL
U
GEORGIA
BATU
MI
ARMENIA
GUMRI
BALIKE
SR

SO
MA
DEN
ZL
YATA
AN
KEMER
KY
OYMAPI
NAR
SEYD
EHR
KON
YA
ADA
NA
G.AN
TEP
ANDI
RIN
ELBS
TAN
KAN
GAL
KAYS
ER
AYIR
HAN
GLB
AI
KARAK
AYA
ATAT
RK
DYARB
AKIR
.U
RFA
BATM
AN
HAKK
AR
KA
RS
ZL
CE
ERZU
RUM
HORA
SAN
I
DI
R
SYRI
A
DERNE
R
SKENDE
RUN
IRA
N
IRA
Q
ALEP
PO
KAR
KEY
ZAK
HO
KH
OY
BAZAR
GAN
BAB
EK
KALKAND
ERE
KOCAT
EPE
TEA
2010
Y.TE
PE
ALBEYK
Y
TUNB
LEK

KARAB
GA
ADA-
GEBZE
PAAK
Y
GKEK
AYA
TEM
ELL
MRAN
YE
BUR
SA
AY
DIN
YENK
Y
BRE
CK
SEYT
MER
IIKL
AR
ADAPAZA
RI
G
R
E
E
C
E
KIZILT
EPE
A
RI
Z.KY
TEPER
EN
UNIM
AR
HLV
AN
ILI
SU
DOA
NLI
UKU
RCA
CZ
RE
V
A
N
ERME
NEK
MER
SN
HAT
AY
KTEL
L
A.AL
ANI
KAPT
AN
UZUND
ERE
HSAR
GRS
T
KA
RGI
SVA
S
DEE
KO
YUSUF
EL
SDE
MR
EREN
BEYKOZ
ARA
MBA
HO
PA
VAR
SAK
MAN
SA
HABPLE
R
220
kV TL
154
kV TL
HPP
(PLANNED)
HPP
(EXISTING)
TPP
(EXISTING)
400 kV TL
(EXISTING)
400 kV TL
(PLANNED)
TPP
(PLANNED)
EN
GL
BAI
LI
DOUBEY
AZIT
AZERBAIJA
N- NAHCIEVAN
BABAE
SK
HAMTAB
AT
SNC
AN
KEB
AN
BORK
A
WA
MS
Sincan, Borka, Yataan, Babaeski, Keban TMlere
uzaktan eriim
YEDG
ZE
YELH
SAR
ER
ZN
TOS
ELK
OSMA
NCA
D.PA
A
DIMODIC
HEV
Y.BO
SNA
AMBAR
LI
ALA
A
6.2. Power System Development Between 2000-2013
117
Growth of Peak Load and Installed Generation Capacity
between 2000-2012
YEAR PEAK LOAD (MW) INCR.(%) INSTALLED CAPACITY INCR. (%)
2000 19390 2,4 27264 4,4
2001 19612 1,1 28332 3,9
2002 21006 7,1 31846 12,4
2003 21729 3,4 35587 11,7
2004 23485 8,1 36824 3,5
2005 25174 7,2 38843 5,5
2006 27594 9,6 40565 4,4
2007 29249 6,0 40836 0,7
2008 30517 4,3 41817 2,4
2009 29870 -2,1 44761 7,0
2010 33392 11,8 49524 10,6
2011 36122 8,1 52911 6,8
2012 39045 8,0 57059 7,8
2013 37277 -4,5 61422 (Oct.1,2013)
Installed Capacity Reserve = 57059- 39045 =18014 MW (% 46)
TEIAS 2012 Annual Report

118
Maximum & Minimum Loads, Daily Energy
Consumption at 2012
The minimum load was 19239 MW.
The minimum load was 49 % of peak
load (39045 MW).
The maximum daily energy
consumption was realized in July 8, as
799 million kWh and minimum daily
energy consumption was realized as
398.3 million kWh at October 25,2012.
TEIAS 2012 Annual Report

119
Generation, Consumption,Import,Export
at 2012
Generation: 239496.8 GWh
Import: 5826.7 GWh
Export: 2953.6 GWh
Consumption: 242369.9 GWh

120
Breakdown of Generation by Primary Resources
& by Generation Companies at 2012
Primary Resources: Generation Companies:
Coal: 28.4% EUAS: 36.6%
NGas: 43.6% EUAS Aff: 6.8%
Hydro: 24.8% Otop.: 5.6%
Renew: 2.6% BO+BOT+IHD+IPP: 51.0%
Others: 0.6%
TEIAS web site

121
Breakdown of Generation by Primary Resources
at 2012
Type Generation (GWh) Contribution(%)
Coal 68013 28.4
Natural Gas 104505 43.6
Liquid fuels 1640 0.7
Thermal total: 174158 72.7
Hydraulic 57865 24.2
Geot.+ Wind 6760 2.8
Renewable+Waste 714 0.7
Total Generation: 239497 GWh
TEIAS web site

122
Breakdown of Electricity Generation by
Generation Companies at 2012
Generation Comp. Generation (GWh) Contribution %.
EUAS (Elect. Gen. Comp.) 70424 29.4
EUAS (Affiliated) 20151 8.4
Private Comp. Total 135667 56.6
IPP (Independent Power Prod.)
BO (Built Operate)
BOT (Built Operate Transfer)
TOOR (Transfer of Operational Rights)
Autoproducers 13254 5.5
TOTAL GEN: 239497 GWh
Note: The contributions of Government (first two) and Private
Companies (rest of the list) in generation are 37.8% and 62.2%
respectively.
TEIAS web site

123
Transmission System (2012)
Transmission Voltages 380, 154 kV
Transmission Lines 49909 km
380 kV 16343 km
220 kV 85 km
154 kV 33481 km
380kV,154kV cables 260 km
Transformers Number Capacity (MVA)
380 kV 222 43795
154 kV 1153 68458
Total transformer capacity: 112253 MVA

6.3. System Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System
130
Control Centers
NCC
RCC
ANTALYA

131
Control and Data Acquisition
System (SCADA)
Transmission and generation system
monitored and controlled on regional and
national basis
National Control Center is in Golbas, Ankara
9 regions and 9 Regional Control Centers
Regional Control Centers located at;
Istanbul, Izmir, Adapazar, Golbas, Antalya,
Adana, Keban, Erzurum, Samsun

6.4. Electricity Sector Reform
133
Electricity Sector Reform
In compliance with the EUs Electricity
Directive (EC 96/92)
To align the industry with the principles
applicable to the EU member states and
Internal Market for Electricity within EU
To establish a favourable environment for
private investments

135
Legal Framework
Electricity Market Regulations
Electricity Market License Regulation
Electricity Market Eligible Customers Regulation
Electricity Market Import and Export Regulation
Electricity Market Grid Regulation
Electricity Market Distribution Regulation
Transmission System Supply Reliability and Quality Regulation
Electricity Market Balancing and Settlement Regulation
Electricity Market Tariff Regulation
Note : All of the regulations, notifications and decrees of EMRA can be found in emra.gov.tr


136
Vertically
Integrated
Unbundling of Governmental Companies
TEK
1970 1994 2001
TEDA
TEA TETA
TEA
EA
TEDA
Distribution
Generation,
Transmission &
Trade
Transmission
Generation
Trade
Distribution

137
Turkish Electricity Transmission Company
(TEA)
Transmission system owner and operator (TSO)
Market Operator
Provision of connection to and use of transmission
system services to all users through
Connection and Use of System Agreements
Monitoring real-time system reliability
Purchase and provide ancillary services through
Ancillary Service Agreements
International interconnection activities
Development of transmission infrastructure


138
Turkish Electricity Trade Company
(TETA)
Responsible for whole sale of electricity
Import-Export of electricity

139
Electricity Generation Company (EA)
Responsible for generation activities on
government side
New power plant investment under emergency
conditions
Whole saler of electricity and Exporter

140
Turkish Electricity Distribution Company
(TEDA)
Responsible for distribution system investment and
operation on government side

142
Market Participants
Turkish Electricity Transmission Co.
Transmission system owner & operator (TSO)
Market Operator
Import & Export by
Turkish Electricity Trading & Contracting Co.
Private wholesale companies
Retailers (Also Dist. Co.s with retailer license)
EA (only Export)

143
Structure of the Electricity Market
DISTRIBUTION
W/S
DIS. Co
TETA
EA IPPs
WHOLESALE Co.
RETAILERS
ELIGIBLE
CONS.
CAPTIVE CONS.
TRANSMISSION
GENERATION
TEDA
TEA
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM OPERATOR BALANCING MARKET OPERATOR
EMRA
Physical flow of electricity.
ANCILLARY SERVICES
WHELLING SERVICES
BALANCING & SETTLEMENT
COMMERCIAL RELATIONSHIPS


6.5. Electricity Market Grid Regulation
145
Voltage Limits
System Voltage
Limits (kV)
146 162 140 170 154
370 420 340 420 380
Planning
Limits
Operation
Limits
Rated
Voltage

146 146
MVA Limitleri
kV letken Tipi MCM MVA (K) MVA (Yaz) MVA (Bahar)
380 2B Rail 2x954 1360 832 995
380 2B Cardinal 2x954 1360 845 1005
380 3B Cardinal 3x954 2070 1268 1510
380 3B Pheasant 3x1272 2480 1524 1825
380 2000 mm2 2000 mm2 987 987 987
154 Hawk 477 180 110 132
154 Drake 795 250 153 182
154 Cardinal 954 280 171 204
154 2B Cardinal 2x954 560 342 408
154 Pheasant 1272 336 206 247
154 1000 mm2 1000 mm2 250 250 250
154 630 mm2 630 mm2 175 175 175


147
Short Circuit Current
3- short circuit equipment withstand
limits
Withstand Limits
(kA)
Voltage
(kV)
31.5 154
50 380

148
Protection
Single Phase-High Speed Auto-Reclosing facilities:
380kV transmission lines and
Important 154kV transmission lines
Fault clearing time = Relay operation + Opening of CB + telecommunication
Max. Fault clearing time
Max. FCT
(msec)
Voltage
(kV)
140 154
120 380
Pole slipping or sub-synchronous resonance protection may
requested if necessary


149
Frequency Limits
Rated Frequency of system 50Hz (f
o
)
Frequency Limits
49.8Hz < f < 50.2Hz
should not be exceeded for more than 10 min
Frequency withstand limit of equipment
47.5Hz < f < 52Hz
Continuously
Frequency withstand limit of equipment
47Hz. < f < 47.5Hz
At least 20seconds
Target system frequency for normal system operation
and AGC is
49.95Hz < f < 50.05Hz (500.05Hz)

150
Frequency Deviations
The frequency deviations for various
generation and/or demand loss events;
Minor event ( 200MW)
not deviate by more than 0.2Hz
Significant event (200 - 600MW)
Abnormal Event (600 - 770MW)
limits shall not be exceeded for more
than 60 sec


151
Generation Connection
MAIN-I
MAIN-II
TRANSFER
~~
7 LINE FEEDERS ..
380 kV
1540 > Gen > 770 MW
Generation Connection Criteria

152
System Design (Feeder)
Max. number of 380kV circuits at any
SS: 7
Max. number of 154kV circuits at any
SS: 10

153
System Design (Busbar)
380kV substations design:
two main busbars
one transfer busbar
380 kV and 154 kV portions of 380kV
substations:
two main busbars
One transfer busbar
154kV substations:
two main busbars

154
Grounding
Areas with high short circuit MVA
Power Transformer secondary side
Grounding via neutral resistance to limit phase to earth fault
currents
At distribution busbar
Neutral grounding transformer if necessary
Autotransformers (Y-Y) both sides
Directly grounded and neutral points are connected to the
grounding network of switchyard
Autotransformers (Y-)
primary side
Directly grounded
secondary side
grounded via the grounding transformer

155
Load Shedding
Load Shedding
Under frequency relays
19 16 13 15 12 9 12 10 6 10 8 6 %Percentage
21330 21545 15321 21330 21545 15321 21330 21545 15321 21330 21545 15321 Demand (MW)
4010 3464 1990 3191 2587 1333 2559 2097 946 2172 1812 882 Load Shedding (MW)
Max Day Min Max Day Min Max Day Min Max Day Min System Condition
48.4 48.6 48.8 49.0 Frequency Steps (Hz)
Load Shedding - 14 Sept. 2005

156
Plant Performance
Power output capacity
Overexcited: pf=0.85
Underexcited: pf=0.95
Synchronous Compensators:
pf=0
Thermal units reactive power:
75% of rated power (injection)
30% of rated power (absorption)
Hydro units reactive power :
60% of rated power (absorption)

157
Generator Control -1-
Speed governor:
able to control the active power output of
the unit to keep it constant
able to keep the frequency between 47.5
and 52.0 Hz
speed droop:
2% and 6% for hydro units
3% and 5% for the other units

158
automatic excitation control system
Reactive power limiters limit the reactive power
output of the unit
When the power of the unit is increased slowly
from zero to full load,
deviation in the output voltage does not exceed 0.5 % of
its nominal value
If the unit is exposed to a drastic voltage change
excitation control system:
reach lower and upper voltage limits of the generator
excitation winding
no longer than 50 msec

159
Automatic excitation control system
Unit should have a Power System
Stabilizer that can provide electrical
damping power in the automatic voltage
regulator in case of low frequency
electromechanical oscillations of 0-5 Hz

6.6. Interconnections

161
Interconnections
300 MW
0 MW
100 MW
100 MW
100 MW
200 MW
1000 MW
3000 MW
2000 MW
Existing
Planned
400 kV
400 kV (Operation: 220 kV)
400 kV (Operation: 154 kV)
220 kV
154 kV
TEA
2005
Status: Voltage Level:

162
Interconnections
Interconnections of Turkish Power System
Bulgaria: 400kV, Hamitabat- Maritsa 3
Bulgaria: 400kV, Hamitabat- Babaeski- Maritsa 3
Greece: 400kV, Babaeski- Philippi
Georgia: 220kV, Hopa- Batum
Armenia: 220KV, Kars- Gumru
Azerbaican: 154kV, Igdr- Babek
Iran: 154kV, Dogubeyazit- Bazargaan
Iran: 400kV, Baskale-Khoy
Iraq: 400kV, PS-3- Zakho
Syria: 400kV, Birecik- Aleppo

163
Import & Export
Players for Import and Export:
Turkish Electricity Trading & Contracting Co.
Private wholesale companies
Retailers (and Distribution Companies with
retailer license)
EA (only export)

164
International Interconnection
Conditions-1
According to Electricity Market Import-Export
Regulation;
Turkish electricity system can operate
together with the electricity systems of the
other countries under the following conditions
Import:
Synchronized parallel operation, or
Directed unit mechanism in compliance with the Grid
Regulation and/or Distribution Regulation
Asynchronized (DC) parallel operation
Export (in addition to above conditions)
Isolated Region operation

165
International Interconnection
Conditions-2
As far as the legal aspects are
concerned,
The import and/or export of electricity
from or to countries that meet the
international interconnection conditions
shall be conducted by the wholesalers and
the retailers licensed by EMRA
These licensees shall sign the
Interconnection Agreement and Agreement
for System Usage with TEIAS

166
11.11.2012 166
MARITSA 2
PLOVDIV
MARITSA 3 S/S
400kV
HABPLER
THESSALONIKI
S/S
69,635 km, 3B 954 MCM
2
6

k
m

2
B

9
5
4

M
C
M
137,944 km, 2B 954 MCM
2
B
9
5
4

M
C
M
9
1
,
4

k
m

2
B

9
5
4

M
C
M
1 km
2B 954 M
CM
58,589 km
3B 954 M
CM
ALIBEYKY S/S
400kV
8
8
.5
k
m
, 3
B
9
5
4
M
C
M
UNIMAR S/S
400kV
BABAESK S/S
400kV
2 x 150 MVA
380/154
58,257 km, 3B 954 MCM
GREECE
PHILIPPI S/S
400kV
HAMTABAT S/S
400kV
250 MVA
380/154
KAPTAN D.
S/S
400kV
KTELL
NEA SANTA S/S
400kV
110,259 KM 3B
BULGARIA
TURKEY
3x100 MVA
380/154
250 MVA
380/154
ATIALANI
YILDIZTEPE
BEYKOZ
MRANYE
3x100 MVA
380/154
90,171 km
3B 954 M
CM
5
9
,1
4
6
k
m
2
B
9
5
4
M
C
M
152,434 km 7
7
,7
k
m
2
B
9
5
4
M
C
M
22 km
ESIMI S/S
VARIOUS S/S
AUTO
TR AUTO
TR
150 kV
150 kV
21,227 km
2B
BLAGOEVGRAD
AUTO
TR
150 kV
ENTHES
TPP
AG.DIMITRIOS
TPP
AMIDEON
TPP
VARIOUS S/S
TURKEY-ENTSO-E CONNECTION
TURKEY GREECE INTERCONNECTION


REFERENCES
1- W. D. Stevenson, Jr. Power System Analysis, McGraw Hill.
2- A. R. Bergen, V. Vittal, Power system Analysis, Prentice Hall.
3- J. J. Grainer and W. D. Stevenson, Jr. Power System Analysis, McGraw Hill.
4- IEEE Std.399, 1997. The Brown Book-Power System Analysis.
5- IEC Standards (Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia).
6- Nur Yildirim Guide for Power System Design Project
7- Short lectures on weekly basis from the competent people of each subject.
8- Web pages of Turkish Electricity Transmission Company (TEIAS).
9- Web pages of Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (MENR).
10-Web pages of Energy Market Regulatory Administration (EMRA)
10.1. Electricity Market Law no 4628
10.2. Electricity Market License Regulation
10.3. Electricity Market Eligible Customers Regulation
10.4. Electricity Market Import and Export Regulation
10.5. Electricity Market Grid Regulation
10.6. Electricity Market Distribution Regulation
10.7. Transmission System Supply Reliability and Quality Regulation
10.8. Electricity Market Balancing and Settlement Regulation
10.9. Decrees of Energy Market Regulatory Administration
11- PSS-E Program Application Guide, Vol. 1. and PSS-E Operating Manual
12- Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book

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