GraphicThinking

forArchitects
& Designers
THRD E ITION
GraphcThinking
forArchitects
&Designers
PAUL ASEAU
JOHNWILEY&SONS,INC.
NewYor k Chichester Weinheim Brisbane Singapor e Toronto
Thi s book is printed on acid-freepaper.e
Copyrightil' 2001 by JohnWil ey & Sons .All rightsre served.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
Int erior Design: Da vid Levy
No part of thi s publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrievalsyst em or transmitted in any form or by anyme ans,
electronic, mechanical , photocopying, recording, scanning
orotherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108
of the 1976 United Stat es Copyright Act,without either the
prior written pe rmission of the Publisher, or authorization
through payment of th e appropriat e per -copy fee to the
Copyright Clearance Center,222 Rosewood Drive,Danvers,
MA 0192 3, 1978) 750-8400, fax 1978) 750-4744. Requests to
the Publi sh er for per mission should be addressed to the
Permissi onsDepartment , JohnWil ey & Sons,Inc.,605Third
Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011 , fax
(212)850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEYCOM.
Thispublication isdesigned to provideaccurateand author-
itative informati on in regard to the subject mattercovered.
It is sold with the under standing that the publish er is not
engaged in rendering professional se rvices . If professional
advice or othe r expe rt assistance is required ,the services of
a compe tentprofessional per son should be sought.
Librar y of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Lase au,Paul, 1937-
Graphi c thinking for ar chitects & desi gners I Paul
Laseau.-3rd.ed.
p. em.
Includes bibliographi cal ref er ences and ind ex.
ISBN 0-471-35292-6 (paper)
1. Architecturaldr awing. 2.Communication in ar chi-
tectural desi gn .3.Architecture-Sketch-books.
4. Graphi c arts. I. Ti tle.
NA2705 .L38 2000
720'.28' 4-dc21 99- 086809
Pr inted in the Unit ed Stat es of America.
10987
Contents

Foreword vi 8 Discovery 141
Preface to theThird Edition vii 9 Verification 163
Preface to the First Edit ion viii
COMMUNICATION
Acknowledgments ix
1 Int roduction 1
10 Process 179
11 Individual Design 189
BASICSKILLS
12 Team Design 203
2 Drawi ng 17 13 Public Design 217
3 Conventions 39 14 Conclusion 231
4 Abstraction 55 Notes 237
5 Expression 67 Bibliography 239
Illustrati on Credits 242
Index 244
APPLIED SKILLS
6 Analysis 81
7 Explorat ion 115
v
Foreword
P
aul Las eau proposes two re late d ideas: th e
first is that of "graphic th inking"; th e second
is graphic thin king as a device for communi-
cati on bet ween the de signe r and the designed
for. The following brief remarks are addressed to the
relati onship between the two ideas.
Histor ically, buildi ng des ign was not so indiffer-
eh t to human well-being that "communicati on with
the peopl e" became an issue until the act of drawing
wa s divided into two specialized activities. The first
wa s design drawi ng, in whic h the design er expres sed
his or her ideas. The second was draft ing used to
instruct the bui lder.
Design drawing began as and remains a m eans of
gen erating ideas, for ta ppi ng initial con cepts to be
sorted out and developed, or simply as an enjoyable
ac ti vi ty. Dra fti ng is an eight-hour task per formed
dai ly, fill ing sheets of paper with preci se lines dic-
tated by ot hers.
Long ago, when the work of individual craftsme n
beca me larger and more compl ex, when a cathedr al
rather than a chair was to be designed, dimension s
had to be esta blis he d so th at th e work of a single
cra ftsman could be coo rdinate d with th e work of
many. Drawing was introduced as a cr eative device
for plan ning work.
Cr aft smen ha ve always used drawings to hel p
th em visua lize the ir ideas as they made adj ustments
in th e continuous pro cess of fitt ing parts tog ether.
Dr awing under these conditions is inseparabl e fr om
the work itself. Some hi storian s say th at the working
drawings for the gr eat churches of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuri es wer e drawn on boards that wer e
later nai led int o the const ruct ion.
But drawing also has other purposes. Th e divisi on
of labor in cr eases product ivity. Art ifacts requiri ng
several weeks of wo rk by a single skilled cra ftsman
are divid ed into small er st andardi zed work tasks.
Pr oduction is i ncreased as skill is eliminate d. The
cr aftsman' s expression of mat eria l, design sen se, and
sket ches are bani shed fr om the wo rkplace . Drawings
an d specifications pre de te rmine all fac et s of t he
work.
Design decisions are give n to a new class of wo rk-
men who do not work with the mat er ial but inst ead

direct th e ac t ions of others and who communicate
their de cisions to th ose who work through dr awings
made by draft sm en . Designing, as a separate task ,
has co me into being. Th e professional designer, th e
professional draftsman, and the as sembly line occur
simult an eously as related phenomena .
This all occ urred some time ago, but the momen-
tum of the change fr om craftsman shi p to draftsman-
ship , brought abou t by the pe culiar form of
industrialization we have chosen to adopt , persists. It
now exte nd s to the di visi on of labor in the designer 's
office. Th e building of gr eat bu ildings is no longer the
cre ation of master cr aftsmen led by a mas ter builder
but of architectural offi ces organized along the lines
of industri al production . The task of the ar ch itect has
been divided and subdivided into an as sembly line of
designer, constr uct ion manager, inter ior desi gner,
decora tor , struc tural, elec tri cal, and mechanical engi-
neers, an d draft smen . Design decisions once made by
the designer on the drawing board ar e now made by
the programmer on comput er print ou ts.
There are those of us who believe that indu strial-
ization could have been achieved without dest roying
the crafts man ' s skill , love, and respect for material
and the joy of building. We find it even less desirable
tha t the joy of creativity and graphic thi nking that
accompanies that activity should leave the designer ' s
offi ce for the memory bank of a computer.
The built world and artifacts around us are evi-
den ce of the almost fat al error of basing design on the
mindl ess work of the ass embly line . To devel op pro-
gr amming and operat ional resea rc h based on mind-
less design would be to con tinue a dis astrous hist oric
continu um.
Graphic thinking is of course necessa ry to help
rej uven ate a mori bund design system. But communi -
ca ti on "with the pe opl e" is not enough. Cr ea tiv ity
itself must be shared, and sha red wi th everyone from
dowel kn ocker to "Liebe r Meister. " The need for
grap hic thinking is great , but it is greater on th e
wor kbenches of the as sembly lin es at River Rouge
th an on the desks of the chi ef designers of Skidmore,
Owings & Merrill.
- F ORREST W ILSON, 1980
vi
Preface to the Thi rd Edition

T
wenty years have passed since th e fir st publi-
cat ion of this book. The events of the inter -
vening ye ars have served to re inforce my
in itial assumpti on s and th e poin ts made by
For rest Wilson in th e Forewor d.
The ac celerated developments in persona l com-
pu ters and th eir application to architectural des ign
and constructi on ha ve rai sed mor e for cefully t he
quest ion of the role of individual thought and creativ-
i ty wi thin processe s tha t are incr easingly complex
and special ized. Will in dividuals experience mor e
opportunities for expression and contri buti on or will
t heir contributions be devalued because of th e speed
and p recision of computer- dr iven processes?
Alt hough th e In ternet /web has dra matically
increased individu al access, two major philosophical
camps still gui de computer development and applica-
ti ons. One camp se es th e co mput er as a way to
extend and improve tradi tional bus iness or ganizat ion,
with it s segmentati on of tasks and relianc e on spe-
cialists. The other camp sees the computer as a way
to re volut ionize business by br oade ning the scope
. and impact of the individual to the benef it of bot h the
individual and the organization. One view is of ind i-
vidual s supporting information; the ot he r is of info r-
mation supporting individuals.
A pr emi se of the first edition of this book was that
individu al , creative thinking has a vital role in a pres-
,
ent and futur e society that must cope with complex,
int err elat ed probl ems. Add ressing such problems
depends up on a compreh ensive unde rs tanding of
th eir nature ra ther than shoehorn ing them into con-
venient, si mplistic, th eoreti cal models. And visual
communi cati on pr ovi des an impor tant tool for
descri bing and under standi ng complexity. Inc reased
comprehensi ve, ra ther than spe ci alized, knowledge
in the possession of individuals should benefit both
the orga nization and the indi vidual. In thei r book, In
Search of Excellence, I Peters and Wate rman illus trated
that the effectiveness of organizations depends up on
an understanding of val ues, aspi ra tions, an d mean-
ings th at is shared by all me mbers. We are als o
be coming more aware that the mental and phys ical
health of individual s is a vali d as well as practi cal
concer n of orga ni zations .
vii
I
Preface tothe Fi rst Edition

n thefallof 1976, whileparticipatingin a discus-
sion group on design communication at the
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, I had the
occ asion to mention my book Graphic Problem
Solving. Essentially, that book was an attempt at con-
vincing architects to apply their freehand concept-
gathering skills to nontraditional problems dealing
more with the processes than the products of archi-
tecture. During the discussion, Fuller Moore stated
that the graphi c skills I had assumed to be part of
archit ectural training were being neglected in the
schools and that a more basi c book on drawing in
supportof thinking was needed. Soon after, I had the
chance to talkto severalarchitectsaboutthesketches
th ey use to develop designs in contrast to the "fin-
ished drawings they use in presentations." Most cre-
ative architects had developed impressive freehand
sketching skills and felt comfortable sketching while
thinking. Some architects dr ew observations or
design ideas in small sketchbooks they carried with
them at all times. Both the architects and th e educa-
tors I interviewed expressed concern over the appar-
en t lack of freehand graphic skills in pe ople now
enteringthe profession.
As I began to collect materials for this book, 1
wondered about the relevance of sketching in archi-
tecture. Could sketching be better applied to design-
ing as practiced tod ay? The answer to this qu estion
depends on anexami nation of thepresentchallenges
toarchitect ur aldesign:
1. To be more responsive to needs, a problem-solv-
ing process.
2. To be more scientific, more reliable, or pr'>
dictabl e.
The response to these challenges was suggest ed
by HeinzVon Foerster:
. .. the language of architecture is connotative lan-
guage because its intent is to initiate interpretation.
The creative architectural space begets creativity,
new insights, new choices. It isa catalyst for cogni-
tion. This suggests an ethical imperative that applies
not only to architects but also to anyone who acts on
that imperative. Act always so as to: increase,
enlarge, enhance the number of choices. I
Relating these ideasto thechallenges enumerated
earl ier, I see two correspo nding imperatives:
1. Ar chitects should solve problems wi th people
inst ead of for them by helping them under stand
their ne eds and the choices of desi gns th at me et
those ne eds. This is done by bringing th ose who
use the buil dings int o the process of de signing
those bu ildings.
2. Archi tect s mus t better understand science and
how much it has in common with architect ur e.
Jacob Bronowski pointed outthat the creative sci-
entist is morein teres ted in exploringand expand-
ing ideas th an in establishing fixed "truths." The
unique qual ity of human beings li es in th e
increaserather than thedecreaseof diversity.
Within this context , sketches can contribute to
de sign, first by facilitat ing the exploration and diver-
sity of each designer'sth inking.Second,sket che s can
help open up the desi gn process by developi ng com-
municat ion with peopl e instead of presenting con clu-
sions to people.
The not ion of graphic think ing gr ew out of the
recognitionthatsketchi ngor drawingcanandshould
support the de signe r ' s thinking. I re ali ze that some
readers woul d be more comfortable with a bo ok
abouteither thi nkingor drawi ng,but Ifelt itwascri t-
ical to deal with th eir inte raction. Pulling th em apart
seemed to be like tr ying to understand how a fish
swims by studying the fish and the water separately.
I hope you will be able to bear wit h the rough spots
in this book and find some th in gs that wi ll help in
yourwork.
viii
AcknowLedgments

T
his book is dedicat ed to those ar chitects who
generously took time to discuss their use of
drawi ngs in de sign during my or iginal and
su bseq uent research . Many of them als o pro-
vided sketches to illustrate the text. Th eir dedication
to creativi ty in architecture, enthusiasm for dr awing,
and comme nts about thei r design processes were a
gre at he lp and inspi rat ion for my work. Among the se
architects, I am especiall y indebted to David Stieglitz,
Thomas Bee by, Mor se Payne , Thomas Larson,
Michae l Ge bhar t , Romaldo Giurgola, James Tice,
Nor man Crowe, Harry Egi nk, Kir by Lockard , and
Steven and Cathi House.
Recognition is due th e following people for the ir
parti cularly important contribut ions to this eff ort:
Full er Moore for first suggesting the idea.
Robert McKim for his ins ights to visual thinking and
hi s en cou ragement.
Jim Anderson for vi tal comments on graphic commu-
nication.
Karl Brown for comments and other val uab le ass is-
tan ce.
Mi chele Laseau for technical assistance.
Jack Wyman, Ken Car penter, Juan Bonta, Charles
Sappenfiel d, and other pr ese nt and past col -
lea gues at the College of Architecture and
Planning, Ball State University for comme nts and
moral support.
A special thanks to Forrest Wi lson for hi s enthusi-
astic sup por t at the humbling outset of thi s effort.
Finall y, thanks must be given to my wife, Peggy,
and chil dren , Michele, Kevi n, an d Made leine, for
their grea t patience and sacri fi ces whi le I struggled
with revisions.
Pr eviously published drawin gs were pho-
tographed by Jerry Hoffman and Steven Talley.
ix
, . . . . . . .
1 0 , ~ ~ . \ - - - - - :
" ' _ . : ;
c ,
\
. . . . . ; . . - : \ .
) I ~
, ~ \ ' . . . . '
. 1 H . .
, r ~ i _ . .
q , . .


1 Introduction
G
raphic thinking is a te rm I ha ve adopt ed to
descri be thinkin g assisted by sketch ing. In
ar chitect ure, t his type of thinking is usually
associated with the concep tua l design stages
of a projec t in which th inking and ske tching work
cl osel y together as st imulants for developing ideas.
Interest in this form of thinki ng is promot ed by a
reexamination of the histor y of ar chi tect ural des ign,
th e impact of vi sual communication in society, and
new concepts of the role of design and designers.
The re isact uallya very strongtradit ion ofgrap hic
th inki ng in archi tect ure. Looking through reprodu c-
tions of the not ebooks of Leon ardo da Vinci, we are
str uck by the dynamic t hinking t hey re fl ect . It is
impossible to really understand or appreciate da
Vinci' s thinkingapart from his drawi ngs because the
graphic images and th e thi nking are one, a unity. A
closer look at these sketches reveals certain feat ur es
that are instr uc tive for anyone interested in graphic
thinking.
1. There are many different ideas on one page-his
attention isconstantly shiftingfrom onesubject to
another.
2 . The way da Vinci looks at prob lems is di verse
both in method and in scale- there are oft en per-
spect ives, sections, plans, de ta ils, an d panoramic
views on the same page.
3 . The thinking is explor atory, open-ended - the
sket ches are loose and fr agmented while showing
how th ey were der ived. Many alt erna tiv es for
extending the ideas ar e suggested. The specta tor is
invited to parti cipate.
Wh ata marvel ous example!Here is a mi nd in fer-
ment, using drawings as a means ofdiscover y rather
than as a way to impress other peop le.
Alt hough it is oft en diff icult to fi nd records of
developmental sketches in hist orical documents,
t her e is eno ugh sur viving evide nce to indicate th at
the use of sketches for thinking was common to
ar ch itects thr oughout history. Depe nding on th e dic-
tat es of the bui lding trades or customs, the dr awing
conventions varied from plan to section to ele vat ion.
For almosttwo centuries,the Ecole des Beaux Art s in
Paris used the plan esqui sse as the foundation for its
Fi gure1-2 ByEdwinLutyens.Castle Dragoand British Pavilion
1911Exposition, Rome.
' 0 ,
, j',
.
.t
I
',.
. .-l
' L
.oli\
Figure1-3 ByEdwin Lutyens. Castle DragoandBri tishPavilion
1911 Expositi on, Rome.
tr ain ing method . Wit h th e establis hment of large
arch itec t ural fir ms in the United States, three-
dimension al scale models gradually replaced draw-
ing for the purposes of design development. Th e use
of de signing sketches furt her decl ined with the
advent of professional model makers and profes-
siona l renderer s.
1
f

_.. .....
<, I
.......-- . '
-- \ I
. ..L \ 1
"
! ' ,.-
--...._---- "T'"

\ t,.. ..- ..
( " -;/ - , - '
) ,-
... :' r
\ _.

r "> "I .""';' ' .,

. ' . ' / - -r-

j ' - ./ ,
>.... "
. . '._....... ..,
-
, ,., ,;.
WI' , Ii ) . - -t
1.-'\ ., :;p, . , - .s " .
. i'J.' ej JIJ:i 11' - ' ,.
[
"; I' I ' - -" -
/J. [I),. ,/),. ,)I" V:'
'f; "' . I
l i.o--r---:::> 6r>o"1 \;.. ..<
_ . .. --
Figure1-4 ByAlvarAalto.
Th er e has, of course., been an intense interest in
ar chitec ts' drawings re kindled by exhibits like the
Beaux-Arts and 200 Years of American Architectural
Dr awings. But the emphasis is mostl y on communi-
cation of the final fixed product , and these presenta-
tion drawings tell us practically nothing about the
way in which the buildings were designed. The
thinkin g sketches ar e necessary to understand the
step-by-step proces s. Yet even when the thinking
sketch es ar e avai lable, as in the do cuments of the
work of LeCorbusier, they ar e usually overlooked in
favor of th e renderings or photos of the finished
work. We ar e just beginning to appreciate the impor-
tance LeCorb usier pl aced on sketches. As Geoffrey
Broadbent no te s, "All the int ernal harmony of the
work is in the drawings.. .. Itis incredible that artists
Figure 1-5 ByThomas Larson. TheGrandbergResidence.
today shoul d be indi ffer ent (even hostil e) to th is
prime mover, this' sca ffolding' of the project. "l

.
I .
\
,"
Introduction 2

c ~
-- .--
ILJI
\.
~ ~ ~ ~
Figure 1-6 By Thomas Beeby. House of Virgil.
Among modern architects, Alvar Aalto has left us
proba bly one of the best models of the graphic think-
ing tradition. His sket ches are rapid and divers e; they
def tly pr obe the subject. Hand, eye, and mi nd are
int ensely concentra ted. The sketches record th e level
of development , profi ciency, and clari ty of Aalto' s
ide as. There are many other architect s w hose work
we can turn to, part icul arly here in the United States,
where we are exp eriencing a resurgence of sketching.
Their drawings ar e inventive, diverse, and provoca-
tive. Whethe r they are making notes in a sketchbook
or turning over con cept s in the design st udio , these
creative designers are looking for somet hing specia l
over and above solving the design probl em , like the
gourmet who is looking for somethin g more than
food . They enjoy the eure k a experience, and they
enjoy th e search as well. This book is really about
finding th ings, about seeing new ideas, about di scov-
ery, and abo ut sharing ideas and discoveries.
Figure 1-7 By Norman Jaffe.
Int roduction 3
Figure 1-8 Battl e of Cety I with the Chet a.
-
Figu re 1-9 Greek geometry Figure 1-10 ExpLoration map. Figure 1-11 Constellation of stars
VISUAL COMMUNICATION THROUGH TIME
Throughout history, vi sion has had an important
imp act on th inki ng. Starting with th e caveman, dr aw-
ings we re a way of "freezing" ideas and events out-
side of hi m and cr eati ng a history. In many ways, the
"second wo rld " man cr eated through his images was
critical to the evolution of thinking. Man was able to
separate the he re an d now fr om what could be imag-
ined, the future. Through images, the world of the
spirit , the ideal world of mythology, and compelling
ut opias became immedia te an d real. Th e ideals of an
entire cult ure could be contained in one pi cture; the
unspeakable could be shared with others. From earli-
est times, thi s vi sual expression of thinking ha s be en
communa l. Once a concept , such as the notion of
man be ing able to fly, wa s converted to an image, it
was free to be reinter preted again and again by others
un til the airplane was invented.
Ma n used signs and symbols lon g before written
languages were ado pted. Earl y writte n languages,
such as Egyptian hieroglyphics, were hi ghly special-
ized set s of symbols deri ved fr om pict ures. Th e devel-
opment of geometry, combining mat hemati cs with
diagrams, made it pos sible to think of str ucture and
othe r abstractions of reality. This led"to the const r uc-
tion of objects or buildings of monumental scal e fr om
desi gns. In addit ion to tr ying to make se nse of hi s
immedi at e surroundings, man used drawings to
reach outnto the unknown. Ma ps recons tit uted
from notes and sketches of explorers spar ked the
imaginati on and sti mulate d new discoveries about
our world and the un iverse.
In spite of the ascendance of writt en language,
visual communication continue s to be an essenti al
part of the wa y we think. Thi s is re veal ed in these
phrases that liberally sprinkle our everyday conversa-
tion: "I see what you mean ; take anothe r look at the
si t uation ; put this all in pe rspective." Alt hough
research opinion varies , it seems generally accepted
that 70 to 80 p ercent of what we learn I S through
sigh t. ;:jight seems to be the most rapid and compre-
Int rodu ction 4
Ir= mI I

Figure 1-14 Figure 1-12 Figure 1-13
Figure 1-15 Figure 1-16
he nsive of our se nses for rec eIvmg in formation.
Thr ough centuries of condi tion ing, we rely on vision
for an ea rly warn ing of danger. Not only have we
come to depend on sight as a pri mary means of
understandi ng the worl d, but we ha ve al so learn ed to
transla te informati on pi cked up by t he senses in to
visual clu es so tha t , in many ways, sigh t is actu all y
us ed as a substi tu te for t he ot her senses.
There is ample evi dence that vi sual communica -
tion is becomi ng an even more powerful force in our
lives. The most obvi ous example is te levision ,
thr ough which we can explore th e skies, the ocea ns,
and t he societ ies of our shri nking p lanet. We re ly
heavi ly on graphics to explain and per suade.
Cartoons have become a very sophisticated mean s of
distilling an d reflecti ng our cultur e. But the most sig-
nificant revolutio n is the sh ift of visual communica-
tion from t he realm of specialis ts to that of t he
gen eral publi c. Inst ant ly developing film and video
recorders are j ust the beg inning of th e visual tools that
will become as common as t he PC an d the calc ulator.
The poten tia l of visual commu nication will be
test ed as we be gin the twent y-first ce ntury. Two over-
riding features are the de luge of inf ormation that we
must absorb and the increasingly inte rac t ive na ture
of the problems we mus t solve . As Edward Hami lto n
put it , "Up. ..to the present age we hav e absor bed
inf ormation in a one -th ing-at-a-time, an abs tract, lin-
Figure 1-17
ear, fragmented but sequential way... . Now, the term
pattern...w ill apply increasingly in understanding th e
worl d of total -envir on mental stimul i into which we
are moving.'? We seek pattern s, no t only to screen for
significance of infor matio n, but also to i ll ustr ate
processes or stru ctures by which our world opera tes.
The emerging technology for coll ecting, storing, and
disp layi ng differen t models of reality holds excit ing
promise. Computer-cons tructed satellite maps, video
games, comput er gr aphics, and the mi niaturization of
computing and re cording equipment will open up a
new era in visual communication.
The full use of this new capability will be direct ly
rel ated to t he develop ment of our ow n visual think-
ing. "Computers canno t see or dream, nor can they
cr eate: computers are la nguage-bo und. Similarly;
thinkers who cannot escape the st ruct ure of lan-
guage, w ho are unaware that t hinking can occur in
ways having littl e to do with language, are often ut i-
lizing only a small part of t hei r brain that is indeed
like a comput er." This observation by Robert McKim
points out the critic al issue of man-machi ne inter ac-
tion . The new equipment is of no va lue in itself; it is
on ly as good as our imagination can make it. Ifwe are
to realize the potential of visual technology, we must
lea rn to think visua lly.
Visual Communication Thro ugh Time 5
Figure1-18 Conceptualsketches.
VISUALTHINKING
The study of visual thinking has developed in maj or
part fr om the st udy of cr eativity wi thin the field of
psycho logy. The work of Rudol ph Arnheim in th e
psychology of art has been particularly signi fica nt . In
his book, Visual Think ing, he laid a basic framework
for r esearch by dis solving the artificial barri er I
bet ween th inking and the ac tion of the se nses. "By
f
cognitive , I mean all mental operations involve d in
re ce iving, stori ng, and processing of infor mation:

.;//
. f ,;:;:,
se nsory percepti on , memory, thinking , learning. '"
r
Ii,,"
This was a new way of understanding per cep tion ,
'f '<
'.

''' , ,, L, . , . _ .
J
..J..{J... .. _. k
namely, an int egration of mind and senses ;the focu s
-. ./
of the study of creativity sh ifts fr om the mi nd or th e
;;." f '" \ ( "...
senses to the interac ti on of both. Visual th inking is
. -,' ''''' ;-- . i. .,
.- '-"0 i... .-.... ,
therefore a formof thinkingthatuses the productsof

vision-seeing, imagining, and drawi ng. Wi thi n th e
::::c,," ...;
>
:11< ' "lY.<r:;;c .
context of designing, the focus of this book is on th e
G
third product of vi sion, drawings or sketches. When
.
'if';
'
'.
,
' l
.
' - " . ' ,--- -'- c
rt
' I . ' \
thinking becomes externalized in th e form of a
) 'I -...... l' oIO" j
.
sketched image, it can be said to have become
..< 1/, '1
I
( ;'
,.:,.... _ \
graphic.
.
\
There ar e strong indications that thinking in any oIl.: '\ {
field is greatly enha nced by th e us e ofmorethan one
sense, as in doing whileseeing. Alt hough this book's
focus is on architectura l design, it is my hope that
\ \ .
other readerswillfind theexplanation sandexamples y .] It ,,
- -I.
'
' !'t

. f
usef ul. The long history of architectura l design has
." ., . :'l'...".f' \' c....
prod uced a grea t wealt h of graphic tech niques and
":
imagery in response to hi ghly complex, comprehen-
"
sive, quantitative-qual itative problems. Today, arc hi-
!
te ct ural desi gn attempts to deal with our total
1
man-made envi ronment , a prob lem that is pers onal
and pressingfor everyone .The graphic thinkingtools
used by archi tec ts to solve problems of intera ction,
Figure 1-19 Conceptual sketches.
conflict, efficiency, and aesthetic s in buildings have
now become important to allpart s of society with its
own incr easingl y complexproblems.
Introduction
. iF
100;: i'J . " .,,
J
!\;
';
. i
6
J

Figure 1-20 Conceptual sket ches using digital media.
Visual Thinking
\

Figure 1-21 Graphic thin king process.
GRAPHIC THINKING AS A COMMUNICATION
PROCESS
The process of graphic th inking can be seen as a con-
versa tion wi th ourselves in which we communicate
with sketches. Th e communication process involves
the sketched image on the paper, the eye, the brain,
an d the hand. How can this ap parent ly closed ne t-
work gen erate ideas th at ar e not already in the br ai n?
Part of the answer lies in th e def inition of an ide a.
Th e so-called new ideas are really a new way of look-
ing at and combi ning old ide as. All ide as can be said
to be connected; the t hinking process re shuffl es
ideas, focuses on pa rts, and recombines th em. In the
diagram of th e graphic-thin ki ng p rocess , all four
pa rts-eye, brain, hand, a nd sketch- have the capa-
bility to add, subtract, or mo dify the information that
is being passed through th e communication loop. The
eye, assisted by pe rception, can select a foca l point
and screen out other informat ion. We can re adily
accept that the brain can add in formation. But th e
other two parts, han d and sketch, are also important
to the proce ss. A differ ence oft en exists between
what we intend to draw and wha t act uall y is drawn.
Drawing ability, materials, and our mood can all be
sources of change. And yes , even the image on pa per
is subjec t to change. Differences in light in tensity and
angle, the size and distance of the image from the eye,
reflect ivity of pap er, and transp are ncy of media all
open up new possibi lities.
The potential of graphic thinking lies in the con-
tin uou s cycl ing of informati on- laden images from
pa per to eye to brain to hand and back to the paper.
Theoreticall y, t he more often the information is
pas sed aroun d the loop , th e more oppor tunities for
change. In the sequen ce of images opposite, for exam-
ple, I started with a sketch of car toon-l ike bubble s to
Introduction
rep re sent spaces in a house tha t is yet to be designed.
Depending on my experience, int er est s, and what I
am tr ying to do , I will see cert ain things in the sketch
and ign or e others . The resulting perce pt ual image
seg r egates sp ec ial-use spaces, the livi ng room and
kitchen, fr om several other mo re pr iva te or support
spaces. Next, I form a mental image to further organ-
ize th e spaces and give them or ienta tion bas ed on
what I already kn ow about th e site or a south ern
exposur e for the living room and ki tchen. Wh en this
menta l image is tr a nsferred to paper once mo re, it
goes through yet another change in which the special
spaces begi n to take on distinctive forms.
This is, of course, an overs implifi cation of the
process. Graphic thi nkin g, like visu al com muni cation
with th e real world, is a conti n uous process.
Infor mation is si m ultaneously dar ting all over the
ne twork. When graphic thinking is most active , it is
similar to wa tching a fantastic array of fireworks and
looking for the one you really enj oy. Not only is it
productive, it is fun. In Arnheim' s words, "Far from
bei ng a passive mechanism of registrati on li ke the
pho togr aphi c camera , our vis ual apparatu s copes
with the incoming images in active str uggle;"
Visual thinkin g and visual per ception cannot be
separated from ot her types of thinking or percept ion .
Ver bal thinking, for example, adds mo re to the idea of
a ki tchen or li ving room with su ch qualifiers as
brigh t , open , or comfort able. Obviously, graphic
thinking is not all you need to know in or der to solve
problems or thi nk creativel y, but it ca n be a ba sic
tool. Graphic thi nking can open up chan nels of com-
muni ca tion with ou rse lve s and those people with
whom we work. The sketches generated are impor-
tan t because they show how we are th inking about a
problem, not just wha t we th ink about it.
-
8
I
Figure 1-22 Evolution of images.
Figure 1-23 Dialogue.
Graphic th inking takes advantage of the power of
visual percept ion by making vis ual images extern al
and explicit. By putti ng th em on paper, we give vis ua l
images objectivity outside our brain , an exi stence of
thei r own over time. As Rober t McKim poi nts out ,
gra phic thin king, as externalized th inking:
has several advantages over internali zed thought.
First, direct sensory involvement wi th materials pro-
vides sensory nourishment-literally 'food for
thought.' Second, thin k ing by manipulating an actual
structure permits serendipity-the happy accident,
the unexpected discovery. Third, thinking in the
direct context of sight, touch, and mo tion engenders
a sense of immediacy, actuality, and action. Finally,
the externalized thought structure provides an object
for critical contemplation as well as a visible form
tha t can be shared with a colleague."
To the person who must reg ularly seek new solu-
tions to problems, who must think creatively, the se
qualities of immedia cy, stimula tion, acci de nt , and
contempla tion are very importa nt. To these qualities I
would add one more specia l att r ib ute of graph ic
thinkin g, simulta neity. Sketc hes allow us to see 'a
great amount of information at t he same time, expos-
ing re lationships and descr ibing a wide range of sub-
tleties. Sketch es are direct an d represen ta tive.
According to Arn he irn, "The power of visual language
lies in its sp ont aneous evidence, its almost ch ildlike
simpli ci ty.. .. Dar kness means dar knes s, t hin gs t hat
be long together are shown toget her, and what is great
and high appear s in large size and in a high location. "7
Graphic Thinking As a Communication Process 9
I
,
' -1
\ ' ,'
.\}
' -Y
.!'--,
~ ~
~ ; ~
.,.
,.
i\
J ~
Figure 1-24 By David St iegletz. Development sketches on back of a placemat, Siegler Residence.
Figure 1-25 Front of placemat , Hotel Mercur, Copenhagen.
10 Introduction
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
A st andard story that many archit ects del ight in
tell ing de scribes how the most ba sic conc ept for a
multimillion -doll ar project was first scribbled on the
ba ck of a restaurant na pkin. I have wo nd er ed why
both the telle r and the listener always seem to deri ve
amusement from suc h a story. Perhaps the story
restores confidence in the strength of the individual
de signe r,or maybeit is theincongruity thatde cisions
on suc h impor ta nt matters ar e being made in suc h a
re laxed, cas ua l mann er. Viewingth isstory in thecon -
text of gr aphic thinking,it is not at all surprising th at
in spired, inventive thi nking sho ul d take place at a
resta urant tabl e. Not only are th e eyes, minds, and
hands of at least two persons interacting with the
images on th e napkin , butals o theyar e further stim-
ulated by conversat ion. Besides, these persons are
separa ted fr om th eir day-to-day work problems; they
are rel axing in a pleasant at mosphere, and with th e
consumptio n of good food , th eir level of anxiety is
significan tly recfuced. They ar e open,ready,prepared
for discovery; indeed, it would be surprising onl y if
the mostcr eative ideas were not bornin this setting.
To be effective communicators, arc hitects must:
1. Unders ta nd the bas ic element s of communica-
tion-the communicator,th e receiveror audience,
the medium, and the cont ext-e-and their role in
effectiveness.
2. Develop a graphic language fr om which to dr aw
the most effective sketch es for specifi c communi-
cati on tasks.
1 . Never take for gra nted th e process ofcommunica-
tion and be willing to tak e the time to examin e
their effectiveness.
Basic communica tion theory stresses the commu-
nication loop between the communicator or sender
and the receiver in order to att ain maxi mum effec-
tiveness.Responsefr om th e audience is essential toa
speaker who wants to get his mes sa ge across. The
information coming from the receiveris as importa nt
as what th e sender, the archit ect , transmits. And so
we must pay very clo se attentio n to th ose pers ons
with whom we hope to communica te . The best
approac h is to try to place one se lf in th eir shoes.
What ar e th ey expecting? What are their concerns?
Equally import ant , we should be awa re of our mot i-
vations and concerns. Do we have an unconscious or
hi dden agenda?

c /il'nt ArGhrtt.e..t

CONl E-XT
ObJe-d'lVe?1 LoCCttIOl'\,flo'VlI'DI)/Io' t n0 11Ml / Clrcuyy, .<;{o.I1 C1'S
Figure 1-26 The st ruct ure of communications.
As further chapters r eview th e many ways
gr aphi c thinki ng is used in the practice of architec-
ture,it iscriticalto remember thatindivid ualscannot
really be cutoff from their environmentor their soci-
et y.The graphic thinkingof one person thrives in the
presence of good compa ny and a su pportive atmos-
phere. Seek both enthusias tically.
Altho ugh the medium with which this book deals
isprincipallyfre ehand sketches,the basic methodsare
appli cable to many graphic media. But each specific
medium has some unique characteristics th at have
special effec ts on communicati on. Expe rimentation
wi th differ entmediais the fast est route to using them
eff ect ively. Although there are books on th e us e of
these med ia, th ere is no su bstitute for practi ce,
because weall have differentneeds andabiliti es.
The cont ext for communication includes su ch
th ings as location , time, duration, weather, and type
of space,wha t took place be fore the commu nic ation,
what will ta ke place after.We may be able to control
someofthese contextvariables,but we cannotafford
to igno re them.
Effective Communication 11
I
t
o
o
o
..
0:.;::,.()
i: Q
,.:;.
1.'1 1 ..

jii!11
Figure 1-27 Gym, St. Mary's College, C. F. Murphy Associates,
architects.
THE ROLE OF GRAPHICTHINKING IN
ARCHITECTURE
To realize the pot ential of gra phic th inking in ar chi -
tecture, we must understand today ' s prevaili ng atti-
tudes on the design process and the use of drawings
in that process. In th e earl y 1960s, A. S. Levens was
able to write with conf idence t ha t:
One source of confusion in thi nking about design is
the tendency to identify design wi th one of its lan-
guages, drawing. This fallacy is similar to the confu-
sion which would result if musical composition were
to be identi fied with the writing of not es on a sta ff of
five lines. Design, like musical composition, is done
essentially in the mind and the making of drawings
or wri ting of notes is a recording process.8
Today, we have broade r conc ep ts of how and
wher e design takes place, but drawings are st ill nor-
ma lly th ought of as simply representations of ideas;
Figure 1-28 Wall section, Headquarters Building, Smith,
Hinchman &Grylls Associates, Inc.
thei r pur pose is to explain to ot her pe opl e the prod-
uct s of our th inkin g, the concl us ions. Tra ining in
ar chitectural school s has been primarily gear ed
towar d the at tain ment of finished presentation skills,
whil e in architectural offi ces, the emphasis has been
on t urning out working drawings that clearly pr esent
the necessary di recti ves for the contractors.
In response to Levens' ana logy, graphic th inki ng
treats drawings more like a pi ano than a score sheet.
Like composition, design is possible without an
instr ument to provide feedback, bu t for most des ign-
ers this is not very produ ct ive. Design thi nking and
design communica ti on sh ould be interactive; t his
implies new rol es for graph ics. As we anticipate the
potential of computers and ot her evol vi ng communi-
cation tech nol ogies , the con cept of feedback wi ll be
key to effective use of media.
12 Introduct ion

I NDl Vl DUAL
IEAM
Figure 1-29
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
The fi rst major sec tion of the book is devoted to the
basic grap hic th inking ski lls of represen tation and con-
ception . The section incl udes four chapters deali ng
with drawi ng, the use of conventions, abstraction, and
expression . My aim is to promo te an awareness of the
rich variety of graphic tools availab le for adding pro-
ductivi ty and enjoyme nt to th inking activities.
The se cond sectio n of the book addresses the
applicat ion of graphic thinki ng to de sign processes.
Its four chapters discuss analysis, exploration, discov-
ery, and verificat ion . Although there are some obvious
applicat ions of thes e uses to a number of design
pr ocess models, I have purposely avoided promoting
a specific design process. One of the problems wi th
design process models is their accept ance in too sim-
plistic a way; types of th inking or behavior are cate-
gor ized, and the int ermeshi ng of processes and ide as
is ignored. Instead of cat egories, we ne ed flex ibility.
Ma nip ulat ion of graphic images, for example, might
be used at ma ny stages of de signi ng. I still wo uld not
attempt to guess where it wo uld be ha ndy for a spe-
cific proj ect . Manipulati on of the stereotypes for a
bu ilding could get designing started. Distortion of an
elevation might reveal a new approach to de tailing.
Rever sal of a process diagram might suggest a modifi-
cation of the building program.
The third section of the book considers graphic
thinking as communi cat ion in three des ign cont exts:
individual, team, and public. The emphasis is on better
communi cation so that ideas can be sha red.
This book is a coll ection of images, ideas, and
de vices that I hope are he lp ful and enjoyable. The
approach is eclectic ra ther than dis cr imi nating, inclu-
sive not excl usive, expectant not conclu sive. The
intent is not si mpl y to describe examples bu t to con-
vey th e excitement of grap hic th inking and even
make it contagi ous. We all have sp ecial , uni qu e
capacities for th inking, which, if unlocked, could
make great contributions to th e solution of problems
we face. Arn heim emphasizes tha t "Every gre at art ist
gives bi rth to a ne w universe, in whi ch the familiar
things look the way they have never before looked to
anyone." 9 This book is writ ten in antici pati on of a
time when many of us will be able to give birth to our
own uni verses.
Organization of the Book 13
BASIC SKILLS
2 Drawing
T
hiS chapter's focus is on the basic representa-
tion skills help ful to graphic thinkingmeth ods
as prese nted in the remainder of thi s book.
Developing freeha nd drawing skill s is neces-
sary to th e att ainmen t of graphic thinking and per-
ceptual skills. Some might say, "I really admir e good
drawings and those designers who have a qui ck
hand,but1 hav eaccepted the fact tha t1will never be
that good." Bunk!Itjust is not SOl Anyone can learn
to draw well. Ifyou don't bel ieve me,ta ke the time to
tal k to people who draw verywel l. You will find that
their fir st drawi ngs were ten tative . Th ey probably
took every opportuni ty to draw. With time and hard
work, th ey gr adua lly improved and never regrett ed
the eff ort they made.
There are two impo rtant condi ti ons t o keep in
mindwhen trying to develop any skill :
1 . Skill comes with repetition.
2. The surest way to practi ce any s kill is to enjoy
what you ar e doing.
Because of the he avy emphas is on ra tionalization
in formal education, many people mis takenly think
that they can master a ski ll, suc h as drawing, simply
by understandingconcepts.Con ceptsar e helpful. but
pr act ice is essential.
Theorchestra conductorArtieShaw onceexplai ned
why herefusedallrequests byparentsto auditionthe ir
childr en. He felt that the worst thing you can do to a
talented child is to tell him he has talent. The greats in
the mus ic bu siness, regardless of na tu ral talent ,
became successful through hard work and a commit-
ment to their cr aft. They believed in themselves but
knew the y would have to struggle to prove themselves
to ot hers. The focus of energy, sense of competition,
andyear sofhard workareessentialtobecomingafine
musicran.

The knowledge t hat drawing and t hinking are
import ant to ar chitecture is not sufficient. Nat ural
draw ing talent is no t enough. To sus tain th e neces-
sary lifeti me effort of learn ing and perfecting graphic
thinking, we need to find pleasure in drawing an d
think ing. We must be challen ged to do it better than
those arc hit ects we admire do. Morse Payne of The
Architec ts Collaborat ive once noted th e infl uence of
Ralph Rapsin on many talented designers: "To wat ch
Ralph kn ock out one of his beaut iful per spect ives in
fifteen minutes was tru ly ins piring. Itseta goal for us
that was very challenging."1 For tunately,t here is still
a lot of respectwit hin the architec turalprofession for
high-quali ty drawing. The person who can expres s
himself bot h graphicall y and verba lly on an
impromptu basis is highly 'valued. When hiri ng,
off ices oft en loo k for abi li ty to communicate ove r
ability to be origina l. They know that yourability to
develop ideas with them is much mor e important in
the long run than the idea that you initially bri ng to
them.
Itis possi ble to be an archit ect without having
well-developed graphic thi nking skills. A barberor a
bartender can surely cut hair or serve drinkswithout
beingabl e to carry on a conversation.But thejob is a
lot ea sier if you enjoy tal king with people, an d you
willprobablydomorebusiness.1believe thatgraphic
thinking can make design mor e enjoyable and more
eff ective.
Four types of basic ski lls sup port grap hic think-
ing: observation , pe rc eption , discrimination, and
imagination. Alt hough these are considered to be pr i-
maril y th inki ng skills , in this chapter 1have tr ied to
show how gr aphic means may be used to promote
these skills an d att ain a funda mental integra tion of
gra phics and thinki ng . The sequence in which the
skills areaddressed reflect s my assumption that each
thi nkingskillsupports those thatfoll ow.
17

2 Drawing
T
his cha pter' s focus is on the basic representa-
ti on skills helpfulto graphic thinking methods
as p resented in th e remainder of th is bo ok.
Developing free hand drawing skill s is ne ces-
sary to the attainment of graphi c t hinking and per-
ceptual skills. Some might say, "I really admire good
drawings and th ose desi gn er s who have a qui ck
han d, bu t I have accept ed the fact that I wi ll ne ver be
that good." Bunk! Itjus t is not so!Anyone can learn
to draw well .Ifyou don't believeme,take the ti me to
talk to pe ople who dr aw very well. You will find t hat
t heir first drawings were tenta tive. They probably
took every oppo rtuni ty to draw. With time and hard
wo r k, th ey gradually improved and never regretted
the effort th ey made.
Ther e are two impor tan t condi tions to keep in
mi nd when trying to develop any sk ill :
1. Skill comes wit h repetition .
2. Th e surest way to practi ce any skil . is to en joy
what you are doi ng.
Because of th e heavy emphas is on rati onalizati on
in formal education, many people mi staken ly think
that they can mastera skill , such as drawing, simply
by understandi ngconc epts.Concepts arehelpful, but
practice is essential.
Theorchestra conductor Art ieShawonce explai ned
whyhe refused allrequest sby parentsto audit ion their
children. He felt t hat the worst thing you can do to a
talented child is to tell him he has talent. The grea ts in
t he music bu siness, regardless of na t ural talent ,
became successful through hard work and a commit-
men t to their craft. They believed in themselves but
knew the y would have to struggle to prove themselves
to others. Th e focus of en ergy, sense of competiti on,
and yearsofhard workare essentialtobecomingafine
musician.
The knowledge that drawing and t hi nk ing are
impor tant to archi tecture is not sufficient. Nat ural
drawing talent is not enough. To sustain t he neces-
sary lifeti me effort of learning and perfecting grap hic
thinking, we need to find pleasure in drawing and
t hinki ng. We must be chall enged to do it bett er than
those architects we admire do. Morse Payne of The
Architects Collaborat ive once noted the influence of
Ralph Rapsin on many tal ented designers: "Towatch
Ralph knoc k out one of his beautiful perspectives in
fifteen minuteswas tr uly inspiring.Itsetagoal for us
that was ver y chal lengi ng.":For tunately,th ere is st ill
a lot ofrespectwithinthe architecturalprofession for
high-quality drawing. The person who ca n express
himself bot h graphically and verba lly on an
imprompt u basis is hig hly valued. When hir ing,
off ice s oft en loo k for abi lity to communica te ove r
ability to be original. They know that your ability to
develop ideas with them is much more impor tant in
the long run than the idea that you initially bring to
them.
It is possible to be an arc hitect wit ho ut hav ing
we ll-developed graphic thinking sk ills. A barber or a
bartender cansurely cut hair or servedrinks without
beingable to car ry on a conversation.But thejob isa
lot easier if you enjoy talking wit h people, and you
will pr obablydo more busines s.Ibe lievethatgrap hi c
t hinking can make design more enjoya ble and mo re
effect ive .
Four types of basi c skills support graphic th ink-
ing: obs ervation, percep tion , discrimina tion , and
imagination. Alt hough these areconsidered to be pri-
marily th inking skills, in t his chapter I have tried to
show how graphic means may be used to promote
th ese sk ills and at tain a fundamental int egrat ion of
graphics and thinki ng. The se quence in which t he
skills are addressed reflec ts my ass umption tha t each
thi nkingskillsupports th ose that follow.
17
Figure 2-2 By Lisa Ko lber.
THE SKETCH NOTEBOOK
Frederick Perls hel d that, "People who look at things
without see ing them will exper ience the same defi-
ciency when call ing up me ntal pi ctures, while those
who.. .look at thi ngs sq ua rel y and wi th recognition
will have an equally .aler t in ternal eye." 2 Visual
imagery is cr itical to the creati ve designer ; he must
rely on a very rich collection of vi sual memori es . The
rich ness of these memories depen ds on a well-devel-
oped and act ive visual perception. The sketch note-
boo k is an excellen t way of coll ecting visua l images
and sha rpe ning perception, for it promotes see ing
rather than just looking. Arc hitects who have gotte n
int o th e sketch not ebook habi t quick ly discover its
usefulne ss. All I can say is to try it; you'll like it.
A sketch notebook should be small and portable,
able to fit into a pocket so it can be carr ied an ywhere.
It should ha ve a durable binding and cove rs so it
won' t come apart. Car ry it with you at all times and
leave it next to your be d at night (some of the best
ideas come to pe ople just befor e going to sleep or
ri ght up on awak ening). As the name implies, it is a
book for notes as well as for sketches and for
reminders, r ecipes, or anythi ng else you can think
about. Combining ver ba l and graphi c not es helps
unite verbal and visual thin king.

' t \? I
f"
;Y J " .E(f V tl
' ,e II
-r
" c ' / , :>\" , )
<, -, - ' , ' = : n'l';' _ -:\: ' , .
.@J ;> / '0

",,---

Figure 2-3 By Lawrence Halprin.
c'; / h'? _rrN N (


.1
""", ' &C
6 - ,(,"',)



, I
1:
Figure 2-4 By Karl Brown.
18 D rawing
Figure 2-5 By Karl Mang .
Fig ure 2-6 By Ronald Margolis. Old Mai n Building,
Wayne University.
::-.- -__- _-------. .-y
/
Figure 2-7 By Pat rick D. Nall.
The Sketch Notebook 19
Figure 2-8 Spanish Steps, Rome.
OBSERVATION
The thousands of students who pass through archi-
tectural schools are us ua lly told th at they shou ld
learn to sket ch fr eehand and, to a cer tain degr ee,
how. Rarely are they told what they shou ld ske tch or
why. Drawing cubes and othe r still-life exercises ar e
an att empt to teach sketching divorced from th ink-
ing. Most st udents find it boring, and it drives some
away from sketchi ng for the rest of thei r lives. I pre-
fer to start st udents with the sket ching of exis ting
buildi ngs because :
1. The y ar e drawi ng subjects in which they have a
basic interest and are readyto dis cuss.
2. The eye an d mind as well as the hand ar e
involved;percep tion becomes fine-tuned, and we
begin to sor t out our vis ual experiences.
3. One of the best ways to learn about archi tectural
design is to look closely at existin g buildi ngs and
spaces.
The clearestwayto demonstr ate thevalue offr ee-
hand sketchi ng for developinggrap hic thinkingskills
is to compa re sketchi ng wi th ph otography. Alt hough
a camera is oft en a us eful or expedient tool, it lac ks
many of the attributesof sketches.SKetches have the
ab ility to reveal our perc ept ion , th erefore giving
more importance to certain pa rts, whereas a photo
shows everything wi th equalemphas is. In the sketch
of the Spanish Steps in Rome, the focus is on the
churc h, ell ipse, and step s as orga nizing elemen ts for
th e entire ext erior space. Th e significant impact of
the flowers in the photo ha s been elimina ted in the
sketch . The abst ra ction can be pushed furt her until
there is on ly a pattern of light and dark, or we can
focus only on certain det ails, suc h as lamp posts or
windows. This on e scene alone is a dictionary of
urban design. But you do not have to wait until you
get to Rome to get started; there ar e lessons all
around us. Become a prospector of ar chitect ural
design;buildyourown collection of good ideas whil e
you learn to sket ch.It is a lot of fun.
20 Drawing
Figure 2-9 S . r R panish Steps orne.
Figure 2-10 Wrn ow Det ail. ' d
Figure 2-9 _ :
a Spanish Steps, Rorne.
Fig ure 2-11 Street lamp detai l.
Observation 21

{!
IJ
Figure 2-12a House drawing struct ure.
BUILDING A SKETCH
In his book Drawing Buildings, Richard Downer pre-
sented the most effecti ve approach to fr eeh and
sketc hing I have ever come across . "The fi rst an d
most importan t th ing about drawing bui ldi ngs is to
realize that what you intend to draw should inter est
you as a subj ect .'? Nex t , it is impor tant to select a
vantage point that best descri bes your subject. Now
you ar e r eady to build the sketch by a t hree-step
process of sketching basic structure, tones, an d then
det ails. The basic st ructure sketch is most important.
Ifthe parts ar e not shown in their proper place and
A
Figure 2-12b Tones.
corr ect propor tion s it makes no difference what is
drawn from t hen on; the sketch will always look
wrong. So take your ti me; look carefully at the sub-
ject ; conti nually compar e your sketch wi th w hat you
see. Now add the tones. The se represent the space-
defini ng elements of light, shadow, and col or. Agai n ,
look carefully at the subject. Where are the lightest
ton es; where are the da rkest? The sket ch is becoming
more re alistic. The detail s are added las t . At thi s
poin t everything is in its place, and you can really
concentrat e on the details one at a t ime. It is no
longer overwhel ming; you can relax and enjoy it.
Fi gure 2-13a Bowl drawing structure. Fi gure 2-13b Tones. Figure 2-13c Finished bowl drawing.
22 D rawing
Figure 2-12c Text ure and color.
Figure 2-12d Finished house drawing.
Building a Sk etch 23
IZJ D
L7k1
\ 1
Figure 2-17
Structure Sketch
Figure 2-14
T he most im port an t part of a sketch , the basic lin e
draw ing, is also the mo st difficult skill to m aste r. It
re quires a lot of practice, but I have a few suggestions
that sho uld help:
Fig ure 2-15
Fi gure 2-16
1. To help sha rp en th e se ns e of propo rtion need ed
for ske tching , practi ce dr aw ing squares and th en rec-
tangles that are tw o or th ree times longer on one side
th an on th e other. Now try to find squares in a scene
you are sketchi ng . (At th e beginn ing, th is could be
don e w ith tracing pap er over a photograp h.)
2. Use a cross or a fra me to get th e parts of th e
sk etch in th eir proper place, or maybe a p romi ne nt
fea tur e of the scene or subjec t can act as an organizer
for the ot her parts of the sketch .
3. Alth ough pen cil ca n certai nly be us ed for
sk etchi ng, I pref er felt -tip or in k pens beca use the
lines they produc e are simpl e and clear. If a line is in
th e wrong place, it is qu ite evide n t. Because the lin e
can not be eras ed , it must be redr aw n to get it right.
This process of repet iti on and checking against t he
subjec t develops ski ll. Drawings th at are so light they
ca n be ignored or erased den y the design er the feed-
back essentia l to hi s im provem ent.
4. To gai n mor e co nt r ol over li ne m a king, try
some sim pl e exercises sim ilar to our "idle moment "
doodl es . Th e sp irals, like those above, are drawn
fr om the ou ts ide toward the cente r, both clockw ise
and co unterclockw ise . Try to m ake them as fas t as
possib le without let ting the lines touc h each ot her ;
tr y to get th e lines close to each othe r. Stra ight hatch-
in g can be done in several directi ons , always striv ing
for consistency.
24 Dra wi ng
Fi gure 2- 18
Figure 2- 20
Tones
Tones can be represented with different den sities of
hatching or combinations of cross-ha tching. The lines
sho uld be parallel and have eq ual spa ces between
them. Always re member that the ma in purpose of the
cross- hatching is to obtai n different levels of gray or
dar kness. Use st raight strokes as if you were pa inting
the sur faces with a brush . Errati c or irregular lines
draw att enti on to them and di stract th e eye fr om
more important things. There is no st r ict r ule for
applying tones on a sket ch, but I ha ve some prefer-
enc es tha t seem to work well. Horizontal ha tching is
used on horizontal surfaces, di ago na l hatch ing on
vertical surfaces . Wh en two ve rti cal surfaces meet,
the hat ching on one is at a slig htly di ff eren t an gle
from the hatching on the other surface.
Figure 2-19
Apply tones in a three-step process:
1 . Indicate any texture that appears in the surface,
such as the vertical boards on a barn.
2. If the textur e indication does not provide the level
of darkness of th e subj ect , add the necessary addi-
tional hatching over the entire surface.
3 . Now apply more hatching w here any shad ows
fal l. To show gradat ions of shadow, add a succes-
sion of hatches at different angl es.
The refinement of ton es in a drawing is achieved
by loo king carefully at th e subject and by ge tt ing
mor e control over t he consistency of the lines.
Several alt ernati ve techniques for sketc hing in
tones are illustr ated throughout this book . The one
shown at t he ri ght above is a rapi d me thod using ra n-
dom strokes. De signers usually de velop techniques
with whi ch they feel most comfor table.
Building a Sketch 2 5
-
= ==-
ififf




! .../

0000
L..J l--J
L.....-..> '--.J
1=

Figure 2-21
Figure 2-23
Fi gure 2-22
Details
Detai ls are ofte n the most in terestin g or compelling
as pe ctof buildings.The window isan exce llentexam-
ple. Ther e, the de tails can be the result of a tr an siti on
between two mater ial s-brick and glass-or between
two building elements-wall and opening. The wood
window frame, brick arch, key stone, and windowsi ll
make t hese transi tio ns po ss ib le, an d each of th ese
detai ls tells us moreabout the bui lding .On a regular
basis, I have st udents sketch windows, doors, or
other building elements so they gain an understand-
ing and appreciat ion of the contribution of detai ls to
th e quali ti es and functions of the bui lding. Details
tell us so methi ng of needs and mater ials as well as
our in genuit y in relating th em. The ske tch of t he
meta l grating around the base of t he t ree exp la ins
bot h the need s of the tr ee and the use of th e surfa ce
under the tree where peopl e walk.
In most archit ectural scenes, th ere are det ails
close to us and ot he rs farther away. We can see mor e
of the close det ail andsho uld show in the sketch suc h
things as scre ws or fas te ne rs or fin e joints and tex-
tur es. As detai ls recede in the sket ch , fewer and
fewer of the pi eces ar e shown, unt il only the outline
is visible.
26 Drawing
Fi gure 2-25 MO llt gomery, Alabama.
Fi gure 2-24 Sail Francisco. Ca lifornia.
Combining Observations
Wit h practice, struct ure, tones, and d etai ls ca n be
effectively combined to ca pt ure th e complete se nse
of a subject. Older houses of different styles ar e suit-
ab le subj ects for practicing a nd developing obser va-
tion skills. The y are usuall y readi ly accessible and
pro vide a variety of visual effect s that ca n sus ta in
your interest. Try vis iting favorit e houses at differ ent
times of day in orde r to view the impact of di ffer ent
light ing co ndit ions. Walk arou nd, approa ch , and
retr ea t fr om th e subj ect to capture a va r ie ty of
appearances .
Building a Sketch 27
01 1'0 0
o
Figure 2-26a Originalsketch.
DOD
Figure 2-26b Overlaysketch.
IJ
n
o
TRACING
Tracing existing graphic mat erial is another way to
bu ild sketchingskills.Ma kinganoverlay of you r own
drawings with tr acingpaperis an obvious but under-
used device. Rath er than overwork a drawing that is
head ed in t he wrong directi on, make an over lay
showing the elements that need to be correct ed and
then, in anothe r overl ay, ma ke a whol e new sketch
incorpor ating the chan ges. You will learn more from
your mi stakes, and the fina l sketch will be better an d
fresher. Tracing can also be do ne by laying a trans-
parent sheet with a grid over a draw ing or pho to,
drawing a larger gr id, and then transferri ngthe draw-
ing square by sq uar e. A thi rd technique uses a slide
projector and a small mirr or to project images of a
convenient size for tracing on your drawi ng table.
The large sketch onpage 31was done in thisway.
No matt er th e reason you thou gh t copying was
impr oper or illega l, forget it. Mast er dr af tsmen such
as Leonardo da Vinci copied oth er people's wo r k
when th ey were learn ing to draw. No tracing is ever
th e same as th e or igina l. You will pi ck out some
detai ls and simplifyother parts.Tracingforcesyou to
look closel y at the or iginalsketc h or photo and better
un der stand the subject.
)
Figure 2-26c Finalsketch.
M\t?RD1<...

I'1j up
)
"Z061'V-. [e-V\ L ' j.
:7 ' li\ol
""'T'i iii i "' m



\ '>\< J

lIdu,y

l?l1X _f!.

r-
1
11
><1
11
wood.

th'\1\l?oMt{

130)(
Fi gure 2-27 Proj ectiontabl e andproject ion box.
28 Dra wing
Fi gure 2-28a Original sketch.
Figure 2-28b Enlargement of sketch.
Figure 2-29 Tracing after Ray Evans.
Fi gure 2-30 Tracing after Ray Evans.
Tracing 29

Fig ure 2-31 Sketc h of Athens, Ohio. (a)
Figure 2-32 Sketch of Athens, Ohi o. Figure 2-33 Sket ch of At hens, Ohio.
30 Drawing
Figure 2-34 a (opposite), b (above) Plan, section, and perspective of garden-court restaurant, Salzburg, Austria.
PERCEPTION
Many architect s have become met hodical about
sketch and note taki ng. Gordon Cull en , the Briti sh
illus trator and urban des ign consult ant , had a major
influence on t he use of analyti ca l sket ches. His book
Townscape' is a wond erful collec tion of visual percep-
t ions of th e urban enviro n me nt. The sketches are
clear and comprehensive , imp ressive ev ide nce of
wha t can be dis covered wi th gra phic thinking. Using
pl ans , sect ions , and perspectives, th e sketches go
beyond th e obvi ous to uncover new perceptio ns .
Tones ar e used to iden tify major orga ni zers of space.
(In the book, many of these tones are achieved
mec hani cally, but th ey are easily rendered in
sket ches by hatching wi th grease pe nci l or large felt-
tip markers.] The verba l ca tego ri zation of urban ph e-
nomena t hrough shor t titles helps to fix the visual
percept ions in our memori es; verbal and graphic
communications are working together. And these are
not complica ted sketches; they ar e wit hin the poten-
tial of most designe rs, as shown in the sketches oppo-
site, which apply Cullen's techniques to the analysis
of a small midwestern town.
As John Gundelfinger puts it :
A sk etchbook should be a personal diary of what
interests you and not a collection of finished draw-
ings compiled to impress wit h weight and numb er. ..a
finished on-the-spot drawing...shouldn't be the rea-
son you go out, for the obj ective is drawing and not
the drawing. I often learn more from drawings that
don't work out, studying the unsuccessful attempt s tc
see where and why I went off ..can learn more than
from a drawing where everything fell into place .
The drawings that succeed do so in some measure
because of the failures I've learned from preceding it,
and so certain pitfalls were unconsciously ignored
while drawing.S
Perception 3 1
Figure 2-35 Waterfront, Mobile, Alabama.
Each subj ect ma y reveal new ways of seei ng if we
remain open to its special ch aracteristics. It may be
the redundancy of forms or a pattern of shadows; it
may be an aware ness of the sp ecial set of elements
and ci rcums tances that produ ces a particularl y inter-
esting visual experience. A sketch of t he interior of a
cathedral can uncover th e exciting play of scale and
mat er ials. Th e ac t of dr awing can dramaticall y
heighten your visu al sensi tivity.

1 1 ,

Fi gure 2-36 Salzburg, Austria.


I k



I
Figure 2-37 Mobile, Al abama.
32 Drawing

..,.----
_ ..,

Figure 2-38 By Todd Calson. West minst er Cat hedral.
Figure 2-39 Ohio Universit y Quad, Athens, Ohio.
Percep tion 3 3
Figure 2-40 Cart oon style sket ch, after Rowland Wilson. Fi gure 2-42 After Saul Steinberg.
o
oL ::=I:>::J
~
Figure 2-43 After Saul Steinberg.
DISCRIMINATION
Cartoons ar e an im portant source of sket ching id eas.
My favo r ite sources are The New Yor ker a nd Punch
magazines, but t here are many ot her sources.
Cartooni st s convey a conv inc ing sense of reality with
an incredible economy of mean s. Simple con tou r
lin es suggest det ail informati on while con centra ting
on ove ra ll shape s. Michael Folkes desc ribes some of
the discipline of cartoon drawings:
.. .simplicity refers to the need to ma ke the clearest
possible sta teme nt.... Avoid all unnecessary de tail.
Figure 2-41 After Saul Steinberg.
Ma ke the focal point of your pictu re stand ali t .
Refrai n from filli ng every corne r with obj ects or
shading.. . . Train your hand and eye to put down on
paper rapidly recogniza ble situations: in the fewest
possible strokes. One significant detail is worth far
more than an uncertain clu tter of lines that don 't
really describe anything. Make dozens of sma ll pic-
tures.. .drawing directly in pen and ink so that the
pen becomes a natural drawi ng instrument and not
something that can only be used to wor]: pain fully
over carefully prepared pencil lines.(,
The cart oon is sel ective or disc riminating; it he lps
you seek out th e esse nce of an experience.
34 Drawing
Figure 2-44 Sketch exte nding a view derived from
t he paint ing, Giovanni Arnofini and Hi s Bride, by
Jan Va n Eyck.
Figure 2-45 Drawing fromimagination.
IMAGINATION
To move fr om graphics in suppo r t of observa tio n
toward gra phic thinking that supports designing, you
must develop and stre tc h imagin ati on . Her e are so me
simple exercises to st art :
1. Find a drawing, p hotograph, or painting of a ro om
th at shows a part of a space. On a large sh eet of
pap er, draw the scene depicted and th en exte nd
th e drawing beyond it s or igin al fr ame to sho w
Figure 2-46 Drawing from imaginat ion.
those pa r ts of t he roo m accessibl e only throu gh
your imagination.
2 . Draw a se t of objects and then draw what you
believe to be t he view from the backside.
3. Sket ch a simple object su ch as a cube wit h dis-
tinc tive mar kin gs. The n imagine that you are cut-
ting t he object and moving the parts. Draw the
di fferen t new configura tions.
Imagination 35
Visual-Mental Games
An en te rtaining way to improve ha nd- eye- mind
coordination and promote an ability to visualize is to
play some simple games.
1. Show a few peopl e four or five cutouts of sim-
ple shapes arranged on a pi ece of paper (above , left ).
Out of view of the ot hers, one pers on moves th e
cut outs while verbally describing the move. The oth-
ers attempt to draw th e new ar ra nge me nt from the
descri ption. Th is is repeated a few times to see who
can keep track of the position of the shapes. Aft er
master ing th is exercise, have the persons drawing try
to form a menta l pict ure of each new arrangement
and then try to draw only the final arran gement. In a
second version of this game, an object is substitu ted
for the cut out s, an d it is manipulate d, opened , or
taken apart.
2 . Form a circl e wi th a small gr oup. Each person
makes a simpl e sket ch and passes it to hi s righ t.
36 D raw ing
Everyone tr ies to copy the sketch he has received and
in turn pa sses th e copy to th e right. Thi s continues
unti l the fin al copy is passed to the creator of the ori g-
inal sketch. Then all sketches are ar range d on a wall
or table in the order they were made. This game illus-
trates the distinctiveness of individual visual percep-
tion (above, center).
3. Doodles, using an architectural or de sign
theme, are another form of puzzle. He re, th e obj ec-
tive is to provide just enough clues so the subj ect is
obvious once the title is given (above, right) .
There are many visual puzzles that exer cise our
visual per cept ion. Try some of those shown opposite;
look for more puzzles , or invent some of your own. In
the sketches opposite, an arbitrary diagram is given
and the cha llenge is to use it as a parti for di fferent
bu ildings by seeing it as standing for a section or plan
view for starters.
Figure 2-50 Vi sual puzzles.
Figure 2-51 ExpLoringdesign based ona parti diagram.
Imagination 37
\
\ \ . . ' \ ,
" t . . . . .
, \ ' . . v , . ' , . . .
\ \ f . . . . . ' : ,

, " , ' " ' " , ' " I '
. \ . ,
' < , " \ \
" - ,

"

. - - - - 1

3
(
nventi ons
Represent: Call up by description or portrayal or
imagination, figure, place, likeness of before mind or
senses, serve or be meant as likeness of ..stand for,
be specimen 0(, fill place 0(, be subs titute [or:
hroughout history, representation and design
have been closely linked. The ac t of design ing
grew directly out of man' s desire to see wha t
could or would be achieved bef ore investi ng
too much time, energy, or money. To create a clay pot
meant simply working directly with your hands unti l
the desired result was achieved. But making a gold
pot required expensive material, muc h preparation,
time, and energy. A representation, a design drawing,
of the gold bowl was necessary befor e sta rting th e
project. Design became an important part of architec-
tural projects simply because of th eir scale.
Representing t he imagined building permitted not
only a view of the final result but the planni ng for
labor and materials to assure completion of the projec t.
The representational capacity of sketches is lim-
ited. We mus t recognize tha t even wi th the most
sophisticated techniques drawings are not a full sub-
stitute for the ac tual experience of an arch it ec tural
env ironment. On the other hand, t he capac ity of
sketches as thinking tools extends well beyond what
is act ually con tained in the sketches. Drawings, as
representations, should be seen as extensions of the
persorus] who uses them to aid in thinking. As Rudo lf
Arnheim says:
The world of images does not simply imprint itse lf
upon a fai thfully sensitive organ. Rathel; in looking
at an object, we reach out for it. Wit h an invisible
finger we move through space around us, go out to
distant places where things are foun d, touch them,
catch them, scan their surfaces , trace their borders,
explore their texture. It is an eminently act ive occu-
poti on.'
I find a great variation in the degree to whi ch
architects rely on drawings to visua lize designs. One
probable explanat ion for this is experience in vis ua l-
izing and with the bui lding of these designs. For
example, when architecture students look at a plan
view of a room, they likely see just an abstract di a-
gram, but some experienced architects ca n visua lize a
perspective view of the same room without having to
draw it.
Fi gure 3- 2
Figure 3-3
Some bas ic types of re prese ntation sketc hes,
which I feel arch itects should be able to understand,
are di scussed in th is ch apter. I do not intend to pres-
ent a comprehensive explanation of the construction
of basi c drawing conventions . Th er e are already sev-
eral good books on that subject. Rather, the emphasis
will be on freehand techniques without th e use of tri-
angles, scales, and st raightedges, allowing for rapid
repres entation.
39
',,"/
Figure 3-4 Site plan.
Figure 3-6 Partial elevation.
Ther e ar e a gr eat number of th ings we can repre-
sen t ab out a space or a building and many ways to
represent them. Th e sketched subjects can ra nge in
scale from a building and its surrounding proper ty to
a window or a light switch. We might be interest ed in
how it looks or how it works or how to put it
togeth er; we may be searching for clarity or charac-
ter. Variations in drawings ra nge from the concrete to
the abs tract , an d the convention s in clude sec tion or
cut, el eva tio n, perspect ive, axonometric, isometric,
and projections. Media, technique, an d st yle acco unt
for many of the other variations. Ma ny of these varia -
tions are covered in lat er chapters.
Figure 3-5 Axonometric.
Fi gure 3-7 Detail sect ion.
Th e elementary for ms of representation discussed
at this point are :
1. Comprehensive views- To st udy design s as com-
plete syst ems , we must have models that repre-
sent the whole from some viewpoint.
2. Concrete images- Dealing wit h the most direct
experience. Abs traction is covere d in Cha pter 4.
3. Perceptual focus- Trying to involve the vi ewe r in
the expe rien ce signi fied by the drawing.
4. Freehand sketches-Decision -mak in g in de sign
should include the consi derati on of many altern a-
tives. Representation of altern atives is encouraged
by th e speed of freehand ske tching, whereas the
tediou sn ess of "constr uc ted " hard-line drawings
discourages it.
40 Conventions
BUI LDINGA PERSPECTIVE.
Rdure
91ane
l1 otrzon L U1l
Figure 3-8a Setting the pict ure plane Fi gure 3-8b St arting grids. Figure 3-8c Setti ng cross-grids.
and viewpoint.
Figure 3-9a Setting the pict ure plane and Figure 3-9b Sett ing one grid, plan view. Fi gure 3-9c Setting t he cross-grids,
viewpoint, plan view. plan view.
PERSPECTIVE
Pers pect ive sket ches ha ve an eq ual standing with
plan drawings, t he starting poi nt of most design edu-
cation. One-point perspective is the easiest and t here-
fore, I feel, th e most useful of pe rspect ive
convent ions. I have found th e following th re e-step
method to be most succe ssful :
1. Indicate the pict ur e plane in bot h elevation and
pl an; it is usuall y a wall or anot her feat ure th at
defines the far li mits of th e immediate space to be
viewed. Loca te t he point from which the space is to
be viewed, or vi ewpoint (VP.). Vertically, this point is
usually about 5.5 feet from the bott om of the pi ctur e
plane. Horizontally, it can be placed just about any-
wher e in the space with t he un der standing t hat parts
of t he sp ace outsi de a 50-degree cone of vision in
fr ont of the viewer tend to be di storted in t he per-
spect ive. The horizontal line drawn t hrough th e VP.
is called th e horizon line.
2 . Establish a grid on the floor of the space. Draw
th e square grid in pla n and co unt the number of
spaces t he viewer is away fr om the pi ct ure plane.
Then, in th e perspective , loca te the diago na l va nish-
ing point (D.V P.) on the hori zon line at t he same dis-
tance from t he vie wpo int. Draw floor gr id lines in the
perspect ive in one direction coming from the view-
point; draw a di agonal line from the diagona l vanish -
ing poi nt t hrough the bot tom corner of t he picture
plane an d across the space. W here the diago nal int er-
sec ts t he floor gri d lines running in the on e direction,
hori zontal lines can be drawn to show t he ot her
direction of the floor gr id.
3 . Indicate the str uc ture of the basic elements of
the space. Conti nu e the grid on the walls and ceiling
(if app ropriate). Using th e gr ids as quick refer ence,
place vertical plan es an d openings as we ll as signifi-
cant divisions of t he planes.
Persp ective 41
Figure 3-10a Definiti on of space.
Sketching straight lines freeh and is an important
skill to ma st er for all types of gra phic thinki ng, an d
practice makes perfect. Once you begin to rely on a
st rai ghted ge, the work slows down. Start by con cen-
trat ing on where the line begin s an d end s ra ther than
on the line it sel f. Place a dot at the beginning and a
dot where t he line should end. As yo u repeat this
exe rcise, let the p en drag ac ross the pap er between
the two dot s. This sounds pret ty ele menta ry, but it is
surprising how ma ny people have never bot hered to
learn how to sketch a straight line.
Wit h th e ba sic per sp ec ti ve and plan completed
the values, or tones, ca n now be ad ded. The actual
col or of objects or p lanes, shade, or sha dows can
cause differences in values; indicating these changing
values shows t he interaction of light with the space,
providing spa tial defi ni tion. Conve nt ions for casting
shadows are presen ted when plan drawings are di s-
cu ssed. For now, it is en ough to note that shadows ar e
firs t cast in plan and the n add ed to the perspect ive,
4 2 Conventions
using th e square gr id as a ref erence. Sha de appea rs
on objects on t he side opposite to t he sun or othe r
source of light w here no direct light falls ; shaded sur-
fac es are gene rally lighter in tone tl;an sha dows. As
in sketchi ng exis ting buildings, I prefer to use pa ra lle l
hatch lines to show tones (see Building a Sketch in
Chapter 2).
Finally, de tai ls and objects can be added. People
ar e most important because they est abli sh the sca le
of the space and invol ve th e viewer throug h id entifi-
ca tion with these sketched figur es. Simplicity, real is-
tic p roporti on s, and a sense of movement are basic to
good human figures such as these. The squ are grids
help in coordi na tin g t he p lacement of human figures
and ot her objects in plan and pe rs pective . Be sure to
place peopl e and objects whe re they would really be;
t he pur pose of th e sketc h is to under stand t he space,
not to ca mo uflage it.
Fi gure 3-11 Casti ng shadows in plan.
Fig ure 3-10b Adding tones and shadows.
Figure 3-12 Pract ice drawing straight
lines.
Figure 3-13 Practice drawing people.
Figure 3-10c Completing details.
Perspective 43
- - - - -

1t>r- \-f'O< lJIl
)7f'- ' <,
' -
"
..... ,

<,
-
/ ::
:s: /
Figure 3-14 Modification of a one-point perspect ive.
QUALITATIVEREPRESENTATION
At this point we are not inter es ted in th e qualities of
dr awing expressi on , such as style or tech ni ques; this
is cover ed in Ch apt er 5. By qualit ative represen ta -
tion, I mean the representation of the qualities of a
space. I n hi s book Design Drawing Willia m Lockard
ma kes a very convi ncing arg umen t for the supe riority
of perspecti ves as rep resent ationa l draw ings.
"Pers pectives ar e mor e qualitat ive than quantitative.
The experiential qualities of an envi ro nmen t or
object can be perceived direct ly fro m a per sp ec-
tive.. .Th e qua lities of th e space/time/l ight continuum
are much better represented and understood in per-
spect ive (than by othe r conventions)." Perspective s 3
have the advantage of showing the re lationship of all
the elemen ts of a space in a way most similar to how
we would experience it when built. Alt hough it is
tr ue t hat bu ildings are not expe rienced only through
perspectives, it is the best way of showing a dire ct
vi sual experience of a specifi c space.
Lockar d ' s ch apter on representat ion has probably
t he best explana tion of th e use of perspec ti ve
sketche s for re presentat ion . Lockard illustrat es a per-
spective view that is close to one-point perspective; it
involv es an imaginary second perspect ive po int
added at some dis tanc e fr om the ske tch (see Figur e 3-
15). Lines running the wi dt h of t he one-po int per-
4 4 Conventions
q
Cl
C\
--
/
-----
/
(
-4'l\
(
\
l)i?
(",
> ./ I
1"
---
./
I)b
-----
/'
/
\
>
/
1-------
/
\
Fi gure 3-15 Organization of a modified perspective. after
Lockard.
spect ive , parallel wit h t he horizon line, are now
slightly slanted in the di rect ion of the imaginary sec -
ond poi nt. To make th e transition fro m one -point per-
spective, the top and bott om lines of t he pi cture plane
can be given a slight slan t an d a new plane is estab -
lished; by d rawing a new diagonal, the new diagonal
va nishing point can be set. A grid ca n also be applied
to this type of perspective to help in placing objects in
the spa ce.
To rep res ent th e qua liti es of an imagined space,
we have to know somet hing about t he qua lit ies of
sp aces. Though th is seems obvious, it is of ten
ignored. As architect s, we have to look for what gives
spaces th eir special charac ter , the different ki nds of
ligh t, color , texture, pat tern, or sha pes possibl e and
how they are combined. Continual sket ching in a
sketch notebook is one sur e way of learn ing about the
qualiti es of spaces. When th is knowled ge is ap plied
to the represen tative pe rspecti ve, we must remember
to con vey t he t hree-dimensional experience of th e
sp ace ont o a two-di mensional surface, t he pa per. To
do this, we need to illus t ra te the effect s of depth or
dist ance upon th os e things th at give th e sp ace its
qualiti es. Wit h an increase in depth, light se ems to
produ ce few er gradat ion s of tone ; det ail is less evi-
dent ; text ure and co lor are less vivid; outli nes or
edges are less sharp . Dep t h can also be con veyed
through overlap of object or contou r.
Figure 3-16a Set up of sket ch perspective based on Lockard met hod.
Figure 3-16b Completed sketch perspective.
Qualitative Representation 45

ii
Figure 3-17 Parallel project ions.
PARALLEL PROJECTIONS
Cur re ntly in common use, the axono me tric sketch is
an important alte rnative to the perspect ive, plan, and
section. The axonometri c is simply a projection fr om
a plan or sect ion in which all parall el lines in the
space are shown as parallel; t his is in contra st to a
persp ective where parallel lines are shown as exte nd-
ing fr om a single point. The axonometric technique is
traditio nal in Chi ne se drawings. Instead of placin g
the viewer at a single point from which to view the
scene, it gives the viewer the feel ing of being every-
where in fr ont of the scene. The axonometr ic has the
additi on al advanta ge of represent ing th ree-dimen-
sional spa ce while re taining the "tr ue" dimensions of
a plan and section.
This last ch aracterist ic makes an axonome tric
easy to draw be caus e all th ree dimens ions are shown
at the same scal e. Axono metric projections forward
or bac kward fr om plan s or sections are convent ion-
ally ma de at an gles of 30, 45, or 60 degrees, bu t in a
sketch the exact angle is no t imp ort ant as lon g as the
projected lines remain parallel.
46 Conventions
1
r
Figure 3-18 Sect ion.
VERTICAL SECTION
A vertical cut through a space is ca lled a sec tion.
What was said about the plan sketch also ap plies to
the section sketch, except for the casting of shadows.
With sec tions, we can show depth of space by apply-
ing t he one -point perspective conventions explai ned
earlier. Imagine you are looki ng at a cut model of the
space; the point at which you look direct ly into the
model is where the viewpoi nt (V. P.) wi ll be placed.
The viewpoint is used to project the perspect ive
be hind t he section.
Human figures are also impor tant for section
ske tches. Many designers ske tch in view lines for the
people; this seems to make it easier to imagine bei ng
in t he space and gives some se nse of w hat can be
seen from a part icular posit ion in the space. Shadows
can be indicated to see t he effect of sunlight within
t he space.
Vertical Sect ion 47
~ ~
~ , ..
Figure 3-19 Plan.
PLAN SECTION
Abs tract pl an diagr ams suc h as th e one ab ove have
man y uses in the ea rly concep tual stages of design.
Th is is covered in depth in Ch apt er 4. However,
many architecture s t u ~ t s make the mistake of try-
ing to use th ese plan diagrams to rep resent the more
concrete decisionsabout the format ion ofspace. Plan
sketches of design ed sp aces must show what is
enclosed and what is no t,including scale,height ,pat-
tern,and detai l. Aplan is basicall y a horizontalcut or
section th rough th e spa ce. Things that are cut , su ch
as walls or columns, are outl ined in a heavy line
wei ght. Things t hat can be seen bel ow the pl ace
where the plan was cut are indicated in a lighter line
weight. Things such as a skylight that ca nnot be seen
because t hey are above the level of the cut can be
shown with a heavy dashed line ifdesired.
The first stage of a r ep resent ativ e pla n is t he
heavy outlini ngofwalls clearl y showing openings. In
th e second stage, doo rs, windows, fu rn it ure, and
other details are added . The t hi rd- sta ge sketc h
48 Conventions
inc ludes sha dows to sho w th e re lative he igh ts of
pla ne s and obj ects. The pre vail ing co nvention for
sha dows casts them on a 45-de gee angle, up and to
the ri ght. Th e sha dows need onl y be as long as neces-
sary to clearly show the relat ive heights of the furn i-
t ur e, wall s, etc. Finally, color, texture, or patt ern can
be added to explain fur t her t he character of the
space.
OTHER REPRESENTATIONS
A variety of sk etche s ba sed on th e conventions of
persp ective, pl an , section , and axonometric are
shown on the next page. By means of sketches, we
can cu t open, peel ba ck, p ull apart , re constr uct , or
make concre te objects transparent to see how they
are arranged or constructed . Th ese are j us t a few of
the possibl e extens ions of repr esentation . As we use
sketches to visu alize design s, we sho uld al ways be
ready to invent new too ls as needed.
- -- -
Fi gure 3-20 Transparent sket ch.
Figure 3-21 By Thomas Truax. Structural systems illust rations,
Boston City Ha ll, Kallman, McKinnell &Knowles, architects.

--
---
I + - -
I , I

Figure 3-22 Cut-away view, the Simon House, Barbara and J ulian Fi gure 3-23 "Explodarnetric" drawing of a barn.
Neski, architects.
Other Representa tions 49
-,




.: or '
1 , - f1
t
,,:.L..-<;.
r , ' /
\ .. ,
.f
/ .1
.:%

--
I
/
- <=.:.
__ . _ __ -- f,t . . .
_ ... .i""
----
, - /I \ I ,>I' - --1tr--- - - -
Fi gure 3-24 By Helmut Jacoby. Boston Government Service
Cente r, Paul Rudol ph, coordinat ing archit ects.
---1-
11
Figure 3-25 By Helmut Jacoby. Ford Fo undat ion headquarters,
Dinkerloo and Roche, architects.
SKETCH TECHNIQUE
Many arc hitects have developed th eir own sketching
styles in an att emp t to quickly represent str uct ure,
tones, and det ail with a mi nimum of effor t. An espe-
cia lly effective tech nique is that of He lmut Jacoby, an
ar chitect ur al del ineator of int ern ati onal reputat ion."
The quick prelimin ary st udies he uses to plan th e
final renderings provide remark able clari ty of spa tial
definition wi th an economy of means. Not ice how,
with a range of tight an d loose squi ggly lines, he can
define surfaces and th e rapid way fha t he suggest s
people, tr ees, textur es, and ot her detail s. The under-
lyi ng structur e of t he sketch is usually quite simple,
wit h whi te areas used to hel p defin e space an d
objects. Jacoby is very aware of va riat ions in tone and
the effe cts of sha de and shadow with respect to the
sur round ing trees as well as the building .
Michael Ge bhardt sketches wit h an empha sis on
tones and text ur es, defining spa ce more t hrough con -
trasts t han line wor k. Wit h a loopi ng st roke, he is
abl e to establish a consistency th at pu lls the drawing
toget her and directs att en ti on to t he su bj ect rat her
th an the media . In esta blishing your own style, be
sur e to examine closely the work of othe rs that you
admire ; th ere is no need to star t fro m scratch. Also
kee p in mind th at the objective in sket ching is speed
and ease.
50 Conventions
\
Figure 3-26 By Brian Lee. Automatic drawing done wit hout
looking at the paper. It encourages fluidity of line and
nat uralness of expression.
Figure 3-27 By Michael F. Gebhardt . Johns-Manville World
Headquarters, The Architects Collaborative.
Sketch Technique 5 1
. \..I;/
1/
/ -:
Fig ure 3-28 By Bret Dodd.
Design ing depends heavily upon representation;
to avoid disappointment later, th e designer wa nts to
see t he physica l effects of his dec isions. It is
inevi table that a student will tell me that he is waiting
unt il he has decided wha t to do before he draws it
up. This is backward. In fact, he canno t decide what
to do until he has drawn it. Nine time s out of ten inde-
cisiveness is the result otiack of evidence. Fur ther more,
a decision implies a choice; recognizing that th ere is
mor e than one possi ble design soluti on, it makes no
sense whatsoever to try to de termine if one isolated
solut ion is good . In stead, t he question should be
whether thi s is the best of the known alternat ives. To
answe r t his question, we must also be ab le to see the
other designs. The graphic thinking approach empha-
sizes sketches t ha t feed thinking and thoughts t ha t
feed sketches; one is continua lly informing the other.
For the begin ni ng design er , thes e po ints can not be
ove remphasi zed .
There is no way to avoid t he intense, compr ehen-
sive job of representation or modeling in design. The
only cho ice left is whether to mak e t he j ob eas ier
throughout a profes sional career by becoming a com-
pe tent illu strator now.
Havi ng sa id t ha t , I would add the warning th at
drawing and thinki ng must be always open to
gr owt h. Cliches in drawing lead to cli ches in thi nk-
ing. As John Gundelfi nger says:
52 Conventions
, A
/
",L.-...-i
__\.
': c::I " v,-
-c


.
1"--'-\.
"\ <: l _ . _
1 never k now what a drawing will look like until it is
fini shed. Once you do, that's security, and security is
somet hing we can all do without in a drawing. It
comes from working in a particul ar way or styl e that
enables you to control any subjec t or situation you
encounter, and once you're in control, you stop
learning The nervousne ss and anxiety that precede a
drawi ng are importa nt to the end result .'
Architects who have been abl e to find adventur e
and excitement in drawing will readi ly attend to the
grea t boost it gives to t heir design' work and their
thinki ng.
Fina lly, I want to str ess two of my pr ej udices
r egarding represent ati ve dra wing. First , fr eeh and
ab ilit y is vital for effective use of representat ion in
architec t ural design. You must be ab le to turn over
ideas rapidly; to do thi s requires th e spo n taneous
graphic display t hat rapid sketc hing provides.
Second, attention should be paid to making t he
sketches fait hfull y re present design ideas. Avoid
ad ding t hings to a drawing simply to improve t he
ap pea ra nce of t he drawing. Changes should refle ct
conscious changes in the design . Kirby Lockar d cau-
tions, "Remember, the best , most direct and honest
per su asion for a design ' s ac cep tance shou ld be th e
design itself , and all successful persuasion sho uld be
based on compete nt and honest r epresentati ons of
the design.:"
Figure 3-29 Design development sketches.
Sketch Technique 53

4 Abstraction
The design process can be thou ght of as a series of
transformations going from uncertainty towa rds
information. The successive stages of the process are
usually registered by some kind of graphic model. In
the final stages of the design process, designers use
highly formalized graphic languages such. as those
provided by descriptive geometry. But this type of
represent ation is hardly suitable for the first stages,
when designers lise quick ske tches and diagrams...It
has been accepted for years that because of the high
level of abstraction of the ideas which are handled at
the beginning of the design process, they must be
expressed necessarily by means of a rath er ambigu-
ous, loose graphic language-a private language
which no one can properly understand except the
designer himself .. the high level of abstraction of the
information which is handled must not prevent us
from using a clearly defi ned graphic language. Such
a language would regist er the information exactly at
the level of abstraction it has, and it would facilitate
communicat ion and cooperation among designe rs. I
-JUAN PABLO BONTA
M
y ow n version of a graphic language is
based on experience wit h st udent s in th e
design studi o and r esearch in de sign
proces s communicati on s. It is presented
her e because I am convinced that a clearl y def ine d
graphic language is import ant both to design th ink ing
and to communi cat ion between designers.
As Robert McKim poi nted out , "A language con-
sists of a set of rules by which symbols can be related
to represent larger meanings." 2 The di fferenc e
between verbal and graphic languages is both in the
symbols used and in the ways in whi ch th e symbols
are re lated. The symbols for verbal languages are
largely rest ricted to words, whereas gr aphic lan-
guages incl ude images, signs, numbers , and words.
Much more significant , ver bal language is sequen-
tial - it has a be ginning, a middle, and an end.
Graphic language is simultaneous -all symbols and
their rel ation sh ips are cons idered at th e same ti me.
The simultaneity and complex interrelationship of
reali ty acc ounts for the special strength of graphic
language in addressi ng complex problems .
Yl1lZlA ]V1Wff//A
:1

o
Figure 4-2
55
Figure 4-3a Sente nce diagram.
.--- ---

---- ----
./
-:
/
/
I
/
I
/- - - ",
( J. \
I 5VI;\ \
1\ no. ", e )
, -
Fi gure 4-3b Graphic diagram.
GRAMMAR
The graphi c language pr opose d here has gra mma tical
ru les compar ab le to thos e of verbal language. The dia-
gram of t he sentence (Figur e 4-3a) shows three basic
parts: nouns, ver bs, and modifiers such as adjec tives,
ad verbs, and p hrases. Nouns r epresent identiti es ,
verbs es tablish re lations hips between nouns, and the
modifiers qualify or quantify the identities or the re la-
tionships between ident ities. In t he graphic diagram
(Figure 4-3b), identities are shown as circl es, relation-
ships are shown as lines, an d modifiers are shown by
cha nges in t he cir cles or lines (heavier lines ind icate
mor e important relation ships and tones indicat ing di f-
fer ences in iden tities). In th e sen tenc e diagram, the
verb shows a relat ionship that the subject has to the
object: t he dog ca ught t he bo ne. The lin e in th e
graphic di agram is bi-directi ona l; it says that the livin g
room is connected to the kitchen and that the kitchen
is connected to the livi ng room.
Thus t he gr aphi c diagr am contains many sen-
tences as :
1. Th e very im portant living room has a minor rela-
tions hip to th e garage (Figure 4-3c) .
2. The dini ng room must be connected to th e special
spaces, the kitchen and the deck (Figur e 4-3d).
3. The fut ure guesthouse will be related to the entry
and indirectly to the pool (Figure 4-3e).
56 Abstraction

, -,( ,el"h01\ Sfl/p

(c)
(d)
/
,/ -----B
I
I
- -... ,
(e)
I /tj v'?t ';

"---j
Figure 4-3c, d. e Graphic "sent ences."
The re are ot her ways of drawing "graphic se n-
tences" ; three alter natives ar e shown here:
1. Position- An implied gri d is used to establish rela-
tionships between identit ies; th e resulting orde r
somet imes ma kes t he di agram easier to read
(Figur e 4-4a ).
2. Proximity- The degree or intensity of th e relation-
sh ips of ide ntities is indicated by the re lative dis-
tances between t h em. A significant increase in
distanc e can im ply t hat no relatio nship exist s.
This typ e of di agram has more flexibi lity than the
preceding type (Figure 4-4b).
3. Si milarity-Identities are gr ouped by com mon
character istics such as color or sha pe (Figure 4-4c ).
Th ese alternatives may also be combine d to form
other grammatical var iat ions (Figur e 4-4d), but ca re
shoul d be taken to retai n consi stency. To communi-
cat e clearly, the gra mmatical r ules shoul d be immedi -
atel y evident. According to Jerome Brune r, "The bind-
ing fact of men tal life in child and adu lt alike is t hat
t here is a limi ted capaci ty for proces si ng infor ma-
ti on - our sp an, as it is call ed , ca n comprise si x or
seven unr elated items si mult an eously. Go beyond
t hat and there is overl oad , confusion , forge t ting ."
One of the reas ons for adopting some basi c gr ammat-
ical rules in gr aphic diagrams is to avoid confusion by
reducing the number of variables t hat have to be han-
dled at on e time.
- -- -- -- -- --
--
Buildingadiagram.
,--------,
Figure4-4a Structuringagraphic
"sentence" by position.
,
,
Fi gure4-5a Basicidentitiesand Figure 4-5b Reductiont osimple
relationships. orderingst ructure.
,... -------,
,
I
I
I
I
I
Figure4-4b Byproximity.
Figure 4-5c Secondlevelof Fi gure 4-5d Tag-ons.
informat ion.
:
I
I
,- - -
':-
'_'\
Figure 4-4c By similarity.
.
I
'L._ .-j
\
i
Fig ure 4-5e Segmenting.
...-
r-"
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
One of the most usef ul qual ities of graphic com-
munication is t hat infor mation can be t ransmitted
and received on sever al leve ls simultaneously.Ar tists
rec ognized t his long ago. Successfu l paintings us ually
appeal to the viewer as ove ra ll compositi ons,render-
ings of de ta il, and tech nique wit h medi a, j ust to name
a few of t he levels. These levels of communi cation
ca n also be used to good advantage in a graphic dia-
gram. The ba sic process for build ing a diagr am
(shown above) is as follows: '
1.Try to illust rat e the basic identiti es and thei r re la-
tionships in a ro ugh diagram.
2.Reduce th e diagram to its simplest struct ure by
applying ru les of graphic grammar.
l ..
....
- ,
3.Modify th e diagram to indicate a second level of
informati on ,using tones or heavy lines.
4.Add otherlevelsofinformationas tagsatt ached to
the basic diagram.
5.Ifthe diagram becomes too complica ted, break it
into segments by grouping or placing a boundary
Figure 4-4d Combination of "sentence" structures, arou nd identities.
Grammar 57
-$-
. ?>
o
I I
CJ I I I ,
m
Figure 4-6 Graphic grammar conventions.
ALternate Grammars
Th e basic graphic grammar discussed so far is mo st
commonly expresse d in what ar e known as bubble
diagrams. It is proba bly the most broad-based, ver sa-
til e grammar. Ot her conventions may qualify as
grammars, or r ul es for relating graphic elements so as
t:::I
-
-
t=:I
-

t:::3
c::r
-
-=s

c:::
=
-
-
z;:=.
c:::s
e:::t
-
to co mmunica te. Two of the mor e prominent gram-
mars ar c th e net work and th e matri x. The ba sis for
th e gra mmar of networks is t ime or sequence.
Although it is normall y assumed th at th e se que nce
proceeds fr om left to right or top to bottom, arr ows
are often used to clar ify the order or subtl eti es of th e
se que nce. The most famil iar type of network uses
58 Abstra ction

verbal descr ipti ons of ta sks or events, but grap hi c
symbols could be used as wel l. The mat ri x diagra m
incorporates the ot her type of grammar. It s conven-
tion assigns identiti es to rows and columns and rep-
resents t he relati onshi ps of iden tities wit h graphic
symbolsat the inte rsectionsof the rowsand columns.
VOCABULARY
The meani ng of words or symbols in any for m of lan -
guage must be con sist ent and shared in order to su p-
por t human communi cation. Thi s co nsistent set is
called a vocabulary . Basic verbal vocabul ary wit hin
our nati ve language is normally acquired in chi ld-
hood through associ ation , while grammar is learn ed
formall y. Literacy is achieve d ove r seve ra l years of
edu cation . Th e acquisit ion of graphic language is not
a common component of a general education. In a
for mal sense it is more often a part of educat ion in
design and art curr icul a. However, there are some
grap hic "lang uages " to which t he ge neral public is
exposed. Among th ose are international road sig ns ,
roa d map legends, music notat ion,and mathematical
symbols.
Th e accessibility of gr ap hic languages is heavily
depende nt on associat ions with fami liar obj ec ts or
expe riences.These ass ociations can be ma de through
naming graphic items or by using symbols th at are
readily re cogni zed as abstr actions offamiliarobje cts.
Identities
There are a great number of ways to symbolize an
ide nti ty. The more common symbols are represen ted
here in ho rizontal rows. The iden tity of these differ-
ent possi ble groups is achieved by contrast. Us ua lly
all varia bles are held const ant exce pt for on e. The
number in each group is limi ted because most of us
are un able to de al wit h mor e than five or si x vari a-
ti ons in on e graphic di agram. The el ementary sy m-
bols can be supplemented or replaced by numbers,
letters, or ot he r symbols. By judici ou sly combi ning
differentgroupsofsymbols,itis possible to have sev-
era l levels of infor mation in a grap hi c diagram with-
out sacri ficing clarity. Someti me s identities are best
shownwit h a more tentative quali ty usingdott ed and
irr egul ar lines.Later chapter sfurt herexplain t his less
definite need.

..

..
I
0 0 .6 <) t::::l
n
+
x*
t { } ~ ~
0
(De $
0
EJ ill a ill 12I
~
0
() .. S f4i8
a ~ ~
t1i8
II aD t1 co
D liD a 00
t:::::::I c::::l t:::::J
t::::1 c::J
--
t:::::1
=
-
-
,- - -.
.
. ' .
( I
.
000
\
v.;,/
I
0 0 0
000
Figure4-7 Graphicgrammarconventions.
Vocabulary 59
------ ----- - --

---0' . 0 0 0 _

J:::Ic::::It=lc::lllI=Is::::IJ:::Iw=I
.. --
00000000000000000000
IUlllllllllllll1 l1 llllll11IlIl\lllllllllllllllIIlIIlIlIHlllllIllllllIlIl
nilUOO DDUDDDDDOODDDOD nooonnn
Fi gure 4-8
II11III1IIIII11111111111111
Relationshi ps
As with ide ntities, di fferent rel ation ship s are best
represent ed by sets of line types. These line typ es can
also be used as borders for gr oup ing identit ies as a
mean s of segme nting a diagra m or ofshowing special
relat ionships.
The arr ow is a very special device for indicating
re lationships. As a sy mbo l of movement , Arnheim
holds that it has compelling qu alities: //...any move-
me nt in theenvironment automati call y att rac ts at ten-
tion because mov emen t means cha nge of cond itions,
which may call for a rea ct ion. :" Arrows combined
wi th lines ca n indi cate a one-way rela tions hip, a
sequence ofevents,or a process.Separate arrows can
be used to mark important par ts of a diagram or to
show dependenci es and thefee d-in of suppleme ntar y
information.
Modifiers
Identi tiesandrel ationships ar e modified accordingto
a hi erarchical system. In th is manner, the signifi-
cance of part s and the different levels of intensity in
the relati on ship between parts ar e expressed.
Hi erarchy can be shown by diffe ren t line width s,
multi pl e lines, or the re lat ive size of das hes and
space s in dashed lines (Figure 4-9a) . Graded tone s
an d the accumulation of parts are also usefu ldevices
(Figur e 4-9b).
Modifier s ca n also crea te emphasis, pr inci pa lly
through contras t in terms of size, tone, contour, or
detail. Emphasisis used to signa la spe cialide ntity or
relationship, segregate interwoven diagrams, or indi-
cate special point s or steps in a proc ess (Figur e 4-9c).
60 A bstraction

-t>-.++
D)D}D_
LI>r>D={>
...

o
@)
@
0
0
.0
......
: i
....
\j
.. "
o
Figure 4-9a Modificat ion bysize.
9
..... ., .. : ....._.. 0' ..
0-
Q
'.
,
'
. { , ....
-
Figure4-9b Indicatin gemphasis.

Figure4-9c Modifi cationby tone.
L-I
'--/

n
/'"'0..
-


pluG
- ""

> +
}ouaooHIE-
-
-3IE
Identlcall.!:)
-

plus-or-mlY1US
-r'
e.qualto
SmGl l\erthan
*
-r'"
""'-
-
<
noteG\4q!to lar.0er
V
or-

oretjLJalfo
06)

-
.?h'\a lIerthaYl theretor-e
equcl! 10 orE:ij ual f o

I- \- r I- f- H- H- t- H-1-H - H- H-+
-
e:.

+
I
,
I I I I I I I I
Xl
[
I
1
i I I I ! I
proporflo
M
I
A..
corre6f'ond0 c1Y1 dso01'1

fM VIlA wh! lim! ft?4 ti/41 WI
to
t o
-
///////////////
-
Figure 4-10 Mat hematicallanguagesymbols. Figure 4-11 Graphiclanguageelements from
cartography.
Other Graphic VocabuLary
Several disciplines have develop ed th eir own short-
hand sy mbol s to facili tate rapid communication.
Many of th ese sy mbo ls have a wide enough under-
Figure 4-12a Process diagram.
standingto be usefulin graphic thinking.Some of the
mo st useful symbo ls, ta ken from t he disciplines of
ma thematics, systems ana lys is, engineeri ng, and car-
___ -0-
tography,are shown he re andon the followingpages.
-D- --c:J- -1 f-
Operations research and th e an alysis of communi-
cation systems led to th e st udy of processes, which,
-0- -CJ- -{ l-
in turn , led to ma ny ap plicat ions of process manage-
ment. With th e st udy of more complicated processes,
a diagrammat ic language was developed to properly
descri be t hese processes (Figure 4-12a). On the basis
of a few symbols and a set of ru les for us ing them,
ver y elaborate processes can be read ily explai ned in
grap hic terms. Some of t he symbols shown to the
ri ght are useful in describing archit ect urally rel ated
processes, su ch as pr ojectpl ans, construction or gani-
zation, an d programmat ic fu nctions (Figure 4-12b).
-CJ-DDD O 0
Figure4-12b Processsymbols.
>- -c
The ffid
Ctii ?C<j ueVl ce .
-0- -C)---c=J--
Vocabulary 61









-I
(
1
I
,
, , Sf ,
,W /11 ,W
>

J
>

>
)

>
-I \ t-
II II
11- -
--\\1
III
\\1-
.
I I \ I I
= 1
J
\
I
I 1
I I
I

.


- - - - - - - - -- - --
---0- 0 -0-
---0- 0- -,0-
x )(
) ) )
- A A A-
Figure 4-13 Graph ic language elements from other areas of the
building industry.
On this pa ge are sever al symbols used in elect ri-
cal, mechanical, and transport ation engineering that
can furthe r extend our graphic voc abulary. Opposite
are symbo ls fr om ca rtography and other symbol
syste ms .
62 Abstraction
G- 0- -f- ---41r.--
---H-- '). .-
-q-0=0=9

_ It
0"'-'"


-

.iY"ff./"ff.L1.J5ffL1ff SL7

-------
-------
-- - ---

IILIII\III \I\II
11II1l\1I\I(I"
[!J
a

111111\1"'''1\
II11111111111\
a
@
':I/.YlLYI!..
)f'L YL

00 a
@

(@<DCDO



./\A.A,.A.AIv

-- ----..
ill
D
{gJ
xx)(J<X
XXXM
xxx;xx
E8

xxxxx
B[;]

I\I\I\M
IV\I\IV\
J\IVV'V\
/\I\I\AI\


++
V
++
&


lVI
a
lill=
tIt.
Figure 4-14 =\11\::00
00<DE9@(f)

rzIlZI@6
;zfJ=(JA:
T,< .

tI-
,
f'VtPit
0
IJ. A 0
0
A A 0 o,
....00
8
: 0
- .. -0
+
....... c c
+++... +:tt :t'
+.t.T++++'+
\>
+

....
Vocabulary 63
Figure4-15 Ci tyimageanalysis, Quebec.
AppLying Graphic Language
When the conventi ons of a graphic language are
applied todi fferentcommunicationan d th inkingcon-
texts,they can pr oduce a wide variety of expressions.
In each case effectiveness depends upon an explicit
gra mmar and a consistency in its use. For an exten-
sive explanation ofthe uses ofgraphiclanguage, con-
sult the second edition of my book Graphic Problem
Solving.
Jerome Bru ner st resses thepoint:"Unl essdetai lis
placed int o a str uctured patt ern, it is rapidl y for got-
ten.. .. Det ai led mater ial is conserved in memory by
use of simplified ways of r epresenting it." 5 The
graphic "vocabulary" j ust presented was se lected
bec ause the symbols are commonlyaccepted,si mp li-
fied ways of representation . Since ourgra phic vocab-
ulary will continue to expand graphic communica-
ti on, we must use commonly underst ood sy mbo ls
and a clear grammatical stru ctur e as a context for the
vocabular y to be eff ective . The obvious corollary is
our need to become graphically "literate." We need to
become familiar wi th a ran ge of graphic languages.
"The th inker who has a broad command of graphic
language notonly can find mor e completeexpressi on
for his thinking but can also re-centerhis thi nking by
moving fr om one graphi c language to anot her. ..i n
effect he uses language to expand the range of hi s
th inking." 6 This last point by McKim is extremely
important to a full use of the material presented in
thi s book. Communication and thi nking are in ter-
twined processes; we ne ed to foc us on how they
ass is t eac h ot her rat her th an as k which is mor e
important.
Graphic langu age can also have pi tfalls, as identi-
fied by Robert McKim:
1 . Lack of skill or inappropriate choice of language,
which can be damaging to tender new concepts.
2. Mistakinggr aph ic imagesfor reality.
QODCJ O
....OftO

OQCltl
"_ OQ
C'::J
QQO 0
00 00
I
t=
1------1 oC1 aQ
rJO
Figure 4-16 Neighborhoodanalysis.
o
o



4i1ra.?-tN0,

Fi gure 4-17 Hospital circulation analysis.
3. Glamorizing an idea.
4. Concealingwhatshould be revealed .
5. Habit ual use of a few languages, avoiding some
types of mental operation.
64 Abstraction
Figure 4-18 Pedestrian traffic intensity.




Figure 4-19 Circulation choices, Place des Vosges, Paris. Figure 4-20 Housing price analysis.
Vocabulary 65
,
'-l,-
, I' r--=- _ 'I

r LAJ'11 Ve.t.t-t..L.l't -J I

, (
",,'
l'
' :'1:,:'
. , . ".._. .
- "
'\:.
1
.
-l'
'
--,.;' -
' ..
Figure 5-1 (top) By Lo uis Kahn. Concept sket chforcent ralPhiladelphia.
Fi gure 5-2 (bot tom) By DavidStieglitz. BuffaloWaterfront Redevelopment Project .
5 Expression
he desi gner who wishes to take advantage of
expression , th e se cond level of co mmunica -
ti on (t he first level being th e cont ent of th e
drawing ), should become aware of t he ra nge
of qua lities tha t can be communica te d and us eful
techniques for doing so . The sketches in thi s chapte r
are of fer ed as examples of what ca n be di scovered .
Eac h sketch co nveys more th an one quality, but I
have tr ied to gro up the sketches according to their
most significa nt qualit ies.
This chapte r concentra tes on some of the attitudes
and prior itie s architect s and des igner s convey by t he
man ner in which th ey draw. It seems obvious th at
you can tell so met hing ab out designers t hrough their
drawings. Care in drawing often indica tes care in
th inking. In my experience, cli en ts, cons ulta nts, con-
tractors, and others with who m arc hi tects work are
grea tly influenced by draw ings, whi ch se t th e tone
for t he work. The drawings are a way of tell ing peo-
ple what you demand of yourse lf and provide a clue
to wha t you expec t of them.
Figure 5-3 By Edwin F. Harri s, Jr. Assisi.
IDENTITY
The drawings on these firs t two pages are signifi cant
for their stro ng se nse of ident ity, a presence that says
they are importa nt and we ought to take time to look
at them mor e cl osely. How does the way th e ske tches
were drawn account for this qual ity? Both the style
and the high contr as t ar e impor tant , bu t the flui dity
of the sket ch es tell s us about the int ensi ty and confi-
den ce of the arc hitec t. We can almost see or feel the
arc hitect ' s hand moving over the pap er.
CONSISTENCY
Disc ipline in drawing is some times assoc iated wit h
stiff or Spa rta n-looking drawings. But , as you ca n see ,
quali ty need not limit expressi on . These drawings
have their intern al consistenc y in common. It mi ght
be compa re d to the differe nc es in car designs. The
Porsch e an d t he Roll s Royce are immediately recog-
nized as two very differ ent ca rs, but bot h have an
expression of hi gh quality an d cra fts manship. Give n
th e bas ic co nc ept of each car, th e desi gners ha ve
give n every pa r t of the car a feeling tha t it belong s to
that, and only that , car.
67
Figure 5-4 By Theodore J . Musho. Santa Costanza.
?'k


, 17"-1 '
\..- ' l - t I t

. )


/
)

, 1
f,

1 -Q
\ \
\ .,
, ;.,.
, I -,.
' , .
) i

,----
\ ;
<,

Figure 5-5 By LeCorbusi er. Baghdad Gymnasium.
STYLE AN DSELECTIVITY
desi gner' s preference for deliberateness and quick
closureon decisi ons.
Architects often devel op certain "trademarks" in th eir
Style is also formed by the ar chitect 's consistent
drawings as thei r car eer sdevelop .Theresult ing style
select ion of what he wan ts to show in his sketch es
of the sket ches ca n be seen as a reflection of the
andwhat he wants to leave ou t. His choices are often
designer 's per sonality: tentative lines mi ght indicate
a refl ection of wha t he feels are important des ign
a willingness to remain ope n to new ideas, whereas
concerns in most project s.
more de liber ate delineation mig ht show the
68 Expression
Figure 5-6 By Oscar Niemeyer. Capanema Residence.
Figure 5-7 By Jim-Anderson. Country Side YMCA, Landplus West
Inc.. Landscape Architects.
.. ,.
Figure 5-8 By Lawrence Halprin. Lovej oy Plaza and Cascade,
Portland, Oregon.
Style and Selectivity 69
..-
--
- . ., . -' .. .
,
..... . . -
.-
Figure 5-9 By Edwin F. Harris, Jr. Pisan Group.
ENERGY AND VITALITY
Ske tc hes su ch as t he ones sho wn here project the
en t husiasm and in tensity of t he ac t of p utt ing t he
images on paper. Th e desi gn and realization of a
buil di ng can be a taxing experience, pa r ticularly for
t he client. We kn ow t ha t the archi tect ca n help by
instilling conf iden ce an d a sense of optimism. Vitality
in sketches can do a lot to re inforce what we say to
clien ts or others worki ng on a project.
CREATIVITY AND REFRESHMENT
If we accep t the pre mise that arch itect s ar e creat ive
in solving problems and ope n to new ways of seei ng
en vironmen t , the im portance of a creative quality in
our dr awings shoul d be obvious. As muc h as people
strive to make de cisions on an infor med, rational
basis, inf ormation is sometimes incomplet e and there
is usually a degree of risk-taking involved in desig n.
Risks are taken on the basis of expectations par tially
conveyed by the way t he architect expresses hi mself
in his sketch es.
Wff4i a 4 JM:fli,
Fi gure 5-10 By Gera ld Exline.
70 Expression
Figure 5-11 By Thomas Larson. Sout h Station, Boston.
Figure 5-12 By Gerald Exline.
DIRECTIONAND FOCUS
A team of cr ea tive peop le working on a design prob-
lem needs to have an understanding of the general
dir ection and parameters of their efforts while be ing
given a se nse of freedom and flexibi lity to contribute
fully to the success of the proje ct. Some architects are
Fi gure 5-13 By Romaldo Giurgola. City Council room, Bost on City
Hall Co mpet ition.
Figure 5-14 By Michael Gebhardt . Hockey Arena/ Auditorium,
Soldiers Fi eld, Harvard.
able to meet these needs in preliminary concep tual
sketc hes. Tom Larson exp la ins it this way: "These
drawings are not yet ' architecture' intentionally. I am
beginnin g to carve out negative spac e, to begin to
underst and t he orga nizin g spaces of the pr oject.
These are quick drawi ngs.":
Direction and Focus 71
U O . l S S e J . l d x g ' l L
c : ; = - - . .
5 l a q p u e l 9 ' u o s l e l s e u i o u j f i S s " [ - s a l n 5 l j
---.
I
I
,
,I,
, ,
. . . _- .. .... ~ ~
, - I
~ . ";/
. . . ,- -- , --:-'h*.' , I
Figure 5-17 By Hug h Stubbins, Mount Holyoke College dormitories,
Figure 5-18 Paddack Residence st udy,
CHARACTER AND MOOD
For many archit ects, one of the most di fficu lt prob-
lems in design is the rep res entat ion, the "capturi ng"
of the intended charact er of a space or object. Her e
agai n , the way sketches are drawn can be of gr eat
help. On these two pages , I have tried to gat her exam-
,
I
Figure 5-19 By Jim Anderson, Sidewalk zone development. Terre
Haute Urban Development Act ion Program, Landplus Wes t Inc.,
Landscape Architects,
pi es of a wi de range of moods communicated by way
of sketches. The skill s that are de monstrat ed here
and in the precedi ng pages are those of observati on
as muc h as manual skills. Sketching is supp orted by
thi nking and emotion, and the sketches reflect these
experience s.
Character and Mood 73

_-=:/
'IWUJJntlH
-----.

1'16&
Figure 5-20 By Lisa Kolber. Byzant ine church, Myst ra, Greece.
ECONOMY
As in verba l communication, we appreciate so meone
who can find j us t t he r ight means to convey the
essence of an ex perie nce . The sketch es on t hese
pages are by arc hitect ural st ude nts who we re so
insp ired by what they enco unte red on their field tr ips
th at t hey spent much time drawi ng and developing
an educated eye.

- - . i / Ll
I
Figure 5-21 By Lisa Ko lber. Byzant ine church, Myst ra,
Greece. Fi gure 5-21 By Pat rick D. Na ll. Ahmed Ibn To ulon Mosque,
Cairo.
Figure 5-22 By Lisa Kolber. Gateway at Mystra, Greece.
74 Expression
Figure 5-23 By Lisa Kolber. Gateway at Mystra, Greece. Fi gure 5-24 By Ja mes Walls. Trinity Church, Bost on.
,.
ra .. "
tr l ,
t ,
t I
s;:
..
;,re.
Figure 5-25 By Thomas Cheesman. Sienna, Italy.
Economy 75
"
Figure 5-26 By Patrick Na ll. Roadside restaurant, Cairo.
\
Figure 5-27 By Patrick Na ll. Temple of Luxor, Egypt .
76 Expression
AESTHETIC ORDER
Both in building design and in drawings, most of us
ar e sensit ive to th e role of composition in achieving a
sense of unity or synthesis. Unity in env iro nments is
also achieved through aesthe tic or der , ch aracteristi c
sha pes, patt erns, or det ai ls shared by th e elements
that cons ti tute th ese env ironme nts. Throu gh sketch-
ing we can develop an awaren ess of aesthetic order
t hat car ri es ove r to our draw ings, endowing t hem
with a similar se nse of order.
Figure 5-28 By Barry Ru ssell. Prague.
Figure 5-29 By Lisa Ko lber. Knossos Pavilion, Crete.
Aesthetic Order 77
APPLIED SKILLS
- - - -
o 0
o 0
. . . - _ . . . - -
I : : 1 I ~
I : : I ~
I : : 1 ) 1 I I I
I : : I
/ f \ .
. / ' \ .
< ,
- ; 7
\ V
' - - - - - . - - - -_
: . . : : . . : : . = : . . : - -
f I i ~ ~ ~ 0 n

6 Analysis
A
ccording to Go rdon Best , th e an al ysis of
design problems is fundamental to design
process. "Practical design probl ems are va r i-
ab le and idiosyncrat ic. They ge ne ra te a vari-
ety so great t hat it is nearly impossibl e to describe
such problems let alone understand th em. Despi te
th is, practicing designer s must interpret th ese prob-
lems if they ar e going to deal with them. ": Ar chitects
must simplify problems, reduce th em to thei r essen-
tial elements. This is the process of abstraction, th e
exposure of the underlying structure or pattern of a
whole system. As we will see, gr ap hic communica-
tion is well su ited to th e ta sk of abstracti on . The
simultaneous view of th e ab stract sketches keep s the
whole structure of a syst em up fro nt.
A discussion of a system and its analysis is helpful
to understand the funct ion s of abstract s ke tches.
Design problems are gener all y ca used by poor func-
tion or breakdown of a system. IfI ca n' t ge t my car
started on a winter morning, I know the cause could
be a fro zen gas line, a malfuncti on ing sta rter, worn-
ou t spark plugs, the distributor, the battery, or even
an empty gas tank. A car is a sys te m of parts, all of
which must int eract properly for th e engine to start.
The system extends beyond th e car pa rts to include
ro utin e maintenance, the manufacturer 's inspection
of parts, keeping moisture out of gas station storage
tanks, an d my checking the gas gauge regularly. To
solve t he problem wi th the car that does not sta r t, we
must und erstand it as an organized sys te m. Ifthe di s-
tributor is no t the cause of the probl em, no degree of
inspection of the distributor can solve the probl em.
In des ign, this understanding of the whole system
is re ferr ed to as holi sti c ana lys is. As Geoffrey
Broadbent put it :
The whole must be subdivided if we are to anal yze
it.. .. If we choose the wrong kind of subdivision, then
the whole will be destroy ed, whereas other kinds of
subdivision may throw its struc ture int o relief
A ngyal considers four ways of subdi viding a whole,
such as a plant, an animal or some inanimat e obj ect .
On e could cut it at random, thus producing a collec-
tion of unrelated parts. One could divide it according
to some preconceived and fixed prin ciple that failed
Fi gure 6-2 Automobile system.
to take its inheren t structure int o account! which
would represen t a rati onal approach. One could
abstract distinguishable properties from it, such as
size, shape, color; consistency and so on, which
would represent an empirical approach. Or one
could divide the whole according to its st ructural
art iculation,'
81
Figure 6-3a Abstracti on by distillation.
Figure 6-3b By reduction.
Abstract sketch es can express the structural artic-
ulation of a system. Here are some ways, usi ng the
automobile as an example:
1 . Distillation- Removing fr om the drawing all those
things that are not important to the an alysis of the
str ucture of the system' s critical parts: highl ight-
ing the electrical system.
2. Reduction- Representing groups of pa rts with a
smaller set of symbols makes it easier for most of
us to under stand th e dr awing and enter tain
changes; there can be several levels of reducti on
yielding increasing generali zati on . This diagram
represents only th e major automobile syst ems
(electrical, mechanic al, fuel, etc.).
3 . Extraction -Through contrast or emphasis, a part
can be given special att ention while remaini ng
wi thin the context of its system: position of the
distributor in the electri cal system is stressed.
4 . Comparison- Casting diff er ent systems in th e
same graphi c lan gua ge facilita tes compar ison of
structural ra ther than superficial cha racte risti cs of
differ en t systems.
Figure 6-3c By extraction.

f V1 .:') W\ e
f=-- irt!Nl51"h I?? (on
In design or probl em solvin g, products, proc esses ,
beliefs, or other syste ms need to be represented in
several ways, ranging from concr ete to th e most
abstract. In McKim ' s words, "Op erations often
r equir e imagery that is abstract and pattern-li ke.
Whi ch is not to say that abstract imagery is more
important than concr ete. Rather, abstract and con-
crete imagery are complementary. The flexi ble visual
thinker moves readily back and forth between the
two. " 3 He suggested, "A way to obtain lit eracy and at
th e same time to ac quire language flexibility, is to
learn how to use graphi c language to move thinking
and expres sion from abstract to concrete meanings
and back. ":'
Figure 6-3d By comparison.
82 Analysis
Figure6-4 Perspectiveofent ryt oSunyatsaloCityCenter, AlvarAalt o,architect.
ABSTRACTION AND EXPERIENCE
The power of abstract drawings in design is directly
relat ed to the de pth of experience that t he designer
can associate wi t h the abst rac ti on. For t he experi -
enced designe r, simple abs tract sy mbols can repre-
se nt highly complex concepts of for m or space.
Wit hout t he designer ' s background or associations,
abstraction is oflimited use.The diagramand pl an of
Aalto's community center ta ke on several layers of
meaning whenacc ompan ied by the pe rspective vi ew
of t he bui lding. Developi ng gr aph ic t h in ki ng and
design skills requires cont inuing experience of a var i-
etyof successful environments heighten ed by t he use
of representa tional and abst rac t sketches of t hose
environments.
o
D
D
Fi gure6-5 Concept diagramand plan ofcenter.
Abstraction and Expe rience 83
~ ~
Figure6-6a Basicrelationshipbet weenfunctions.
TRANSFORMATION FROM PROGRAM TO
SCHEMATIC DESIGN
Star ting with the most simplistic mo del of desi gn
process , we can consider th e cha llenge of handling
information "exactly at the level ofabstraction it has"
throughout the design process.In theexample shown
here, the drawings evolve toward levels of lesser
abstraction fr om the building program to a sche ma tic
design for a ho us e. (The t ransf or mations after t he
schemat ic design that lead to the fin al buildi ng
incl udepreliminary design , design development ,con-
struct ion documents, and shop dr awings. These are
not shown because effe cti ve convent ions already
exist for representation of those stages . Thereare sev-
era l sour ces for examples of those dr awings, includ-
ing books and the drawing files of ar chi tectural
firms.)
[ve4J
.N\
;':c f'. 3 8
~ \
~ ~ ~
~ 80@8
B
e \ 16ev'Vld"\J -I !- IVw.::l \ ~ h
Figure 6-6b Position andorientation.
The first di agra m is an abstraction ofthe program
of the hous e. The fun ct ions and the re lationships
between functions ar e indicat ed, as well as the hier-
archy of these functi ons and re lationships.Th e major
access points are clearl y vi sible. The "bubbles" have
no po sitiona l significance because the program does
not cont ain that sort of information. Ifthe relation-
ship lin ks bet ween functions ar e retained, th e bu b-
bl es can be move d to severaldi fferent positionswith-
out ch anging the bas ic information of the diagram.
Th e second diagram respo nds to site and cl imate
information , establishing both position and ori enta-
tion of fun ctions with respect to each other and the
si te. Natural light and heat , vi ews, building acces s,
and zoni ng of funct ions are also considered. The
third diagram reflects de cis ions on scale and shape of
thespaces requ ired toaccommodat ethe programmed
functions. Here, consideration is given to functional
needsand aplanninggr id.In thefourth diag ram,spe-
84 A nalysis
- -_. - - -
Figure 6-6c Scale and shape of space.
cific structural, cons truc tion, and enclos ure decisions
come into play. Sufficient for mal def inition has been
indi cated for t he diagra m to be ca lled a schemat ic
design .
Th is transformatio n fr om pr ogra m to sche mati c
de sign is only on e of several path s that could have
been taken. By understanding th e intent of the dia-
grams at each stage, we ens ure tha t opt ions re main
open, rather than locked into on e for m too ea rly.
Most designers will agree t hat des igning is not a
"clean" proces s; in other words , it is not automatic,
eve n-paced, dir ectional, orderly, or tot all y rati onal.
We woul d probably agree that it is highly persona l,
discre te while holist ic, somet imes very cle ar and
some times quite obscure, someti mes rapid and some-
times painfu lly slow, exci ting and also ted ious. In
short , it is very human rather t han me cha nis tic. And
Figure 6-6d Enclosure and const ruction.
t hat is why so many of us are so passionately hooked
on designing.
Draw ings, t he vis ua l language designers us e,
reflect all of the qualities I have attached to design-
ing. In t he followi ng chapters I have tried to recog-
nize the variabi lity and indivi dua lity of design
processes by not associa tin g graphi c thinking wit h
one design process. Rather, I have presented t he uses
of drawings as discr ete eve nts to un cover t he breadth
of richness that exists and leave ope n to each of us all
the ways and styles of graphic th inking or designi ng
that we pr efer, that we enjoy!
Transformation from Program to Schemat ic Des ign 85
Fig ure6-7a Structure ofdesign problems.
ABSTRACTION APPLIED TOARCHITECTURAL
DESIGN
The rest of this chapteris based upon a more sophis-
ticat ed model of the design process. The appli cation
of th e tool s of gr aphic abstraction to arc hitect ural
design is aide d by an und erst anding of the structure
of archit ectural design probl ems. Hors t Rittel has
identified three variables of the typi cal design prob-
lem:
1. Performance var iables which express desired
characteristics of the object under design, and in
terms ofwhich the object will be eva luated ("con-
str uction cos t," "aesthe tic app eal ," "overall qua l-
ity,"and the like). .
2 . Desi gn variables, which describ e the possibilities
of th e des igner, his ranges of choice, his design
variables ("hei ght of ceiling," "shape of door
kn ob," "type of heat ing ," and the like).
3. Context vari ables, which are th ose factors affect-
ingtheobjecttobe designed butno tcontroll ed by
the designer ("land price," "li kel ihood of earth-
quakes," "type of eati nghabits,"and so forth]."
Aprobl emcan besaid toexis twhe n th ere issome
sor t of misfit among these three variab les in an env i-
ronment. Th e desi gn pr obl em is solvedwhe n , as indi -
cat ed in the di agram, there is a sati sfactory relation-
ship among need, cont ext , and form. Consider a
small pri nti ng company as an example. Th e origina l
need was to accommodatea pri ntingope ra tion in the
con text ofthedowntown of a small city and the form
pr ovided was a small , one-story building. Ove r time,
new probl ems could occur du e to different types of
misfits :
86 Analysis
1. Need/context-Property val ues and th e tax rat e
increase rapidly, even though th e buildin g still
meets the pr inter 's needs.
2. Need/form-The operation outgrows the building
or the building deteriorates and is no t adequate
for the need. -
3. Form/context-A change in the zoning res tr ict ions
makes a on e-story building no longer a so und
financialinvest ment.
Figure 6-7b Mi sfit betweenneedandcontext.
V'Sfahb A. J
b ~ rr tJ"l%i'1
~ ~ o Y ~
Fi gure 6-7c Mi sfit bet ween needandform.
Figure 6-8 Sourcesofsolutionstodesignproblems.
Figure 6-9 Design project information organized by major design variables.
Th e design problem can be caused by a change in
anyone or a combination of the variables. The solu-
tion to th e problem may lie in changing any on e of
the variables or a combinati on of t hem. The design
solution is not synonymous with the designed build-
ing; rather, the de sign drawings ar e the embodiment
of a new ba lance between need, context, and for m.
The success of th e design solution is meas ured by the
wa y it responds to all three variables.
Th e categories of need, context, and form can also
provide a conveni ent struct ure for or ganizing de sign
pr ojec t infor ma tion. De sign concerns, issues, priori-
ties, or, as shown here, crite ria can be gathered under
these variable headings. This promotes a ba lance d
vi ew of the design p roblem and a mo re complete
eval uat ion of design alte rnatives. (The application of
evaluation criteria is dis cussed fur ther in Chapter 9.)
In th is section , we deal with the graphic abstracti on
of th e archi tec t 's design prob lem as descr ibed by
need, context , and form.
A bstraction Applied to A rchitectural Design 87
Figure 6-10a, b Programmed area requirements:

breakdown of areas (a), and summary of areas (b).
[l ifE} Elr:t
0
eJElElffi
I
I I I
I
(a)

III
6k'MW1tWy

o iii
(b)
OWVl ev-
{/ea0
Fi gure 6-11 Act ivity intensity.
NEED
The building progra m or brief usually contains most
of the information about the clie nt ' s needs . Programs
for the aver age-size project , suc h as an educational or
institutional building , can be quite complex.
Alt hough th e program for our exampl e, a four-bed-
room recreat ional residence, is not very complex, it
should ser ve to illustrate the basi c typ es of diagra ms
that could be used to descri be funct ional needs.
The fir st step is to get a good grasp of the qu antifi-
able aspe cts of the program. Using sq ua res to show
th e area requir ement s for diff er ent fu nctions, th e
88 Analysis
o

relat ionships of size are quickly apparent (Figure 6-
lOa). A summary of basic program areas (Figure 6-
l Ob) ai ds consideration of some of the ba sic zoning
alt ernati ve s and relationships to usable site area .
Anothe r qu antita tive diagra m that can be quite useful
shows intensi ty of activity or use. The int ensity of
functions is shown by the relative sizes of the circles,
an d the volume of circulation between fun ct ions by
the width of the connecting bars. Detailed estimate s
of the intensity of acti vity are not usua lly made, but
direct observation an d informal analysis based on th e
design er's past experience should be su ff ici ent to
make the diagra m usefu l.
Fi gure 6-12 Bubble diagram of functional relations hips.

-------'1--4
L,u roo V'v1 __1------4

redt-




Fi gure 6-13 Matrix diagram of functional relationships.
Relationships
The bubble di agr am has be come a fami liar tool to
architectur al designers. It ca n abstrac t th e buildi ng
progra m to conveniently summarize the activi ties to
be housed and their required relationsh ips. As we
saw in Chapter 5, bubbl e dia gr ams are also eas y to
manipulate as the designer moves from building pro-
gram to building desi gn. As lon g as the basic rules of
the gr aphic language are foll owed, th ese diag ra ms
pe rmit wide flexibility of thinking.
An other type of relationship di agr am is the
matrix. All th e functions are listed along two perpen-
dicular axes and then the relat ionship of each func-
j on to the other functions is cate gorized . The advan-
tage of suc h a matrix is in the ways it can be read by
the desi gner. This example demonstrates that the
kitchen is a cr it ical point of relationshi p for the whole
family an d their guests, that the sleeping areas should
be isolat ed fr om each other and from most of the res t
of the house, and that the access to the guest areas
shoul d be controll ed. Although it is tr ue that most of
t hese observations migh t be made intuitively for a
house, the matrix promotes a res tr uct uri ng of th ink-
ing th at can st imulat e new insi ghts regardi ng needs
such as separation or communication, particularly in
more complex bu ildings. Fina lly, th e matrix provides
a simpl e gr aphic rei nforcem ent of the design er' s
memory as he con siders the buildi ng context and
form .
Nee d 89
7 q 10 II 11
I 4- 6 cP 7 9 9

W2
VEc{(

-.


f;A1H
ourDoor<s



J:;
Figure 6-14a Log of space use.
i:>
<----..wI-

(
'J/VleW?
,
C ...-""
__ ,J
(-
/f'
I

/
.-L -<"""'--/,-/,;;,-./- --7
\
, \ ' I r -:">


---I rt>:
l I
V
Fi gure 6-14b Ki nesthetic map.
Physical Behavior
Alt houg h w e mi ght assu m e t hat mo st p eopl e use
hous es in p ret ty m uc h the same way (judgi ng from
new housing de velop m ent d esign ), there a re di ffer -
en ces. Th ese di fferences ca n have a lot to d o with th e
co m fort of a family in a pa r ticula r house. One w ay to
illustrat e the use of a house is to m ake a log of spa ces
occupied by d iffer e n t fa m ily m embers d uri ng a typ i-
cal d ay. T he res ult s may be su rp r ising a nd may
en courage t he cl ien t to look a t h ousing in a new way.
T here may al so be implicat ions for de sign prior ities,
ori e nta tion of spaces , a nd e nergy m anagement.
Circ ula tio n is one of th e m ost u nder-conside re d
fu n ct ions in he re nt in a b u ild in g program . M a n y of
th e experiences of a ho use, its impact on pe op le, ta ke
pla ce as t hey m ove th roug h a nd be tw ee n spaces.
These ar e re ferred to as kin esthetic experi ences; they
a re dy na mi c expe rie nces u nlike silt in g or sta nd ing in
one space. Some a rch itec ts h av e sugges te d t hat sce-
na rios of desi red kin es t het ic exp er ie nce s, in a grap hic
form , ca n be very usef ul to d esi gn. In its sim ple fo rm,
a ki n est he tic m ap may use sy m bol s for different
expe rie nces , but it is als o possible to key per spect ive
s ketche s to t he m ap and he lp cr eate a sen se of wha t is
desi red . Again , such di ag ra ms help th e cl ient and the
design er d iscu ss a nd think abou t the des ign problem .
90 Analysis
-.\\
s;

C)

ii
.s

\0

.:J

;::.
s:::

\.U. W
Y
-=:1 U
C3

WW1.q,rt




f rex(btl t1:J
Figure 6-15a Mat rix diagram of relationships bet ween design issues and spaces.
Design Priorities
To ma ke a successful house, an architect mus t help
the cl ient choose his priori ties , as his de sires ofte n
exceed what is financi all y possibl e. Bu t priorities
remain a vague notio n for mo st pe opl e un til they see
a spe cific building desi gn wit h a price tag. Then
come s th e pruning and p ushing and pulling, ending
wi th a des ign t hat loo ks as if it has been th rough a
str eet fight. A matri x diagr am clarifies pri orit ies so
the client can better un d erstand t hem before pro-
ceeding to buildi ng-for m altern atives. The mat rix
starts with a list of design issu es and a list of func-
tions. At each point of relationship in the mat rix, we
as k the importance of thi s issue to this function. The
degree of impor tance is ind icated by the size of the
dot. When th is process ha s been completed for each
issue, the most important issues and functions (those
with the highest cu mulat ive degrees of impor tance)
can be identified and a hier archical list of issues and
functions for med. Whe n the mat rix is recon stru cted
with issues and spaces ar ranged in t hei r ord er of
impor tan ce, it is possible to ma ke some observat ions
about cr itical areas of the design problem.
Fi gure 6-15b Revised mat rix indicating priorit ies.
N eed 91

7
Figure 6-16 Ve rbal concepts map.
Design Objectives
Analysis of a design problem requires the explorat ion
of th e broad set of issues, contexts, an d concerns. To
initiate thinking about the problem, we can ada pt a
techn ique used in cr eati ve writing that builds a net -
work of ve r bal as sociations. To bring the subcon-
scious mind into action, the stan dard tabul ated lists
are replaced by a loose, open-ended method of nota-
ti on that lets ideas develop in an organic pat tern
mu ch like the roots of a tr ee. As a complex network
of ass oci ations develops, we can begin to identi fy the
mo st imp ort ant issues and relationships.
As anal ysis of needs pr ogr esses, it is oft en helpful
to specul ate on optimum re latio nships among the
activi ties that make up the building program. By
illu strating alt ernative patt erns of rel at ionships, th e
desi gner can become more attuned to th e issues of
synthesis of a range of concern s. To avoid premature
as sumpti ons about physical forms t hat would be
app ropriate to solving the design problem, acti vities
ar e purposely r epre sented by nonspecific shapes .
Some de si gners have r eferred to th ese sh apes as
"potatoes. "
92 A nalysis

o
00
dlr.
0
Darn,G
r
o
Figure6-17 Comparativeschematiclayouts.
0000
~
0
0 0
OU-
e
Fi gure6-18 Comparativeschematiclayouts.
N eed 93
Figure 6-19a Available land.
Fi gure 6-19c Geological conditions.
CONTEXT
The identification of context variables helps th e
designer to set pr oblem boundaries and places con-
straints on the number of design op tions available.
The experienced ar chitect welcomes these con -
straints because th ey help to focus his attention on
th e reall y viable alt ern ati ves. Con text var iables
include site, climate, zoning or building ordinances ,
fina nces, time, and available cons tr uction technologies.
Figure 6-19b Zoning restrictions.
Figure 6-19d Composit e of the three criteria.
Site Selection
A composite grap hi c display of the eff ects of differen t
cr iter ia on site selecti on can assist bo th cli ent and
desi gner in choos ing a site. The mapping starts by
groupi ng sever al criteria under a few basic head ings
su ch as land ava il abili ty (which might incl ude the
considerations of cost , opportunity, or se rvices), geo-
logical charact eristics, and zoning. Ma ps are made for
each basic heading, showing th e land th at meets the
criter ia. The maps can then be overlai d to form one
compos ite map. Now the most favorable sites can be
easily identi fied and secon d-choice sites will also be
eviden t.
94 Analysis
Figure 6-20a Direction ari d force of winter winds. Fi gure 6-20b Direction and force of summer winds.
Wtrtfer
Fall
Fi gure 6-21 Annual temperat ure fluctuati ons.
RtM
V'ttjS
5 ~
t 7 ~ 7 - - - - - ~ - -
Fi gure 6-22 Sunlight and precipitation frequencies.
OD
Ot he r usefu l abst ract sketches can present a more
refined view of the acti on of cl imate ove r time.
Because energy co ns ervation is becoming a ma jor
co ns ideration in ho using desi gn, we need more
dynamic models of the act ion of climatic forces such
as w ind and sun. It is becoming eas ier to obtain rea-
sonably acc urate stati stical da ta on weather, but the
grap hic pr esentati on of th is data is wha t makes it
usable to the average de signer.
Alt hough cl imate is onl y one of several context ual
elements that have an impact up on a desi gn problem,
cl imate considerat ions have tra dit ionally been a dom-
inant factor in archi tec t ural de sign. These diagra ms
ca n for m the basi s of a point of view about the prob-
lem that may be a so urce of basic design concep ts.
Context 95
Figure6-23a Circulation paths.
....
Figure 6-23b Socialinteraction zones.
Activity Patterns
When inserting a new str uc t ure within an exi sting
environmental con text, such as a coll ege campus,
curr ent patterns of pedestrian activity sho uld be an
import ant consideration . The uppermost diagram
above tr aces the dominant patterns of pedestrian
movement and refl ects to some extent their relative
96 Analysis
?:01J6S
PA-1110/
BNTR, 5


D()u
W
DAR\f6
Fi gure6-24 Ur ban image analysis.
intensity. The lower diagram shows nodes or zon es
that are th e mo st likely sites of soci al int eraction.
Landmarks are indicated be cause th ey oft en mar k
sites of arranged meetings between individuals. To
the right is a serie s of siteanalysis diagrams basedon
analytical categor ies developed by Kevin Lyn ch. "
-
f1tEL.IMINARY DE5tG-N
PeSlG-}o{ DFAWINtSS
[ I[ [ _
1l4dfM,t reqlJlrat
tar ";+ttl
L--_ Il_ -
ISTee.L I'"-- -J.
k J
Fi gure 6-25 Co mparative construction processes.
I
}
Construction Processes
Arc hitects may overl ook at times th e impac t of th e
cons tructi on process as a context for t he de sign solu-
tion . Const ruction method is recogni zed as a st rong
determinan t of for m in vern acul ar architect ur e, and
it is still in fl ue nt ial in con temp orary architect ural
des ign. With the pr essur es of financing and the varia-
tions in the cost of bor rowing fu nds, innovations in
con str uct ion processes are co ntinually emergi ng.
When th ese proce sses are included in th e set of
deter min ants of form, th e designer enhances the
pro ba bi lit y of developing a success ful des ign .
Abstract represent ation of t he altern ative constr uc -
tion processes, as wi th ot her design deter min ants,
promot es the designer ' s int uitive acce ss to t hese con-
siderations .
I
__J
AreA J
MJuitMt4"
Figure 6-26 Const ruction sequence analysis.
Context 97
Physical Site Analysis
Site featur es can incl ude macro- and micr o-climates,
topography, nat ur al circulatio n, views, and landscap -
ing elemen ts suc h as t rees , bushes, rocks, or wat er.
Th ese site features must be consi dered in ord er to
place and desi gn a hou se. Abst rac t sketc hes can
un cover probl ems and op port un ities by showing th e
site fea t ures simult aneous ly. The illust ration used
here focus es on general site ch aracteristics rath er
than on specific de tai ls. Focusi ng on genera lities
helps the de signe r to for m a vi sual me m ory of th e
impor tant sit e considera tions . With the aid of t hese
sketches, other pe rceptions ca n be derived, such as
wind, privacy buffers, or th e best site for bui lding.
For th is rec reational house, the sun pattern , the ridge
of the land, and t he su mmer breeze suggest th e gen -
eral orien tation of the bu ilding. The existing site
ent ry, dispositi on of t he trees, and the small river to
the sout h se t up the prominent views and basi c site
circula tion . Thi s site analysis can be fur t he r
extende d, taking int o account program ar ea needs to
explore some prel iminary alte rnatives for building
massing, as shown at the far ri ght.


\
. 6 lit::
Figure 6-27a

Fi gure 6-27b
98 Analysis
Figure 6- 27c
Figure 6-28 a
Figure 6- 28b
Figure 6- 27d
Figure 6- 28c
Context 99
--
-
T r
ke d f'oxetS
'B6Xt'&
GYOV vea 13oxe?
UCVt? Bv-f +evWo. l( EJeVldtJ
FORM
The third set of variables, form, is under the control
of the designe r. In this area he can help the client
make decisions after the need and context variables
hav e been ide ntified. But rem ember tha t the soluti on
to th e design prob lem' is bas icall y an agreement
between need, context , and form. In a sense, all th ree
se ts of variables are flexible until a fit is ac hieved .
Some designers expe ct the client's progra m and the
cont ext alone to dict ate the soluti on, but for m is
eq ua lly importa nt be ca use th ere are a number of
viable forms that meet specific needs. The arc hitect
must be as familiar with form variables as with those
of need or context. The abst ract sketches that foll ow
are used to bui ld a visua l memory of form vari abl es.
Space/Order
Variations of the spa tial or ganization of a house ar e
numerous. A few examples ar e shown here in plan
di agrams using a sim ilar drawing style to facilitate an
easy comparison . The wall s ar e drawn with heavy
lines so the diagrams can emphasize space by clearl y
defining solid and void. Furthermore, titl es are given
to each organ izational type as an important aid for
eas y recall.
100 Analysis
-
.....
I
-
W())j &IC!
T
T
w
o--
Wa
3
Figure 6-29 Alternati ve spatial organizat ions shown in plan view.
l r f j ~ ~ g
QO'Gt4 Box
Figure 6-30 ALternative enclosure types.
Above, a range of or gani zati onal types shows are al so con sider ed. Note how di fferent approaches
three-dimensional opt ions for spatial order an d t he to enclosure can lead to va rie ty in for mal exp ression
implications for ap pearance. Structur e an d mat eri als or aesthetic.
Form 101
Scale/Proportion

Fi gure 6-31 Important human-related sizes.
ot
Figure 6-32 Dormit ory building, NewYork University,
1. M. Pei and Associates, architects.
?t'lfO
r1LoV1

Alt hough they can enjoy the qu al ities of form, ar chi-
tects do not automatically pe rceive how the form
variables ar e arranged to ac hieve a specific effect. In
additi on to their for mal educa ti on, mos t arc hite cts
spend a lifetime gath er ing insight s or pe rcepti ons
about suc h qua lit ies.
One effe ctive way of incre asing perception is
th rough visual anal ys is. The emphasis of a speci fic
va riable such as scale or rhythm in a sketch can be
abst racted fro m the context of the buildi ng. Scale
implies a relati onship of sizes. The si ze of people is
th e handiest reference for other si zes; this is call ed
human scale. Alth ough it is obvious that all structures
cannot be wi t hi n our scale, we ca n feel more com-
fortable with a large bui ldi ng if certain of its features
range in size fr om human scale to the overa ll build-
ing. Through graphic analysis, we can begin to under-
st and how scal e is ha ndled in different bui ldings.
The effect of proportions on the design of a bui ld-
ing can be represented for analys is in a si milar way.
Propo rtion is th e relations hip between di mensi ons
(horizontal-vert ical). Through abst raction, the impact
of proportions on exist ing buildings can be bett er
unde rstood.
Figure 6-33 Entrance facade, villa at Garche, LeCorbusier.
102 Analysis
-
I
I,
I
Figure 6-34 Traditional brick const ruction. Figure 6-35 Cu rtain wall construction.
\
Figure 6-36 White Residence, MitcheljGiurgola, architects.
Mass/BaLance
Anyone who has taken up jogging is well aware of the
impo r tance of mass and balance in human experi -
en ce. We all have a bui lt-in se nse of thes e quali ties,
causing us to r espond to t hem in buildings.
Furthermore, mass and bal ance are associated with
many ot her feelings, such as sec ur ity and flexibili ty.
In a bu ilding, a sense of ma ss can convey sec uri ty or
perman ence; a sen se of air iness can convey flexib ility
or fr eedom. Th roughout arc hitec tural history, many
met hods have been di scovered for varying the appar-
ent mass of build ings. By anal yzi ng buildings that
hav e clear sensations of mass, the use of such formal
devices as hor izontality, verticality, and emphasis can
be uncovered.
Walking is a tremendous feat of balance. Much of
the enjoyment of walking, riding a bike , skiing, and
the like is derived fr om the tension between stabi lity
and instability. We have a finely tuned sense of bal-
ance that carries over into our visual pe rcep tion. The
diffe rent ways of ar ticulating balance in buildin g
design ca n be also highlighted t hrough abstract
sketches. The sketches shown he re deal wit h sym -
metrical and asymmetr ica l ba lance in compo sit ion
and three-dimensional ba lance, an impor tant part of
ar chitecture.
Figure 6-37 Grabbeplatz at Dusselporf, Ja mes Stirling, architect .
Form 103
-
mmillm
Fi gure6-38 Evenlyspacedwindows.
Figure 6-39 Casa Mila,Ant onioGaudi, architect .
Repetition/Rhythm
One way of achieving unity in a building is through
repetit ion of parts that are alike, suc h as windows or
column s. Simi larity of objects, even if on ly pa rtially
similar, is a way of emphasiz ing associati on .
Me mbe rs of the human race are recognized by a
numb er ofsimilar featu res in spite of the great diver-
sity in their individualappearance.
The importance of rhy thm inarchitecture isbased
upon its relationship to the human rhyth ms,walking
or breathing,and the nat ur alrhythms,the tide or the
seasons. Just as music presents audio rhythms, archi-
tectur e displays visua l rhy thms In ar chitecture, the
principal means of achiev ing r hy thm is spacin g of
par ts; this is comparable to the intervals bet wee n
beats or notes. The character of visu al rhythms in a
bui ldingdependson thesize of both the intervalsand
the parts. Two basic types of rh ythm can be identi-
fied . Staccato rhythm is formed by cl ear distinction
between in tervals and parts, such as mullions on a
curtain wall. Legatorh ythm issofter,formed by mo re
subtle tra nsit ions between inter val s and parts, as in
th e curvilinear ar chit ecture of Gaudi . There ar e also
rhyt hms disting uishab le by patterns of interval or
part sizes, as in a facad e by Palladia . And ther e are
accel erat ing or decel erating rhyt hms, as in the
Wolfsbe rgCenter by Aalto.
)
Figure 6-40 WolfsbergCenter, AlverAalt o, architect .
[



. .1' ; __ " ;' '\ a /''' '11
1 ,:, "I II fI ,l- --i
r; II
LC--fj I
I
- - .III _
Figure 6-41 BostonCity Hall.
104 A nalysis
Figure 6-42 Sout h facade, Lit chfield High School
Gymnasium, Marcel Breuer and O'Connor & Kilham,
archit ect s.
Unity/Diversity
The degree of unity or diversi ty expressed in a build-
ing const itutes ano ther class of form variables. The
"other variables (scale, propor tion , mass, ba lance, rep-
et iti on, or rhythm) can be used to achieve unity or
diversity. Some of t he ways of increasi ng unity
incl ude fr aming or emp hasizing a bo rder; using a
continuous pattern , modular grid, or a sing le shape,
which is at the sa me scale as the bu ilding; and mai n-
taining independe nce betwee n the parts and t he
whole.
Diversity can be ac hieved by planned vi olat ion of
the rules of unity: avoiding framing or cons istent pat-
tern; va ry ing r hyt hms or mo dules; using mult iple
grids ; and breaking up the domina ti ng geomet ry.
Unity and diversity are not mut ually excl usive; it
is po ssible to overlay them and thereby increase the
intensity of bo th at tribut es.
Fi gure 6-43 Ohio Town Hall project , Vent uri and Ra uch.
Fi gure 6-44 Assembly building at Chandigarh, LeCorbusier.
Form 105
1I11111 Lllllllllll llllil
\---
D
\---
\---
D ~
IIT fITfll=rITITITllr-
1-
1
Figure 6-45 LaTourett e monastery, LeCorbusier, architect.
In]lFU [flJUlJ
b . . d
b d
~ ~
[G 2J
~ [1Jl ~ J ]
-$
Figure6-46 HurvaSynagogueproject. Louis Kahn, architect .
..
c==J
Fig ure6-47 Mt .Angel Library, AlvaAalto, architect .
Hierarchy
Con cep tual strength and clarity often play an impor-
tant role in the experience and use of a building. A
sens e of hierarchy can co ntr ibute much to th e con-
cept ua lpresence of ar chit ecture.Whether as analysis
of existing buildi ngs or as speculation about an
eme rgin gdesign,int ent ionscan be highlighted by the
~ S ~
!) P c:Jt::::J
I ~
Figure 6-48 KresgeCollege, UniversityofCa lifornia,SantaCruz,
MTLW/MooreTurnbull,architects.
=
~
"t:::I
=J
Figure6-49 Amerika-Gedenkbibliothek, Berlin, Mo rphosis,
architects.
use ofabstr act sket ches such as those shown here. In
corresponding sequence, star ting at t he top , t he
sketches in Figures 6-45 ,6-46,and 6-47present th ree
approaches to hierarchy:dominant size, centra l loca-
tion, and unique shap e. As reflected in Figur es 6-48,
and 6-49 , approa ches to hierarchy are often com-
bined to achieve grea ter impact.
106 A nalysis
Fi gure 6-50
SOURCES OF SOLUTIONS
As was pointed out before, th e ori gin of a design solu-
tion may be found in anyone of the t hree typ es of
var iables: need, context , or form. On the following
pages are ca se studies based on th e recreat ional
house example. In each study, an abs t rac t di agr am of
one of t he va riables is used as the source of a basic
organizing idea for the house; th en const raints or
con siderat ions from the other types of variables are
int roduced to modify th e concept. These st ud ies
should make clear some of the following advantages
of abs tr ac t diagrams:
1 . The vari et y of ideas vi sible at one time is ve ry
stimula ting for th inking.
2 . The differen ces in t he t hree types of variables
promote a variety of solut ion alte rnatives.
3. Att ention is focused on general issues instead of
details.
Sources of Solut ions 107
8 0 1
I S - g n f i ~ j
No. 12.
V6
Figure6-52
Sources of Solutions 109
S . I S r \ [ r J U V 0 1 1
( " - 9 a m ~ : J
Figure 6-54
Sources 0 { Solutions 11 1
S I S r \ I D U V Z I I
C ; C ; - g a j n ~ J
. ( . ) . . . . J . . .
Figure 6-56 Viewing conditions.
ABSTRACTION AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Th e ultimate use of abstract diagrams is to help the
designer commit to memory large amounts of project
in formation. These diagrams can also be used
directly as a record of design variables . The main
advantage of diagrams as a graphic record is the ir
immediatel y accessible information when all the dia-
grams are arranged in a large group. Creative design-
ers fill sheets upon sheets of pa per with diagrams and
sketche s of all types to record what they know and
think about a design problem.
An abst ract diagram must be simple and clear to
be effe ctive. If it contains more infor mati on than can
be absorb ed at a quick glance, it loses its effective-
ness. Yet , it must provi de eno ugh informati on to form
a di sti nct idea. Limiting th e size of the diag ram to a
por tion of our vi su al fi eld is a met hod of partia lly
controll ing the amoun t of information given . A stan-
dard 8.5-by-ll sheet of pap er fits wi thin the vis ual
field of a single individual, and the drawn diagrams
can be as small as a half-dollar. When several design-
ers work as a group, the vis ual field is expanded con-
siderably. The fir m of Ca udill Rowlett Scott has
developed the "analys is card" technique for group
wo rk . Diagra ms, each about the si ze of a ha nd, are
drawn on 5'/z-by-8'/4 cards (I have persona lly tried 3-
by-5 and 5-by-8 cards wit h success) . During the prob-
lem analysis and desi gn process, diagrams are drawn
on the cards, which are then ta cked on the wall for
display to t he gr oup. This results in a conti nually
updated display of the gro up's thinking. As an added
benefit , the cards are easily moved to prov ide flexi-
bility of ideas by association .
For legibility, ink or felt-tip pens are prefera ble to
pe ncil or other media . Line weights should be geared
to the viewi ng sit uation: a fine-line pe n is good for
the individual but a heavi er mar ker is bett er for
group di spl ay. Some architec ts make the translat ion
from individual to gr oup display by simple enlarge-
men t of th e orig inal diagrams or ske tches.
Figure 6-57 Analysis cards.
Abstraction and Problem Solving 113
l : - L

7 Exploration
W
hile t he archi tect ura l des ign process
involves decision-making aimed at the
re duction of altern at ive s in se ar ch of a
final solution, it al so involves elaboration
aime d at expanding t he range of possib iliti es. Most
archi tects are not conte nt to solve problems wit h
exis ting knowledge ; th ey wa nt to expand thei rknowl -
edge base at th e sa me time. Ar chitects are op po rtu-
nityseeker s as wellas problem solvers.The drawings
in t his ch apt er are devoted to elaboration in th e
des ign process, deviation from t he nor m, expansion
of thi nking, and development of ima gination.
We arej ust beginning to understand the untapped
potenti al of our imaginat ions . Int uition, cr eativi ty,
and imagination have tradit ionally been considered
skillsattributable to a limited gr oup of pe ople :inven-
tor s, ar tists, and geniuse s. Many researchers of cr e-
ati vity share Koeberg and Bagna ll 's view t hat mo st
people have t he basi c ca pa city for imagination but
that it re mains und erde ve loped or unu sed:
r:;LABoRNnON
"f'r:' rf"nItl ~ e l l : 9
Figure 7- 2
It is simple enough to list those "att ributes of creativ-
ity " whi ch are needed by the designer and to point
out the reasons for their inclusion. But actual devel-
opment and refinement of such beha vioral charac ter-
istics is di fficult since society ma ke s it a relentless
bat tle, an often thank less and rarely positively rein-
forced chore, to ma intain such behavior. The same
society which readily accepts the creative 'product'
will chastise or deny the creative 'activity ' required
for such producti on because of its non-typical
natu re. I
Making creat ive behav ior acceptable is th e first
step in promoting cr eat ivity in architectural design,
and t his ch ap t er tr ies to provide more information
about cr eative thinking with sketchesto sup port it. If
we can get thro ugh some of(he myst er y sur rounding
t he personal approache s taken by ar chi tec ts, I be lieve
specific techni ques can be ident ified t hat make up a
bodyof trainable ski lls.
Explora tion can be defined as systemat ic investi-
gati on or t raveling thro ugh an unfami liar region in
order to learn about it. The pur pose of exp loration in
graphic thi nking is the altering of graphic images so
as to get a new look at t hem and thereby expand our
th ink ing. We will be looking at three approaches to
exploration:
1. Open-ended images that su ggest a number of di f-
ferentperceptions or interpretations.
2 . Transfor ma tion ofima ges .
3. Str uct ur ingor or dering image s.
These approaches are aime d at re-centeri ngvisual
th inking. According to Robe rt Mc Kim, "Re-centeri ng
vision is fundamentally an expe rience in unlearn ing.
For most people, breaking lazy, ca tegory-hardened,
fea r-inducing habits of seeing is an educationa l task
of considerabl e magni t ud e. " 2 To make full use of
these drawingsfor grap hic thinkingwe must be com-
for table with exploration that is not tightly focuse d,
let the mi nd wander, and be open to unexpected
results.
115

1
..
r ', '
. \ ".;' .
< . . ........
,r' / '
, "
f , -,
, ';,.:>'"

/ ,1 .
:</

I i , ' ;:, ; .;,.,
I '
,
.
\\

,....
I ,( I ':
,
,
,j
I:
,
r
,,-
"
)' ,J! '
i
,\
,'.

Figure 7-3 ByAlvar Aa lto.
OPEN-ENDED IMAGES
Terms like ambiguous, collage, and multi valent have
been used to descr ibe wo rks of art and archite ct ur e
that can be "read," in terpreted, or appreciated simul-
taneously on several levels. These works are ofte n
sai d to have several meani ngs. Design sketches often
ha ve similar qua lit ies of ambig uity, allow ing the
designer to think flexibly and in gene ral terms. I refer
to thi s as open-ended . Open-endedness can be
ac hi eved wit h transparen cy. Thi s ap proach is based
on the tradition of showing dept h location by over-
lapping. Mod ern ar t introduced mut ua l overlapping:
producing a transparent effec t that allows two or
mor e figures to occupy th e same place. In concept ,
developing a tr ansparency allows the designer to sus-
pend decisions abo ut the exact location of spaces or
the boundaries between spaces .
WfJ r--

Ivt\!(k-
J
I
()vt v
Figure 7-4a

Cjj

\Vl ftyfYCIlfllOh
-r C3
Figure 7-4b
-Cb
ClJ

Figure 7-4c
Another approach to open-e ndedness is the
incomplete, obscure sketch . By providing minimal
infor mation, the sketches focus on the mo st gener al
issues whil e estab lishi ng the essenti al char ac ter of
t he arc hite cture. The te ntati ve feeli ng of th e lines
helps give some sket ches an added sense of bei ng
temporary. To achieve a similar effect , some design-
ers use a soft pen cil to produce a wide, fuzzy line.
Open-en ded sketche s oft en convey a sens e of
immedi acy and th e confi dence of the des igner.
Notice how a few lin es provide impac t. The w hit e
spaces help to pull the eye back to the key parts of the
drawing. To produce effecti ve sketches, the designe r
is required to work qui ckly and in a relaxed manner ;
th e sketc hes sho uld be an enj oyable process rather
th an an end in themselves.
116 Exploration
c ~
. '
~ }
t--==--==- ..... ~
Figure 7-5 By LeCorbusier. Strasbourg project.
Figure 7-6 By Lo uis Kahn . Co ncept study, Un iversity of Vi rginia Figure 7-7 By Gerald Exline.
Chemistry Building.
Open-Ended Images 117
J RAN5 f oR i\AATION?
o

II
1<'evev6al
Fi gure 7-8 Fo ur types of t ransformation.
TRANSFORMATIONS
The purpose of ope n-ended images is to invite
changes in the images. Transfor mations , however, are
specific changes made in t he graphic images . The
possibilities for change in graph ic images are practi-
cally unlimited, bu t we will look at a few basic types
of transformation. They are topologi cal continuity,
orname ntal gramma1; reversals, and distortion.
Graphic transformations ca n be very hel pful to
creativit y in design . The stages of creativity have
been described by Helen Rowan as "Preparat ion,
Incuba tio n, Ill umination, and Veri fica ti on .... th e
period of incubation fr ees the individual fr om previ-
ous fixations, he is then able to see the problem with
new eyes when he re t urns to it. " 3 Trans formations are
aimed at changi ng perspective or perceptions, mak -
ing the fa miliar se em strange. It is impo rtant to
remember that a peri od of prepara tion mus t precede
incubation. The de signer prepares by be coming
immersed in th e problem, tr ying to underst and all
the var iables of need, context , and for m. Once the
problem becomes imbedded in his mind, he attempts
to overcome preconceptions about the poss ible solu-
tions by changi ng the existing graphic images.
Topological Continuity
In mat hematics, the term topology is defined as "the
st udy of those pr ope rties of geometr ic figures th at
11 8 Explora tion


C\-vIiA Wl e
o

remain unchanged even when under distortion, so
long as no surfaces are torn." A practical example of
two objects topologica lly similar but differe nt in
ap peara nce is the doughnut and the cup. The trans-
formation fr om do ughnut to cup shows how the same
basic surface re lat ionshi ps are re ta ined whi le t he
form is pus hed and pu lled.
A similar topological cont inui ty is important to
the exploration of design images. Many arc hitectural
students mistake a specific ar rangement of pa rts for a
topological or essential re lationship of parts. If the
tr ue topol ogical characteristics of a diagram are iden-
tifie d, many other arrangements of the parts can be
explored.
March and Steadman pointed out the potential of
topol ogical con tinuity in comparing three houses by
Fran k Lloyd Wright:
I n them he uses a range of "grammars, " by which he
meant, above all, the controlling geometric unit
which ordered the plan and pervaded the det ai ls... .
Wh ilst they may lool: di fferent, they are in fact topo-
logically equivalent. I f each funct ional space is
mapped on to a point and if, when two spaces inter-
con nect, a line is dra wn bet ween their representative
points. .. we find that they (the houses) are topologi-
cally equivalent in plan. Therefore, one topol ogical
structu re was open to thr ee velY different expres-
sions.'
Figure 7-9a Topological similarity Figure 7-9b Evolution of topologically equivalent house plans.
between a doughnut and a cup.
Fi gure 7-10 Topological analysis of t hree houses designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.
Transformations 119
!

2. ROTATION
J. T/UNS/.AT/ON II[=
2 . Or1J4mnflai Mosaicpat- I . Ornarrunt from /fJ",b at
ternat Pompeii.
Owenjones, PI. VII. o. 4.
Gourna The"'. non 0
Ou-'enjon(J, PI. xxv
4. INVERSION

,-m
0

I l 5. TranslationandRrfteetivt Imersion
5. String course Ollt ,. rht
' Po natbenai c Fri eze,
Partbenon, A/Mm.
OU'V1j 01U1, PI. xxu, no. /8

6 . SliPI' d R,j/t et;on, 0' Ahrmat ion
[3
6. Band ornament from
GmltI laJt .
o 0 Owmj_,PI.XVlI, "".58.
bTIITDooo
7. Accderanon

'QWW\J\A 7. Ornament from Egyp"an

mJlmmy (au.
Ou.. mjono.PI. VI II , no. 17.
o o DDOCiill1
8 . Dtet/frorion
Ii I n
8 Oma.n"'"fromEgyp',an
kiY
iliE
mJJmmy (au .
OwmjonfJ,PI. VIJI . no. J2 .
9 Plaited straw [rom ,Ix
S,. ",. dwjeh islands
0"""jont!. p. 15.
Figure 7-11 By Thomas Beeby. Basic manipulations of ornament.
Ornamental Grammar and transmitted to LeCorbusier through L'Eplatt en ier
remained with him throu ghout his career."
Thomas Bee by, in his art icle "The Grammar of
Ornament/Ornament as Grammar," clearly illustrates As Beeby describes,
the app licatio n of ornamental grammar to bui lding
[The re are] four basic manipulations of a uni t to cre-
mas sing and desi gn at many sca les by the master
at e orname nt: translation, rotation, reflection, and
architects of the modern movement. Spe cifically in
inve rsion . The simplest type of bandornament,
the work of LeCor busi er, he shows the impact of th e
translation (illus tration I], is the repetition of the
traditional training in ornamentati on principles. A
unit, always in the same orientati on, along a hori-
direct me ans of achieving a rich complexity in bu ild-
zontal axi s. Rotation(illust ration 2) is the repetition
ing forms is revealed. "LeCorbusiers early tr aining in
of the unit around the pointof intersec tion of two
orn ament placed a valuable method of working
adj acentsides.Itaccounts for pinwheels andot her
within his grasp. The principles found in Owen Jones
spiralconfigurations. With translation and rotation,
120 Exploration
--
.-----
I

\ I" "9
=====
So
p
o i
f:.
1
'-
r-
I-
,
I-
,
I Y <,
.
,-
l-
I
T "
-
TT
r 1
-
d 1 <,
I-

-
1\ \I
...
<,

\ I \ I
Figure 7-12 ByThomas Beeby.Applicati onsofornamental
grammar.
the uni t merely slides along the surface of the plane,
in a straight line or a circle, but in both reflect ion
and inve rsion the unit is flipped over in spac e to
present its under side. With reflection (illustration 3),
the unit is flipped over on one of its edges, producing
bilateral, or mirror, symmetry. With inve rsion (illus-
trat ion 4), the un it is flipped over its central horizon-
tal axis . More complex configurations are derived
from a combination of these four basic operations.
Translation accompanied by reflection is probably
the most famili ar. Translation accompanied by reflec-
tive invers ion is another typical opera tion (illustra-
tion 5). The complexity increases through devices
such as shifts along the horizontal axis, or glide line,
leaving gaps between uni ts, to produce sl ipped reflec-
tion or alterna tion (illustration 6}... . A lso, by accel-
erating (illus tration 7) or decele rating (illustratio n 8),
the rhythm through decrea sing or increasing eith er
the size of the units or the distance between them,
one can transform scale,'
0
1
I
R1iut;(}If
]
Um t
0
I
I
I
RtJ*ai w
1m-mUm
1'"'"';0"
r---------
fly
/ ff

.-
= .=-. v.-=
11\

- ,
f"- .' _..... __ . .
:I
--
i I
\ ,
......
' :;;:;;;0;
SisI= !


_ '
'"""'=
":L.-
.:
\ /
I
%
' .
cJ \3
I
S"fJ'J RljI",;", RoI4IiMI
I mmit'J"
X
lrnrrsifm Rotarioff
Transformations 121
U O l j v J . o / d x g Z Z I
~
~ _ t _
~ D d lIT o
The implications of ornamental gr ammar for
bui lding desi gn and planning are sig nifica nt, but
the re are addi tiona l implications for th e desi gn
process. Orna me ntal gr amma r can be used to trans-
for m mor e abstract graphic images, routin el y uncov-
er ing new thinking. For exa mpl e, we could take a pro-
gra m bubbl e diagram and through its rot a ti on ,
reflection, or invers ion cha nge th e starting point in
problem sol ving. Another app roach would start with
a schemat ic plan; from th is, an analysi s dra wing
wo uld be made to reduce th e concept to basics, and
t he abstr act drawi ng would be r un thr ou gh so me
ornamen ta l tr ansformations to un cover alter na tive
concepts or insights into the str uct ure of the origin al
design.
We might also freely experiment with form, as
shown above, and then seek a match bet ween for ms
and known design progra ms .
Figure 7-14 Applicat ions of ornament al grammar.
Transformations 123


Gt-wr

1tt0 tt+
f ..IUI iJ
Wall

, 'IDlL

fV\ crvtet'ttt I
JOLVI+S
Figure 7- 15
Reversals
Reversals are cha nges in an ima ge fr om its fir st char-
act eristics to opposite cha ract eristics [light to dark,
object to space, open to closed , etc.). Their usefulness
deri ves fr om th e qualities of the contrasti ng comple-
ment. Th e Chi nese philosophe r Lao-Tzu held tha t the
essen ce of everything we could see lies in what we
cannot see; the essence of man is not in his physical
appearance, and the essence of architecture is not in
the vi sible str ucture. The Taoist symbol yin and yang
re presents the absenc e of ord er, chaos, as a bl ack
backgrou nd; the two r evolving for ms are yin and
yang, the contrast ing complements th at make up
or der, nigh t a nd day, a musi cal not e and a pause,
active and passive. The ide al condi tion, pe rfection, is
symbolized as a dynami c balance between opposites:
groups of people are defined by individuals and indi-
viduals are defined by groups; the color of an orange
change s in intensity with the changing background.
Archit ectur al examples of complemen ts are walls
and openings , materials and the joirits between ma te-
rials, vertical and horizontal , recti linear and curvilin-
ea r. To ch ange our perceptions, we change th e
emphasis of an image to its compl ement or contrast.
The simples t for m of rever sal is called figur e-ground
drawing. Two sketches are made of a subject such as
the Piazza San Marco (oppo site). In one sketch, th e
buildings are shown in solid black an d in the other
sketch, th e space between the bu ildings is shown in
bl ack. By look ing at the two sketc he s at the same
ti me, it is po ssible to get a better under standing of
bo th space and buildi ngs and the re lat ionship
between them. Figure-ground sketches can be used to
study elevations of bui ldings, patterns, profiles, mass-
ing, and many other problems.
124 Exp lorati on
-_.__.....y)
Figure 7-16 Figure/grou nd sket ch, Piazza San Marco.
n -ans(ormat ions 125
<:


of 2;!]
VtlM.; View
(evoj..!:$ 1Lt\ e:t t l-00
Bj[
.], h fosed C6(UW\Y\

CoIlMV\ 'W' tva[[
Figure7-17 Reversals ofarchitecturalexperience.
Anot her type of reversal is experience reversal. If
the normal kinest heti c experi enc e of a church pro-
gresses from smallto lar gescal ed spaces, a reversalof
scale can evolve a ne w form. If it is normal for a
beachfront house to be open and be oriented to the
view, in troduce enclosure and inward ori entation.
Th e design of a Japanese teahouse employs a wall to
deny views in order to intensify th e view seen
through a smallwindow. Designerssometimeshav ea
probl em trying to hide a bu ilding el ement ; the solu-
tion could insteadbe to emphasize thatveryelement.
Gra phic images can also be used to rev erse thi nk-
ing process es. Instead of th inking of spaces as bub-
bles glued together,conside r them as car ved out of a
solid block.
1. If a circulation sequ enceha s been see n as a series
of spaces ,concentra te instead on the pas sages.
2.When a student gets hung up on one design solu-
ti on or has trouble developing an idea, I suggest
that the given bu ilding progr am be for ced into a
typicalfacilityfor a hi ghlycontrasting programor
activity, for exampl e, banking in a restaurant , a
hospital functi on in a country cl ub setting, or a
home in a factory.
126 Exploration
Fi gure 7-18a Reversal of perception, positive vs. negative space.
Figure 7-18b Li nks vs. nodes.
Fi gure 7-18c Restaurant vs. bank.
Transformati ons 127
Fi gure7-19a AfterM. C. EscherLithograph, Balcony, 1945.
Distortion
The Dutch ar tist M. C. Escher create d a wonderful
wo rl d of fanta sy through optical illusions based on
the representational systems of the Renaissance. He
achieved di st ort ions that dramat ically alter our view
of re ality through simple manipulat ion of t hese rep-
resent ational syst ems, as in th e lithograph Balcony.
By way of an exaggeration of the projection method
used for mapsof the world, he imposes a simpl e grid
over the conventional drawing and th en doubles the
size of the central sec tion; thus the di storted gri d is
used as a referen ce sys tem to complete thedr aw ing.
The gr id-manipulation method can be used as a
simple way of di storting other typ es of images. For
our purpose , the gr ids should be keptquite simple to
remain in a sketch sty le. Th e exa mples of the bubble
dia gra m on thispage andthebuilding pl an on the fac-
ing pag e sh ow j ust a few of the possibilit ies for gr id
distor ti on. Simple magnificati on or reduction of t he
scale of an image can produce a distorted effect. In
addition, a number of special projection techniques ,
such as 360-degree views, ar e poten tia l tools for dis-
tortion ske tches.
12 8 Exploration
,
(b)
1 \
.
-
r--
-

.
-
-
.
,
J
...
"
_ oJ
-
\
Not'"rvYlt\ GYtd
tlkror--hoh
(c)
Fi gure7-19b, c Analysis of lit hograph.
(a)
(b)
Fi gure 7-20a, b Dist ortionofa bubble diagram.
NOV'Yv\a1 Gv1d

DO
DO
DO
0 0
DO
cJO
Figure 7-22 Variat ions on dist ortion.
I
i
r
i I
\-- --I
I
1- _ l
Figure 7-21 Distortions of a plan sket ch.
Fi gure 7-23 Di st orted projection.
Transformations 129

f--
r
I-
-
'lIl r
-
f-
-
I I I I I I I II
crt G-rfh age
Figure 7-24 Villa at Carthage, LeCorbusier.
t?oqut flam')
Fi gure 7-25 Combinatory system of spat ial elements, after
C. Norberg-Schulz.
:PIaVl h "fIe II
Figure 7-26 Fi eld t heory space organization, Architecture and Art
Building, University of Illinois at Chicago, Walter Netsch of
Skidmore Owings & Merrill, architects .
STRUCTURING OR ORDERING IMAGES
Peter Carl ma de an impor tant observat ion about the
plan libre de veloped by LeCor bu sier, r epresent ed
here by the plan for the vi lla at Cart hag e: "The impor-
tance of this inven tion is twofol d: the use of gridded
and layer ed space as a contex tua l device, and th e
nat ure of subsequent spatial gestures on those
ter ms." K This is the ba sis for another method of tr ans-
format ion of images, namely, th e use of orde ring
devic es to cr eate an art ificial context within w hich
new responses can be made.
130 Exploration
Figure 7-27 Sundt House, F. L. Wright.
Fi gure 7-28 Casa Papanice, P. Portoghesi, and V. Gig liotti ,
architects.
Of course, generation of space and form by the
use of geometrical pa tterns is not a new approach. In
the eighteen th century, K. 1. Dietzenhofer used a pat-
tern of in terl ocking ovals to develop his baroque
church plan. Frank Lloyd Wright used re ctilinear, tri-
ang ul ar, and ci rcular gri ds as the basi s for house
designs. Mo re recen tl y, Walt er Netsc h designed
buildi ngs based on two sq ua re grids rot at ed to a 45-
degree rel ationship , and Portoghesi and Gigliott i have
developed ho uses wi t hin circ ular fields."
Bl-noda/
- -JO Dt-J
r=uC?
DUIXI Axes
DO
000 ODD
"6 f li'l I S "
Figure 7-29 Basic ordering devices.
Points and lines ca n be used in images for order-
ing funct ions or spaces, transforming t he informat ion
into a new for m. Points pr ov ide a focus for ra dia l
composit ions of a wide vari ety. When two point s are
placed in close proximity, binod al con figurations ca n
be deve loped, but as the two points are pulled far ther
apart , a line is formed, op ening up a number of axia l
arra ngements. Axial ord ers incl ude d ua l axes, major
wi th minor axes , and para llel axes. Line s can also be
used as "spi nes" for colle cting and organizing a num -
ber of differe nt spaces. These lines, referred t o as
datu ms, ca n be st raight or curvili near.
Above, the bas ic orde rs of poin t and li ne ar e
ext e nded or combi ned to for m seve r al order ing
devices of varying degrees of complexity. They are
not incl uded as a kit of devices so much as they are
mea nt to suggest possible ma nipulation altern atives
by w hich each designer may exp lore his own tools.
Structu ring or Ordering Images 131
U O . 1 J D I O Z d x g Z I
I
( I z ; I
[ > <
v
\ 1 /
r - ,
\ ' i .

, . . , .
[ X
1 / - .

I I A l l

c : 9
/
D O




Matrix
The matrix provides still another way of applying
order to the transformat ion of images. The example
at right illustrates the basic application of a matrix.
Different concepts of building placement on the site
are shown across the top, and different degrees of
ar ticulati on are indicated in th e vertical direction. By
showing the combinations of the two considerations,
a number of forms evolve. The example below (from
a student project) is a search for alternative configu-
rations of an urban zone development. The basic
order s are shown in the left vertical column and dif-
ferent combi nations of city blocks in the r ight col-
umn. Fr om t hese, different in terpretat ions are
formed.
=
=
=
Figure 7-31 Matrix diagram of building massing alternatives.
.. --+


-+
-+- ". O
Of},.
--+ --+ -+-
-t fJ
8--1
G"
++
-tEJ GO

" b:.
0-+
G
8 -+- -+. 8 0 0 DO --- B 0 ---
[j-:
[l:
u:
[t:

+-+
Figure 7-32 By Thomas P. Truax. Matrix of alternative groupings
of an urban complex.
Structuring or Ordering Images 133
/ ..




,
u(/
"1 r
: I
..
--
....
#'
1. \..
'.
I I ' :,
'L-

c
' .-
-.
I . I
,
"

- "..
Figure 7-33 ByAlvar Aalt o.
A Pyramid of Possibilities
Itis my hope that , as you begin to exp er iment with
some of the sketch techni ques in th is chap te r, the
loosening up and fr eedom fro m rigid thinking will
open up an exciting new perspective about designing.
It can be an energizing experience th at becomes
addictive . Relax and enjoy it!
Part of the potential of exploration derives from
the fact that ide as breed ideas. As the graphic think-
ing cycl e gets moving wit h ease, the gr oup of ide as
ra pidly expands in a very rough pyrami dal progres-
sion. Ifonly two new images are perceived for each
one drawn, the gr owt h in ideas can be amazing, but
for many designer s this is a big "if." They are afraid
of wasting time by foll owing their in stin cts or
indulgin g in th e fantasies of fr ee as sociation.
Desi gners al so have diff iculty in suspending judg-
134 Exploration
....
,"r "'
" .
t
U .
I
-.oe. ...
Or
J

ment of ideas; they censor them befor e they ever get
them on paper, and so they never ge t a chance to
have a new look at their ideas, detached from them-
sel ves. The situation is compara bl e to an aspi ring
songwriter who never plays his music for other peo-
pl e. In isolation, he may be abl e to develop it to a
point , but without testi ng it th rough the responses of
other people, he wi il be handicapped.
Ifwe look closely at the no tes a nd sketches of
some architects, the rapid growth of ideas be comes
obviou s. The gro wth is sporadic and mult idirectional.
Att ention shifts fro m the scal e of a plan or site plan to
details of windows or handrails. There ar e also shifts
in the types of sketches. Some architects rely heavily
on plans as vehi cles for concept development ; others
work exclus ively in el evat ion s, while still others are
most comfortable with perspective sketches .
Fi gure 7-34 By Thomas Beeby.
In this short cha pt er,we have looke d at the use of
exploration in sketches as an aid to the processes of
design in cubat ion and creativity, but we ha ve
touched on on ly a porti on of the materia l ava ilable
that concerns th e promot ion of creativity.For a Jist of
particul arl y good sources on this subject , check the
bi bliography in t he ba ck of th e book under
Creativity. In addition to the case st udies on the fol-
lowing pages, a helpful list of manipulative verbs
fr om Design Yourself, by Kur t Ha nks, Larry Belliston,
and Dave Edwards," mi ght stimulate some ide as of
your own:
Mult iply
Subdue
Transpose
Delay
Flatten
Submerge
Weigh
Fluff-up
Subtract
Thicken
Relate
Protect
Symbolize
Divi de
Invert
Unify
Distort
Squeeze
Freeze
Destroy
Bypass
Lighten
Str etch
Extr ude
Segr egate
Abstract

.I

t
,
Eliminate
Separate
Search
Rot ate
Complement
Soften
Concentrate
Add
Repeat
Adapt
Repel
Integrate
Dissect
St ructuring or Ordering Images 135
1 I 0 . 1 J V . L O / d x : g 9 I
[ j J a ~
~ T 7 l M . P 6 ~ ~
~ p ~ ~
[ J .
0 0 ~ 0 D ~
D D ~ 0
a-e-511JVY No .'2. .


'-:11
-=
---
Figure 7- 36
Structuring or Orde ring Images 137
l l O I J D . i . Z d X H 8 I
. . c t Q
/
' O N A d n - 4 ; - a 9 1 ?
Figure 7- 38
Structu ring or Ordering Images 139

8 Discovery
M
ost architects recogn ize discovery or inven-
tion as an impor ta nt foc us of their wor k. It
is the sat isfying payoff th at beckons the
creat ive mind. The intensity of concent ra-
tion in thin ki ng is very exciting. Look at the sketch by
Davi d Sti eglitz on th e facing page. It im mediately
shows us the ene rgy, t he action, th e joy of dis cove ry.
It also reveals t he skill and con fidence wit h which
the architect att ac ks hi s proje ct.
Fi gure 8- 2
The success of di scover y in desi gn is gre atl y
dep endent on th e qu ality and quantity of the oth er
types of graphic thinking. Discover y can be com-
par ed to pic king and arra nging a bouquet of flower s,
which requir es a se nse of design and practi ce.
Gra phic rep resentation, abst raction , exp lor ation , ve r-
ificati on , and stimulation are co mpara ble to the
prepara tion of the ga rde n, the planting an d tending of
th e flowers, without which t he re woul d be no bo u-
quet. Di scovery br in gs th e power of t he different
types of gra phic thinking to be ar on a problem at a
mo ment in time.
Before gett ing int o th e gr aphics that expres s dis-
covery, I would like to digress for a moment and dis-
cuss cr eativity in the profession of architecture. The
fi eld of arc hitec t ure is co mmonly vi ewed as being
creative, an d ce rtainly some of the most cr eative ind i-
viduals are archi tects. I believe that an architectur al
educa tion is still one of t he best cu rr icu lums for tr ain-
ing creativity, a lthough it is not a guarant ee. He len
Rowan' s rep or t on studies of creative peopl e id ent i-
fies qualities they all seem to share. Thes e incl ude "a
ge neral opennes s to exp eri ence from bo t h without
and withi n; a toleration for ambiguity, conf usion and
disord er ; t he st rong disposi ti on to be independent
rather tha n conforming; and the tendency to pe rceive
t hroug h intuit ion focu ses upon possib ilities .. ."1
Anyone who is or has been an arc hitecture stude nt
will recogn ize these qualiti es; they permeate the tr a-
d it ion s of architectural train ing from the wide va ri-
e ty of proj ect types to cr itics a nd j uri es, to str ong
conflicts of opinio n, to having to defen d one ' s ideas,
to be in g as ked to go furt he r tha n j ust sol ving t he
pro bl e m .
Still, ther e is a question in pract ice about the over-
all impact of creativity on the des ign process. Out of
expe die nc y or lack of suppor t fro m cl ients or col -
leagues, we may neglect th e de velopment of our cre-
ative ab ilities. We can and should foste r cr ea tivity in
archi tecture for our own sake as well as that of the
profession. As Helen Rowan put it, n the exper ience
of this cent ur y suggest s that the quali ty of ind ividual
life, and pe rhaps t he survival of h uman life as a
whole, depe nds on t he ability and disposit ion of
human be ings to t hink or igina l thought s, to reshuffl e
familiar facts in to new patt ern s of mea ning, to pe r-
cei ve reality be hind illusion , and to engage in daring
leaps of the imagination. ":'
141
,/
I
rnU(ffimfUaW

/
/'
II.
'WIT
/ +t-t\Vl'U'v1 {(
/
/
/
Crlcr c l I t ('( ' (111]
fl
{1){.(
/
!
I
/
\1TfITriiffiiJi



Figure 8-3 Leverage. Figure 8-4 Fastening.
THE DISCOVERY PROCESS
For the ar chit ect or the designer, the process of dis-
coveryconsist sof twoparts:inv ention and concept for-
mation. Invent ion seeksthe basicdiscovery,the origi-
nal idea for the project ; concept format ion converts
thediscovery int oagraphic and verbalstateme ntthat
can giveba sicdirection to thefulldevelopment ofthe
project.
Invention
David Pye wrote that invention "can only be done
deliberatel y, if the inventor can di scern simi larities
be tween the par ticular result which he is en visaging
and some other actual result which he has seen and
stored in his memory. ... An inventor' s power to
in vent de pends on his abi lity to see ana logies
betweenresults and, secondarily,on hisabi lity to see
them betwe en devices. "3 Theanalogiesar e easily rec-
\ognized in our everyday invent ions. Ifwe lack a ham-
'fIler to drive tent st akes into the ground, we gain an
Insight to the solution by seeinga tentpole sect ion or
a
\
rock at arm's length analogous to a hammer. Burrs
caught in she ep wool were the inspiration for Velcro
fasteners, and thecooling effectof the evaporation of
perspiration from ourskin is the basis of the idea of
Figure8- 5 Evaporatio n.
usingsemiporouscontainers to keep water cool.
14 2 Disc overy
1
- 0
Again, using th e exam ple of the re crea t iona l
house, we can sketch out a ba sic approach to inven-
tion in architect ur e. Th e starting point is the abstract
diagram of the program for the house. Thi s leads to a
choice of one image of a house, namely a container
th at ho lds people. Almost si multaneous with t he
house image we have an ana logous image, the
pi tche r, as a container of liquids. In the fourth sket ch,
the ideagra m, the house program, and the image of
the pitcher ar e combined to form a specific discovery
of how the re cr ea tional house might take shape. In
this example, the ho use is also see n as a conta iner of
energy, admitting solar en er gy through a hole in the
top simi lar to the hole in the top of the pitcher. The
concep t for the house could be formed fr om thi s idea-
gram or the analogy could be extended f urt her
through observations suc h as : the on ly entry into the
pit cher is thr ough the top, so perhap s the major ent ry
into the house could be via a stair dropping into th e
cent ral court. Because the pitcher is su pported as a
canti lever fr om its handle when picked up , maybe
the house cou ld al so be cantilevered fr om support s Figure 8-6 Analogy bet ween a house and a pit cher of water.
on one side.
Pursuing anot he r analogy, house as ca mpsi t e,
might lead to the images of campfire, hear th , and
gatheri ng in a circle. Each of these images can be the
inspiration for an alt ernat ive concept for the ho us e
for m.
The Discovery Process 14 3

I T"11--r
'\
--1
0
0
00
0 6
0
()
f nvrl"<;;
C.V07 -:;'
Analogies
In hi s book Sy nectics: Th e Development of Creative
Capacity, Will iam Gordo n described fo ur types of
analogy: symbolic, direct, personal, and fantasy.
The example of the pitcher and the house as con-
tainers is a sym bolic analogy, a comparison between
general qualit ies of the two objects. Other symbolic
analogies might be made between the sp read of a
hand and the extensions of a house or betwe en foot-
prints and canopied pavi lions, which loosely cons ti-
t ut e th e house. One of the most pr ominent examples
is the analogy between the Latin cross an d the plan s
of ma ny Got hic chur ches.
Dire ct analogy compa res pa rallel facts or opera-
tions . In the examples opp osite, the house is designed
to have the same cooling characte ri stics as a tree:
shade, evapora tion , and air movement. And the roof
supports for Nervi' s exhibition hall emulate a hand
balan cing a tray.
In a personal an alogy, far right , the designer ide n-
tifies hims elf directly wit h the elements of the prob-
lem. Assuming that the prime consideration for this
house is wa rmt h and comfo rt on wi nter days wit hout
large uses of no nr enewable energy sources, the
desig ner might imagine himsel f to be the house. To
ma ke himself comf or table, he might lie clos e to the
ground below the ridge so the cold wind ca n pass
over his head. This can be trans lated into a low -pro -
file house below the ridge with trays of space covered
by sloped glass skyl ights to admit th e war m rays of
the sun. When we want to be heard at a distance, we
cup ou r hands to our mouth. The exterior chape l at
LeCor bus ier 's pi lgrimage ch urch at Ronchamp
adop ts similar cuppe d shapes to proje ct the priest' s
voice toward the con gregat ion.
Figure 8-7 Symbolic analogies.
144 D iscovery
(a)
(b) (b)
Figure 8-8a, b Direct analogies. Figure 8-ga, b Personal analogies.
The D iscovery Process 145
(a)
CLoSed
reV\
The fourth type, fantasy analogy, uses a descrip-
tion of an ideal condition desired as a source for
ideas. In the case of our recreational house, the
designer might fantasi ze about a house that opens
itself up when the client arrives on theweekendand
automatically closes up when the cli ent leaves. It
could be compared to a tul ip that opens an d closes
withtheactionof sunlight, an automaticgaragedoor,
or a puppet that comes aliv e when you pick up the
strings. The de cksand the roofs over thede cks could
be like the leaves of the tulip. But how do they open
and close? A motor is another energy cons umer ; is
thereanotherway?How can thepuppetstrings help?
The final solution uses ropes andpulleys to raise and
lower the flaps. The system is balanced so that the
weightof a personon thede ckscanpull up the roofs,
and the dropping of the roofs could pull th e decks
back up . Thede cks and roofs would be held in both
openand closed positions by spring lat ches.
~
~
I
J
I
I
/
/
.;'
;'
.........
<,
-,
\
'\
\
/"
(b)
Figure 8-l0a, b Fantasyanalogies.
14 6 D iscovery
61Yvdura.\
ORG-AN\C
ANALOGIES
CULTURAL
ANAlOG-I E6
Figure 8-11 Eight different types of analogy based on a hierarchy of systems.
Sources of Analogy
Th e possibl e models fro m which to draw ana logies
can be classified by categories as physical, organic, or
cultural, and th e su bcategories incl ude:
1. Structural- Referring to shape or rela tionship.
2. Mechanical- T he way something operates.
3. Control-Maintain ing a condition.
4 . Plant-Goal orientation and di ffer entiat ion.
5. Animal- Behavior.
6. Man- Imaginati on and choice.
7. Society-Inter action , competition, organization.
8 . Symbolic-Conventions, references , suggesti on.
Of ten architects or designers limit their th inking
to structural or me ch anical analogies . The samples of
the ran ge of an alogy types, shown above, should sug-
gest some altern atives.
Increasing Effectiveness
We have all exper ienced times whe n our minds
appeare d fr oze n with a singl e thought that doesn't
seem goo d eno ugh or is unable to solve a cr itical
problem. A few spe cific approach es that might help
thinking get moving again ar e shown on the follow-
ing pages.
The Discovery Process 147

-

r
];
Ir-U t{s 0vre
Doov/ Tabl e
4 (M" heat " L N'0kt
o
Figure 8-12 Examples of eolit hic design.
Eolithic Design Some times designe rs suc cumb to
what Rober t McKim calls "functional fixedness," the
"tendency to sort objects into inde libly labeled con -
tai ner s."" As a result , th ey are unable to see t heir
pr oblem in any other light ; kit chens or bedrooms, for
example, are seen as having a single use. One cure for
this di fficulty is eol ithi c, or found-object design ; the
normal use of an object is disregar ded in favor of a
new use. Examples incl ude barr els of water used for
heat storage, trees used as scul pt ur e inside a house,
do ors used as counters. The coun te r and storage
set up of the ki tch en coul d be used as a mode l for a
stud io or ot he r workspace, an d the bedroom mi ght be
converted int o a dining or lounging space. The found-
obj ect ap proach can also be used with ideagrams; the
binoda l or ganiza tion of a typi cal shopping cen ter
mi ght be used in a hou se to generate more movement
and interaction.
Escape Sometimes j ust getting away from the
probl em is enough to loosen the mind and open fresh
views of t he project. Escape can ta ke t he form of
diver sion s suc h as en ter tai nment , spor ts, or games; it
can also be simply rest ' and relaxation, or "sleepi ng"
on the problem.
Random Thoughts Even when not actually wo rk -
ing on a problem, our subconscious minds are often
still trying to solve the problem. Then suddenly we
get an idea or an answer to the design pr oblem. Some
designers have these insights j ust as th ey are going to
sleep or upon waking. It is import ant to wr ite or
sketch the se ideas before th ey are lost. For this rea-
son, many architects carry small notebooks with
th em or keep paper and pe n han dy near their beds or
othe r places of relaxation.
Sense Awareness Working in a predo minantl y
vi su al medium can somet imes lead to ignoring t he
othe r senses and may cut a designer off from a large
number of sources for analogies. If we thi nk of a
house as bei ng soft as a pillow in a box, it might lead
to t he use of curvi linear parti tions . Comparing a
house to a mus ica l instrument could result in a me tal
roof to catch the sound of th e ra in or some way to
amplify the sound of a breeze.
'01100 WI .:1: box Avvtf lttiWttlOYl
Figure 8-13 Concepts based on senses ot her than vision.
If th is discuss ion of th e use of ana logies seems too
si mplistic, remember the gr eat architect s of this cen -
tury. Wright , LeCorbusier, a nd Aalt o used simple
anal ogies as a source for many of t heir inven tions:
Geoffrey Broadbent comments:
Most architect s-and ar tists- are ex tremely reluctant
to admit the sources of their analogies. They think
that such admissions would some how diminish one 's
respect for their creativity; but far from it-they will
merely confirm that they have brai ns and me ntal
processes, which every other human being possesses .
Our respect {or them, in fact , might increase if they
admitted that, given the same me ntal processes, they
are able to make bett er use o] them. " 5
Broa dbent goes on to describe a numbe r of analo-
gies that LeCorbusier used in his work, an d observes
that he spent
.. ,a lifetime building up a store of analogies (his
years of sketching being particularly fruit ful). The
analogies had become fundame ntal to his experience,
absorbed, compared, contrasted, combine d, overlaid
by later experience, and changed by new perceptions;
but they were there to be called on, and faced with a
difficult design problem, LeCorbusier could draw on
them. We too have our stores of analogies, not per-
haps as rich as Letlorb usier's, but valuable neve rthe-
less, because they are personal. Yet we fail to draw
on them. It never occurs to us; they do not seem rele-
van t and ins tead of that, we content ours elves by
drawing analogies with ot her people 's work . "6
148 Discovery
Concept Formation
The basic concept, s o m m ~ s referredto as thepatti,
is an enduri ng mechanism used by architectural
designers to establish th e fundamenta l organization
of a building and guide the enti re process of design
devel opment. The parti,at its best, pr ovides:
1. The first synthesis of the designer ' s re sponse to
th e determinant s of for m (program, obj ectives,
context, site, economy, etc.).
2. A boundary around the set of decisions that will
be the focus of the designer ' s responsibility.
3. A map for fut ure de sign activities in the form of a
hierar chyof values andresponding forms.
4 . An image that arouses expectations and provides
mo tivat ion for all persons involved in the design
pr oces s. This is oft en done through the use of
abs tr act ions. ("My buildi ng is a sp ine " or "Our
building bridges this gap.")
Thetypicalpartisketch, like theoneon the leftby
a fifth-year thesis student , shows both t he det er mi-
nants and t he basic resolution of the form. In this
example, the sketc h of a floating research station in
the Atl antic Oce an ill us trates the vertical pontoons
secured by cables, supporting a mult ilevel pl atform.
The basic interaction with water, wind, and sun is
also indicated.
The Ideagram
The sket ches t hat have already been described as
flowing from analogies, known as ideograms, ar e t he
starting point for concept formation. Ideagrams are
extensionsof analysis diagramsthatcan be used as:
1. An aid to invest igat ion and sy nthesisin thedes ign
process.
2 . A fra mewor k in the de sign thinking process that
leads to thefin al de sign product.
3. A literal model of the fina l product. In architec-
tur e this is referredto as concept ual clarity in the
building.
4 . An explanati on ofa design con cept afterthe build-
ingdesign has been completed.
To show some of the potenti als of the ideagram
for develop ing design concepts, I have drawn three
st ages ofevol ution ofan ideagram in the fir stcolumn
to the right. For each stage, there is a schematic
de sign for a building in th e next column. Shown in
Ideagram 1 an d Design 1 is a literal tr anslation of the
ideagram in to a building for m. This approach has a
clear and forceful impact on the user; the effect is
simple an d dramati c. In Ideagram 3 and Des ign 3, a
building form is be ing de rive d from a mo re complex
ideagram. The resulting buildin g may lack t he sim-
plicity or initial impact of the first building, but in
turn it mayoffera greater vari et y of exp er iences.
Figure 8-14 By Mark Sowatsky. Partisket ch. Atlantis2.
Figure 8-15 (left) Threelevelsofdevelopmentofanideagram.
Figure8-16 (right) Correspondingschematicplansforthe
ideagrams.
The Discovery Process 149

,tn:t =

I Ii.. r

/ . .... "

...... ....
_ i I ,,\
OfiM -6ttt
Figure 8-17a Willitts House 1902, Wright architect.
Prototypes
As wit h other des ign ski lls, concept formation need
not be a mysterious process developed solely through
trial and error. There is a lot to be learn ed from archi-
tects who are highly skilled at molding concepts, and
here again sketches can be an importa nt aid. On the
next pages ar e examples of analytica l sketches and
abstract concept-getti ng techniqu es from the work of
several architects.
The first examples are from the wor k of Frank
Lloyd Wright. In the hou ses known as the Prairi e
Style, he us ed a bas ic plan of interl ock ing spaces
domi nated by a cent ral hearth with an el ab orate,
indirect route of entry. Alth ough the basic organiza-
ti onal parti remai ned constant , Wri ght ' s careful
response to the un iqu e constraints of each site pro-
duced a wide variety of bui lding forms. As designers
of houses, we can try to us e Wright' s basic parti or
develop our own prototype plan and manipulate it in
res ponse to specific sit e con ditions.

Figure 8-17b Che ney Ho use 1904, Wright architect .
I .
I
I "
I "
I
'--
.."
." . . .. "" '[1 It . . , . . ' . ' .
61te
Figure 8-l7c Hardy House 1905, Wright architect.
150 D iscovery
'[Jr-----4
It( ar-
IlJ\ t\
170x
Figure 8-18a Prototype concepts developed by Alvar Aalto.
In th e course of his career , Alva r Aalto de veloped
a number of archetypes for buildings noted for their
incorporat ion of mul tipl e gr ids or geometries. Some
of these arche types are shown here in abs tract form.
The ti tles are one way of simplifying and remember-
ing the di fferent partis. You can use your own method
of categor ization, but it does seem helpful to be abl e
to attach a one- or two-word label. Many of Aalt o's
concepts seem to be deri ved from the acceptance of
two contrasting con texts withi n one building, as in
th e combinati on of urban and rural se tt ings in the
town center at Saynat salo.
One of these archetypes could provide a starting
point for the design of the recreat ional house, or we
could follow Aalto' s approach to devel oping partis by
look ing for the double co ntext in our project and
evolving our own multiple geometries. Beyond thi s, a
number of oth er va riations shoul d show up as more
sket ches are generat ed.
Figure 8-18b Some applications of the prototypes.
The D iscovery Process 151

A-ddrhve
Box

1. La RcGh( et JeaVlneret
1.. .
WttV\tl e e


5, Vdk\ 4. <Savo-::J e
Fi gure 8-19a Four house concepts by LeCorbusier.
LeCor busier was probably the most productive
archite ct ural inventor of the twentieth century. His
inventions ha ve filled many books , which I re com-
mend you read. Rough ly between 1922 a nd 1932,
LeCor busier design ed four ho uses, each based on a
different concept of a bui lding. The se were Maison
La Roche (additive ), Villa Savoye (su btractive), Villa
at Gar ches (clos ed cube ), and th e Villa at Carthage
(open skeleton). When LeCor busier illustra ted and
wrote about these four approaches to a building, he
had built houses as examples. But this way of gene r-
ating a building parti extends beyond ho using in its
potential utility.
Also shown opposite are app licat ions of these par-
tis to our sa mple house so you ca n see how to
incr ease the number of concepts formed within the
limits of a single project.
1 I. . . . 1
1
i ' I
: I- - :3:
II \1 fJ . :
I
r. . I
L ------ --'
- C4!rTh<Jt,,"$h F
L,h--tWYj
o
(v'l lJ0(! UW\
Figure 8-19b Applications of t he concepts.
152 D iscovery
1-siJ
Figure 8-19c Applicat ions of the concept s.
The D iscovery Process 153
of=
rv'-ACH INE..p



1(ooywb

f?o6vY16
6>e{-W(lh
R06L'Y\6




Q
0Cl
Llnkta
/1
1. 1- \.-?
14
ITIJ t=a1

r\D-
ooe

'l .\ '2.'2..
'2.'3;;
z.4
2D

CiJ
rQr

Coy! ?\
3,'2. '7.::-



-

4.1
Eill

---------
4.2

4 .4
[ 1

L
QJ
I :1

@
I 1



W lV'l
EkE
6.1
Ej
5.1-
8J1
63
J
J;.4


t:: "cetyl
[0 OJ
Co .l
1-oJ
G,.'2
[]J
G, 3
[]
<;.4

Figure 8-20 Mat rix of 24 alternat ive house organizations based
on concepts developed by Moore, Allen, and Lyndon
In their book The Place of Houses, Charles Moore,
Do nlyn Lyndo n, and Ge ral d Allen explai n six differ-
ent wa ys to organize rooms in a ho use and fou r dif-
fer ent ways to incorporate machi nes (by whi ch they
mean wet and se rvice cores) int o houses. In the cha rt
abov e, I have constructed a matr ix relating their two
lists of alte rnatives to prod uce 24 al ternative prot o-
154 Discovery
typ es. There are a number of other lists t hat catego-
rize ways of organizing buildings; these could also be
placed in a matrix to generate ad dition al alt ernatives.
On the faci ng page, some of the prototypes are devel-
op ed into concepts for a house on our site, within t he
constraints of th e specific bu ildi ng program.
Fi gure 8-21a Three organizations of t he recreational house derived from t he mat rix.
Fi gure 8-21b Spatial implications of one of t he house
organizations.
The Dis covery Process 155
-\aJpll r C\

In -It>
-tM "5DC{p.-\ I "


VleM.>$

v'S
-

.>
1i4L----7
---7

t4,

I 1
<.i., T
.

Fi gure 8- 22
PatternLanguage
For several years, a group at the University of
California/Berkeley,headed by Christopher Alexander,
has been workingwith a met hod of generating build-
ing designs, called pattern language. Basically, it is an
approach that const r ucts concepts for a building by
combiningpr otot ypes for smallerpa rtsofthe building.
The work ing tool is a hierarchy of prototypes: areas
th at combine to make rooms, that combine to make
buildings, that combine. to make communi ti es, that
combine to make urban complexes, and so on. Pattern
language appears to be less a prescription for the per-
fectly designed environmentthan aconvenientformat
for formulating design concepts. Any designer is free
to suppl y his own prototyp es, although there is cer-
tainly merit in sharingworkableprototypes.
Application of the pattern language approach, on
thesimplestleve l, to our house projectmighttake the
following form:
1. Based on past experience,wewould startwit h an
array of prototypes for di ffe re nt spaces fr om
which would be sele cte d those th at seem most
app ro priate for th is proj ect . The prototype dia-
grams are quite simple,withshortverbal identifi-
cations for ea se of ident ification and manipula-
tion.
2. The diagr ams ar e combined into a patt ern that
re prese nts a summary of th e building elements
and shows an over all idea of the building.
3. The pattern is now manipulated to respond to the
speci fi c site context and special needs of the
client.
At a more sophisticated level of application,
ill us t ra ted on th e facing page, space prototypes or
pa tt ernsare more speci fic andori ented toward three-
dimens ion al experience. The character of the space
be comes a foc al po int for the ide ntit y of the pr oto-
type. Representational skills, di scu ssed in Chapter 3,
ar e obviousl y a he lp here.
I ha ve found two useful ways of coll ecting pa t-
ternsand us ing them in design:
The Building Type Notebook-An idea for a space is
illustrated on an S'/z-by- ll she et of pape r. These
sheets are kept in a thr ee-ring binderand us ed as
a referen ce book for fut ureprojects.
A nalysis Cards- Patt ern s ar e recor ded on small cards
similar to the on es described in Chapter 4. These
can be filed by su bject , ready to be pulled out for
a specificdesign task.
Wh ether using cards or standard-size sheets, it is
hel pfulto havea common format.The basicinforma-
ti on include s a simple statementof theprogrammati c
need and cont ext ("dining spac e in a townhouse
apart ment "); a concise verba l an d graphic statement
of a prot otypical response to t he ne ed ; a more
det ailed de scripti on of the prototype or di scussion of
the pa ttern th at is re corde d on the back ofthe card or
sheet.
156 D iscovery
,-- - - - -
Plnl"3 H'\
C\AA 1I,.Jen or- r0ovY1 Icrf; Cl""h-fbd
Ilfl W <t e>-P exp:wc\
Fi gure 8- 23
Whe n the desig ner is formu lat ing concepts for the
buildi ng design , he spreads the collection of relevant
cards or sheet s on a table or wa ll. Patterns or mini -
concepts are then grouped as possible combinations
and observed, but the designer must go beyond a sim-
pl y addit ive pr ocess, In describing "pa ttern lan-
guag e, " Chris topher Alexa nder explained that "It is
possi ble to put patt erns togeth er in such a way that
many, many pa tterns overl ap in the same physical
space : the buildi ng is ve ry dense ; it has many me an-
ings capt ured in a small space; an d through this den-
sity, it becomes pr ofo und."7 To ac hi eve this sort of
synthesis, or "compression," of pa tt erns, the graphic
think ing process can be applied, usi ng cards or a cl ip-
boa rd to turn ove r ideas as one scans th e display of
patterns.
The D iscovery Process 157
' 1 2 - 8 a J n ~ J
Figure 8-2 6
CASESTUDIES
Examples of ideagrams develo ped into concept s for
the recreat ional house case st udy ar e shown her e.
The ideagrams, as you will recognize, are taken from
th e analyses of need , context, and for m in Cha pter 6
(ana lysis), fr om Chapte r 7 (expl oration), and fr om
this chapter. In for ming the concep ts, ideas derived
fr om on e source are reworked to respond to othe r
concerns. Prototypes, for example, are adju ste d to fit
th e site, or site-generat ed ideas ar e made to resp ond
to th e buil ding program. Variations on this ap proach
ar e illustrated in ad di ti on al ca se stu dies on t he fol-
lowing pages.
Case Studies 159
0 9 1
s c - s a J n ~ J
a - g a J n ~ J
,
)
r,
V l ~
~ ~
; \ ~
~ ~ ~ ~
.~
Fi gure 8-29 By Leonardo da Vinci . Studies of a temporaty structure for fest ivals.
The graphic t hi nking sketches that archi tects have
use d provide evidence of the appl ication of ana logy
in their design process. Often these sketches are ve ry
small in order to pursue many di fferent analogies on
th e same piece of pa per. This permi ts the designer to
work loosely and entertai n all sor ts of ideas; orig inal
trains of thought are recorded and can be returned to
at wil l. Combining images derived from sketches can
also generate furth er var iations.
Fi gure 8-30 By LeCorbusier. Images for the Philips' Ele ct ronic
Poem.
Case Studies 161
9 Verification
W
it hin t he realm of arc hi tectura l design,
verification re fers to t he us efu lnes s of a
design conceptfor a spe cific prob lem. The
ultimate means of veri fying the utili ty ofa
buildin g design is a firsthand eval uati on after th e
building has been con st r ucted and occupied.
However, postoccupancy evaluat ion woul d be of no
help to the many deci sions mad e in th e process of
designing and building . Therefore, architec ts us ua lly
go t hr ough a sor t of prever ification process. Wit hin
th is context of pret esting design con cepts, the utilit y
of the ver ification mode of grap h ic t hinking lies in
moving from abstract images to the more complete,
concrete images of the design concept.
Verifica tion can be described as a cycl ical process
producing images th at are increasin gly specific or
con cr et e. For example, the image of a she lte ring roof
is con ver ted into a low, long-span hi p roof , late r hav-
ingexpose d wood trusses,and then toa spe cific color
with wood shingles. The other prog ression of images
is from larger to sma ller parts of a building. One of
the keys to quality design is the amount of atte ntion
given to the relati onship of part s,from the buildi ngas
. a who le to th e most de tailed level. Eliel an d Eer o
Saar ine n were said to beli eve that t he su ccess of any
part of a building design lay in the stu dy of t he next
sma ller and next larger buil ding elements ; design of a
good room required the study of the furni ture andof
the bui lding as a whol e.
The model I use to explain the cycl ical process of
ver ifica tion is shown on th e facing page. There are
four bas ic stages:
1. Articulation-The design image is extended
th rough representational sketc hes of alterna tive
expressions of t he concept.
2 . Evaluation-The alternati ve expressions of th e
design con cept are test ed against a se t of cr iteria
that represen ts a desirable performa nce.
Evaluations of t he altern atives are thencompared.
3. Consolidation- The evaluation process usu ally
generates a great amount of us ef ulinformation in
addition to the de cision about alternat ives. Th e
purpose of consolidation is to try to incorporate as
many good ideas as possi ble into the chosen
sc heme.
4. Elaboration-Having mad e a des ign decision at a
new level of detail, t he images now show t he
designer a whole new set of con cerns fro m which
he must form new des ign concepts. At this point,
the recycl ing process is ready to sta rt again wit h
art icul ati on of the new concepts.
Througho ut the ver ificat ion process, the ch oice of
images must be deli berat e if the designer is to ma in-
tain cont rol ov er design dev elopment. Simply put,
you can 't j udge the per for mance of somet hi ng you
can' t see. As Kirby Lockard put it, "If the concept is
to provide any part icular ki nd of spa tial or kines-
theti c experience , th en th e re presentative drawings
must be eye-leve l perspectives. Concepts th at are
based on some desired rel a tionship to t he phys ical
contex t must be represented in pe rspectives of that
context if their success or fai lure is to be evaluated.
Concepts t hat are based on pa rticu lar relationships to
th e human figur e might be be st represent ed in sec-
tions that show those rel at ion ships. Any design solu-
tion is best st udied and evaluated with t hose draw-
in gs which best show t he succ ess or failure of it s
concept ual bas is." I And, therefore, it is necessar y for
the designer to have a wide ra nge of sketching sk ills,
from abst ra ct to concrete , from loose to met iculous,
and to understa nd th e specialpot enti al s of the differ-
ent images those ski lls pr oduce.
16 3
far+tO
4;-- Vltl.{}?

--fLX1Ut"f

Figure 9-3a Three alternative expressions of the perspective.
r1aV\
t1DD" 2M 1100\'"
1.:
Figure 9-3b Three alternat ive expressions of t he plan.
I {J(dw
iJrud-urf
:t=rool'" VYlcdtJ.e
"Z.o Vl lMf1
f'tl' F'rlit'Vl
/ - -f>C1XI<

Fi gure 9-3c Th ree alternative expressions of the section.

7ed LOVi
Fig ure 9-2 Aparti and three different forms of its articulation.
164 Verification
ARTICU LATION
To get a feel for the range of images that are used to
ar ti culat e a concep t , the three sket ches shown in
Figure 9-2 address some fea ture of the desi gn con-
cept. Th e qualiti es or charac teristics ill ustrated are
noted for each sketch. In Figur es 9-3a, b, and c, th ree
alt ernative expre ss ions are develope d for ea ch
ske tch.
A number of other implications of the design con -
cept are arti culated in Figur e 9-4. The y incl ude such
concerns as massing, scale, imagery, color, const ruc-
tion, flexi bility, maintenance, territ or ialit y, and com-
for t. Although th e experienced designer may not
need to look at all of these conce rn s with in a given
projec t, creat ive arc hitects often use a specific project
context to reexamine accepted de sign norms.
Articulation 165
I I I _
-
-
" -
-
Need
CoVlt l)(f ro\'1'Y\
t:q
lJ
ttl!j

Fi gure 9-5a Figure 9-5b Figure 9-5c
-.J
L
-,
I
Figure 9-5d
EVALUATION
The definition of evaluation, placing a value on some-
thing, implie s that th ere exists a set of values to
whi ch the evalua tor refers. When evaluat ing a
design, we use design cr iteria to represent these val-
ue s. The first con cern of des ign cr iteria should be
comprehensi ve, cove ring all as pects of th e design
problem. For convenienc e, I have used as a model the
house design problem described earlier. Criteria are
deliberat ely developed under each of the three cate-
gorie s of need, context , and form, and a chart, such
as the one in Figure 9-6, is construct ed to assure that
we look at the de sign concept from every angle.
The second concern of design cri teria is how and
whose val ues th ey re present. Whe n designi ng a
building, de cisions are usuall y made on the basis of
competing sets of value s held by the cl ient, the
desi gner , the in tended user, and even society (in the
form of customs or regulations). In addition to show-
ing an arr ay of cr iteria, a bal ance of values can be
Figure 9-5e
re cogni zed by the weighti ng of the cr iteria.
Differe nces in value s still have to be ne goti ated, but
th e de signer can at least illustrate the relationshi p
between va lues and the evaluation of a specific
de sign .
The third concern of design cri teria relat es to the
differences in the way we look at des ign ideas. Some
ar chitec ts ca n be sai d to be more conceptually or i-
ented; that is, the ir evaluati on is heavi ly influen ced
by such thi ngs as organization , consistency, and hier-
ar chy as they ar e reflected in pl ans and axonomet rics.
Perceptually oriented ar chit ects are more interested
in the direct exper ience of a person outside or inside
the buil ding. In my opinion , both concepti on and per-
ception are imp ortant to the experience of a building
and, therefor e, importa nt to the eva luation of design
concepts. The de signer must be aware of these two
orientat ions of de sign and try to take a balanced
approach to evaluat ion.
Evaluation 167
>

"
"-

st
o-@




<:::
....
";:5
0-



(jJ N
--->.
G--
@

CoMWlI.Jl')tll Sp::!Cf

@
fnvaOj
Z
tn
(!)


@


Onelrtt4LOI1
Cwcvlat 1011
ro
'\J

Etr.evg tJ CdJ'6e hja-r
0
Y!

ACCiWlOdetfWh
(!)
VIews
A CUf6 -Iz,
()
Q

tUldlVtg mvaCAj
Onevrf-ctflDI1
z
-\
m
x
-1
@
H-1er avchtj
@

Unrty /6l\l\l\ \? k .rty
0
@

@
6 C41t:
7'ij
$
@

MeMor-abk

"R<. j?r.tSSL6 V\ 0+' W
lA
cfl.d16
(a)
(b)
1-o -5v(r\
de
(c)
Figure 9-7a Evaluationofthree perspective alternatives.
Figure 9-7b Evaluation of t hree plan alternatives.
Fig ure9-7c Evaluationoft hreesection alternati ves.
Figure 9-6 Eva luation mat rix.
16 8 Verification


:',r\\

A chart, such as the on e opp osite, is used to com-
pare evaluations pf the al te rnatives (see the followi ng
page) . It lists design evaluation crite r ia under the
headings of need, cont ext , and for m. For ea ch head -
in g, t he criteria are listed in or der of impor tance,
starti ng from th e left , t herefore accountin g for priori-
ti es. Alte rnatives I , 2, and 3 are rated as provi di ng a
superior or average respo nse to each cri teri on; blank
ar eas indicate no specific response. This chart allows
an over all view of the success of each alt ernative.
Making notes d uring the processes of eva luat ing
and comparing th e alternatives is useful to furt her
understand th e st rengt hs and weaknesses of t hese
al ternati ves. In th is mann er, th e designer ca n often
identify the best ideas and expa nd on t hem with the
information discovered thro ugh t he display.
Evaluation 169
Cost Benefit
Ot he r examples of graphic images us ed to as sist
eval uation appear on t hese two pages. The dia gra m
sh own to t he r ight is an extension of anal ysis tech-
niq ues de velope d by the ar chitect u ra l firm of
Ca udi ll Rowlett Scott ." The relati ve si ze of building
areasand their approximate costs are shown side by
side, provid ing an overview of th e relati onship
be tween program needs and costs useful to bot h
cli ent and designer.
Figure 9-9 Theperspectiveasanevaluation
t ool.
. 11


Aof(17o, ill @]I ID
I
ElEi rn
t;]
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I
Oecb
I
I
III
I I
A(m
III

C0t

Figure9-8 Di splayofcost -benefit analysis.

')
-r I
I





_____t3......
"
"

r - --7

/
/
./
Fi gure 9-10 Concept ualsket chesasevaluationtools.
Drawing Evaluation
Perspect ives are so co mmonly used as selling tool s
th at an examination of the perspective ab ove might
help to emphasize its potential as an evaluation tool.
Here, the perspect ive is fir st rend ered without con-
scious att ention to the design of spa ce. The drawing is
now examined for cl ues to shor tcomings. This
approach is also appl ica ble to finishe d drawings by
professional renderers or even pictures of buildings
by professional photographers. Conceptual dr awings
can also be evaluated by red ucing them to ide agrams
that poin t up the clarity or consisten cy of th e design
concept.
170 Verificati on
CONSOLIDATION
As the evalu ation of alte rn atives helps us decide on
the best rou te, a range of good ideas an: un cover ed,
which t he designer t hen att empts to in corporate in
his final scheme. Many combinations ar e sketched as
the design is pull ed together, and even at the stage of
t he complet ed design , so me refinements are st ill
incorporated. The des igner se eks consist enc y in all
par ts of the desi gn . The end resul t is sketches that ar e
more specific as to dimension , sha pe , an d position.
r-----II)! I
Figure 9-11 Selecting useful ideas and combining t hem.
Consolidation 17 1
~ ~
I
r i l l
v ~
ElABORATION
Wit h the basic design decisions made an d cla rified,
pr eparation is under way for the next cycles of ver ifi-
cat ion. Decisions at one level of design op en up ma ny
pr oblems at ot her level s. For example, fixing the
de sign of a room ma kes it pos sible to study windows,
floo ri ng , mech ani cal syste ms, sto rage unit s, and a
number of special it ems such as fir eplace or so lar-
ium. Concepts for each of the parts are devel op ed
wi th in t he context of th e design of t he who le ro om.
But each concept in tu rn can be verified by repeat ing
th e me thods de scribed earl ier in thi s chapter.
Figure 9-13 Identifying parts for further developemt.
Fi gure 9-14 Developing det ails.
Elaboration 173
--
11 1 1
a! "II"!I !! II, \

'/
W
Details
At some point in designing, the archite ct mus t ass ur e
himself that the design concepts are realist ic by as k-
ing whether the pa rt s can be constructed. Will they
fit together? Detail sketches place the desi gn under a
sort of mi croscope. The sample sketches on th ese two
pages show, through the different vi ews, the im por-
ta nce of how somethi ng is put toget her and how it
sh oul d look. Addi tionally, the up -cl ose drawings or
sketches must show the context for the detail.

-
Pbh
lb
\

i--- -
11

[ffi
o
- 0--
-
1n\'V1



;;

?<;S
Figure 9-15 Developi ng det ails.
174 Verification
VERIFICATION AND EXPERIENCE
One of the advantages of expe rience in design is the
opport unity to ve rify design conc epts when the build-
ing is const r ucted. The designer accumulates a men-
tal st ore of th e concepts he has verified firsthand; he
knows what wor ks and what does n' t. In addition,
wit h a certain amount of con fiden ce, he can gen eral -
ize new concepts fr om w hat he has learned and
j udged. As a result , many decisions can be made
more qui ckly, facilitat ing t he de sign process.
However, an ability to judge ca n someti mes dete-
riorat e to th e level of habit , and the des igner ma kes
decisions be fore looking at t he design pr oblem. The
re peated use of specific concep ts, technol ogies, or
mate rials may lead to inappropriate preconceptions
for the given problem. Ma ny creative architects regu-
larly re test acc epted design conc epts; th ey are con -
stant ly looking at t heir ideas, testing them, and evolv-
ing new co ncepts.
More serious is t he use of concepts deve loped by
other s wi thout a thorough understanding of the ir ori-
gin and derivation . This may oft en be a su bconscious
effect of a designer ' s exposure to existing prototypes
an d influences. The large ove r ha ngi ng eaves of Fra nk
Lloyd Wright's Pra irie sc hoolhouses have been imi-
tated widely to t he point of be co ming a cl iche. The
typical app lication of these eaves to subur ban houses
I I II
UlJ.
/
Q . ~ <;)
0
1f1I nBE
IT rrn ~
I
\ ~ . r ,
~ MA-f>-Tl tJ-SoN ~ ce.
I
f
>-- 0
r t---
Figure 9-17a Mo dern movement cliches.
embodies l ittl e of th e rationale of th e original con -
cep t. Similar cl iches can be found wit hin both th e
Modern and Post-Modern mo vements. Typical com-
mercia l facade restorati ons seem the most suscep ti-
ble to th e use of these cliches.
Fi gure 9-16
" " 11.
~ ~ ~
fl/llj)
I
~
Figure 9-17b Post-Modern movement cliches.
Verification and Experience 1 75
COMMUNICATION
CLIENT
BUILD
CONTRACTOR
~ ~ ~ --------, c--- - - ~ ~ - ---
USERS
MANAGEMENT
FINANCE
LEGALAFFAIRS
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
SALES
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
LAND DEVELOPER
REALTOR
BUILDING MANAGER
ANTHROPOLOGIST
SOCIOLOGIST
PLANNER MANUFACTURERS
LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECT
INDUSTRIAL
DESIGNER
COST SURVEYOR
ARCHITECT
MECHANICAL
ENGINEER
SUPPLIERS
CONTRACTOR
SUBCONTRACTORS
CONSTRUCTION
MANAGER
CONSTRUCTION
SUPERVISOR
ELECTRICAL
ENGINEER
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEER
CONSULTANT
l-.. __. , ,_ _ ~ _
BUILDING SYSTEM
DEVELOPER
CONSTRUCTION
FINANCE
CODE ENFORCEMENT
Figure 10-1 Participants in architect ural design and building processes.
I

10 Process
n t his section , we consider th e current and
fu ture impa ct of communi cation on design activ-
ities. Our goal is a bett er understandin g of th e
processes ofdesign communication and theinte-
gra l role of graphic thi nkin g sk ills in indi vidual,
team, and pub lic des ign con texts.
Itis clear that our profession is undergoing a rev-
olut ion involving fundamental cha nge and funda-
me ntal continuity. Ar chitect ur e has tradi tional met h-
od s tha t are impor tant to envi ronmental probl em
solving, but th e scope of recognized environmental
problemsis expa nding rapidl y. There are two ev ident
choices : expand th e co ncept of the pro fessi on to
encompass th e full scope of emerging needs, or
ac hieve a new unity of professional ac ti vi ty under
anothe r label like environmental design. Eit her way,
these changes call for the reassessment of communi-
ca tion in de sign processes.
Changes in th e processes of designing and build-
ing are immedia tel y evide nt. More acto rs are
involved at allstages andthese actors are part of, and
theref ore infl uenced by, ot her professional or busi-
nes s contexts. The ma nufac tu rer must look beyo nd
any single buildi ng or de velopment for his on goi ng
conc ern s ab out mar keting, production, and su ppl ies.
The zoning board mus t consi der a bui lding proje ct
within the context of an on goingprocess of med iating
publ ic and pr ivate interests in the use of land.
Three important conditions for design are overly-
ing th is complex network of ac tors and acti vi t ies .
1. Change in the concept of clients to incl ude build-
ing usersand/ or the public.
2. Expan sion of t he de si gn team to incl ud e cli ents,
contr actor s, manufacturer s, res earchers, and oth-
ers as t he project requires.
3. Incr eas e in t he number and comp lexity of the
concerns t hat s ha pe th e design and building
processes.
This presen ts a new set of foreseeable chall enges
in three different desi gn contexts.
1. Individual- Th e cha lle nge of develop ing an ability
to communicate rapidly wit h our selves on
incr eas ingly complex problems in a way t hat
accepts their complexit y while tryi ng to see t hem
in comprehensive, systemi c terms.
2. Team-The challe nge of communica ting to mo ti-
vate,to sharegoals,and to bringthe fullest impa ct
of each team member 's expertise an d concern s on
the problems.
3. Public- T he chall enge of de veloping commun ica-
tion methods t hat cross the boundaries of tradi-
ti onal prof essi onal langu age to allow t he pub lic
equal ac cess to th e designing and building
process. Itis my belief t hat grap hic thinking will
be a major asset in meeting these communication
ch allenges, if we ar e willing to de velop the neces-
sary skills.
Fig ure 10-2 Interaction of the design teammembers.
179
f--



f-
XhtMaTlG

frtll VV\ 1Y\tu'8

I--
UM&frvchOh
I--

!7eve





?mblem
vtthr'."l -?LledID\'I u".",u.,ar/lon] H
A!-ttrntthVetJ Alternafl\}R6 VeflV\ rtlot')
Figure10-3 Design project and problem-solving processes.
A DESIGN PROCESS
Regardl ess of what is being desi gned or who is
involved in designingit,thereisa common objective:
translat ing the client's program into a specific bu ild-
ing or another response to his needs.In architec tural
pr act ice thi s nor mally involves the following steps:
building progr am , sche matic design , p reliminar y
desi gn , design de velopmen t , cont ract document s,
shop drawings , construction. At each of these st eps,
t he problems t hat must be solved require of t he
designer an effect ive problem-solving process. Th ere
ar emanygood modelsfor problem-so lvingprocesse s.
I pr efer the followingfive-s tep model:
1. Problem defini tion- Identifyi ng the specifi c limits
of th e pro ble m to be solved. Then t he various
par ts of the problem are ana lyze d to deter mi ne
need s, constrain ts, and resour ces. Finally, t he
design er sets up specific design obje ctives .
2 . Developing al ternatives- Th e desig ner examin es
existing and new solutions and develops several
vi abl e alternati ves.
3 . Evaluation-Design eva luat ion cr iteria are adopted
on the basis of t he desi gn objecti ves. Then t he
alterna tive solut ions are ra ted usi ng th e design
criteria.
4. Selection- Based on th e results of th e eva lua tion,
one alternative is selec ted. If no on e alte rn ative is
clear ly supe rior, two or more soluti on s may be
combine d. In eit he r case, the chosen alte rn ative is
usually furt her modified with some of the more
successful pa rts of the ot he r solutions.
5. Communication- The finalsolution to the problem
must be described in such a way as to make it
usable for the next stage ofdesign.
This mode l is not as complex as it mightseem ini-
tially. Take an example fro m th e preliminary design
stage:
1 . The spe cific problem is t he enclosur e of a living
space for a hou se. Needs incl ude views, aircirc u-
lation, sun control , and access to the exterior.
Constraints incl ude the overall plan and orien ta-
tion of t he house, the position of elements in the'
living space, and the cl imati c conditi ons impa ct -
in g on the space. Among t he resour ces ar e th e
constructi on technique, material s, and encl osure
p rototypes. The specific des ign objectives ar e:
provi de a panora mic view of the southwest whil e
seated by the fireplace; shield t he room from the
intense summer sun, es pecially from the west ,
but allow th e winter sun to penet rate and heat
most of the area; provi de for ea sy access to the
exterior deck; assure security of th e areaat ni ght.
2. The alternatives develop ed a re a conventional
arrangementof windowsand a door ;slidingdoors
wit h a roll -down prot ective door ; a glazed wall
with a sun scr een.
3. Comparing t he alternative s, the sun screen pro-
vides t he best co ntr ol of ligh t but obscures the
vi ew; the conve ntional arr angemen t allows a view
bu t does not cont rol the sun or provide nightt ime
sec ur ity. The roll -down door provides security but
do es not contr ol t he sun.
4. The roll-down door is selected bu t wit hout floor-
to-cei ling glazing , an d a part ial scr een is used to
control the sun.
5. To make a final decision before the desi gn can
proceed to the next stag e, all th e impo rt ant
sketches of th e enclosuremust be completed.
180 Process
Figure 10- processes. 4 An application of the pro blern -solvinq
A Design Process 181
INCcMING-



I I I 1

I I I ObS-e-rve. ] ! I
Figure 10-5 Design process models.
Communicati on in the Design Process
Each step in a design process is essentially a com mu-
nication task wher eby one type of de scription is con-
verted to another type ap propriat e to the next stage of
th e process. In schematic design , di agrams and text
describing the design problem are conve rted to
sketches th at describe possible designs in a manner
that p romotes de cision-making by the cli ent ; at
another stage, cont rac tors convert th e archite ct' s
detail design drawings into sh op drawings that
de scribe bui lding components and methods of as sem-
bl y. In the process of conve rti ng de scr iptions, t he
de signer ha ndles considerable amou nts of informa-
tion that suppor t thinking and deci sion-ma king .
In on e vi ew of these de sign processes, designers
manag e th e multi ple tas ks of in formation manage-



Fig ure 10-6 Process drawings.
ment th rough th e use of graphic communicat ion.
Inc oming infor mat ion is encoded in a short hand
grap hic language that permits th e designer to pr ocess
a wide ra nge of va riables and develop a conceptual
resol ution of the various issues. After processing the
information , it is decoded in a graphic and verbal lan-
guage appropriat e to communication to the next step
in the design process.
Another way to view desi gn communications is to
conside r desig n p rocess as es sentially a re ite ra tive
proces s of exp erimentation and obs ervation . In the
experimental mode, the des igner uses graphic lan -
gua ge that suppor ts t he op ening of new ar ea s for
exploration. In th e obse rvational mo de, the designer
uses drawings or diagr ams that suppor t understand-
ing and evaluating the result s of experimentation.
18 2 Process

!
<fi
'"
.c,
"




FJ
'"
>
s:
'" -+-



- 5

J-

...<:>
-r
s:
'S
:::::

c:s

t

t7oner,., Clt lc De018V\
rYehMIV\Clrj Df:> \gV1
De0l.6V\ P.ev'elopi'Ylt'nt
Figure 10-7 Matri x diagram of relationships between stages of
the design project and different modes of graphic thinking.
APPLYING GRAPHIC THINKI NG
Although th e drawings that sum up each stage in the
de sign pr ocess vary from abst ra ct sketches at th e
beginni ng to the most spec ific hard-line drawings at
the end, th e thi nking process can be supported
throughout by the differ ent types of sketches pre-
sen ted in the previ ous chapt ers. The matrix ab ove
shows where the mode s of grap hic thinking ar e pri -
mari ly us eful. To th e ri ght ar e some examples of
sketches that could be used at each of the stages in
the design process.
Figure 10-8 Examples of sket ches at different stages of a design
project.
The following chapt ers consider some of the prac-
ti cal problems of creati ve th inking encountered by
people wit hi n th eir desig n contexts. I try to show
how some of the graphic thinking tools have bee n
help ful to architects and desi gners, but the real test of
the usefulness of these tools has to be made within
the context of the special des ign processes each of us
develops.
Applying Graphic Thinking 183

CONCEPTuAL
PeRCf: PflJAI-

ABsTf<.AGT (" I
pIAGRAMATIC TAT10NA1-
0!]OEJDCI

PRIVATE-
PUBLIC
Cof.,JCP(7TUAL
Pe.\<CE..'f'TUM..
CDJ.,lct<t;rg
t7IAG f?AMATl C. 'R{;'Pf<l::SE.NTA11DNAL N
'PUBLIC
Figure 10-9 Functions of graphics.
Graphic Thinking Options
In th is book we have disc ussed a va riet y of graphic
thinking skills and tools . The wor ld of visual commu-
nication offers th ese and other , yet to be di scovered,
di ve rse oppor t uni ties to suppor t design processe s.
Paul Stevenson Oles has ill ustra ted t he scope of
visual co mmunica tion as a field whose boundar ies
ar e identified by th e op posing extremes of four di ffer-
enti als: abst rac t -concrete, priva te-publ ic, concep -
tual - represen tational, and di agrammatic- perceptual.
A va riation of Oles' diagra m shows types of gra phics
th at ar e most common , used to some exte n t , or
under utilized. Concept ual an d abs trac t graphics are
found mostl y in th e private real m of the de si gn er's
th inking process; these for m a grap hic shor thand tha t
suppor ts t he rapid pa ce of design speculati on and
enables the j uggling of an extens ive set of variabl es ,
Conc re te and representational gr aphics ar e fou nd
most ly in the public real m, wher e the specific res ults
of desi gn de cisions must be cl ea rly illu st rat ed. Th er e
has been some use of diagrammat ic grap hics in the
abstract , conc ept ual processes and the ap plication of
perceptua l gr aphics such as per spectives to concrete,
represent ational tas ks. But we are on ly be ginning to
explore th e potential use of pe rceptual graphics in th e
mor e pr ivate desi gn pr oc esses and th e use of dia-
gr a mmati c lan guage for the more public tasks. The
rapi d growt h of computer graphics sh ould sp rea d t he
use of both percept ual a nd di agra m matic graphics ;
on th e on e han d, concr ete, perceptual drawings wi ll
be produced in a fra ction of th e ti me they now take ;
on th e other han d, diagrammati c commu nicat io n
wi ll be so accessibl e that it will be co mmonplace.
184 Process


Fi gure 10-10 Two-dimensional diagram.
(IJ
(IJQ
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

-
-
Q
-
-
-
-
-
Q -
-
-

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-
-
,/
r1J
V /'
Figure 10-11 Three-dimensional diagram.
Figu re 10-12 By Raymond Gaetan. Computer
model view.
Figure 10-13 By Raymond Gaetan. Computer
model view.
Figure 10-14 By Raymond Gaetan. Computer
model view.
Applying Graphic Thi nking 185
S S C ) J O . l d
9 8 1
Figure 10-16 By Ti mTreman. Exterior view, library project, Mu ncie, Indiana.
Figure 10-17 By Raymo nd Gaetan. Com puter
model view.
Applying Graphic Think ing 187
'. H
'-
" f) .... '
I\,..j.," ...
)
.,..

, IA '"
"", ....... 0
; ; A/_ "7
,,,.. ., .. I"


- $
-I" I
. )
'! "'i
J
.. r .
- ., ((
j
.1
..
'0 '
:Il
.. ./,"
11""- \

I
. ,,' 1,
.J:-,;:--'. A' ,' r.

I
J


J ,,, - '

\
--------
J,'
,.,
, :"
'.
r
:, l' _.
-'tf' 1L

';r--
< s- , r -..'
.//;j- . ; _J,.J" :'iii.. .:. \\' ,,\ I
... .. ,'
,..
"'l r'

,/ t-\
L---'''. ,- ' .. '

,"ii " .. ..... '.
f'
- -":

.., -T

Lo ,
':' "-

"

"'('I '
\. J,
.
t '
,,'
l'

Figure 11-1 (top) By AlvarAalto.
Figure11-2 (bottom) By DavidStieglitz. BuffaloWaterfront Redevelopment Project.

11 Indivi dualDesign
T
he development and support of individual
design th inking is best promoted by the indi-
vidual design er. Some ar chitect s prefer to
work in a manner similar to Alvar Aalto, us ing
a loos e, multiple- line drawing t hat gives th em an
almos t ta cti le expe rience of t heir process. The spe-
cific characteristics of the chosen me dia of express ion
play an importan t rol e. Choices of dra wi ng instru-
ment or surface are del iberate, usuall y providing a
level of comfort that suppo rt s t he flow of ideas . The
di scovery of a similar degree of comfort wi th the
medium of compu ter graphics is one of t he chal -
lenges of ac hieving its eff ec tive use.
Ot her architects ma y use a mo re systematic,
de lib erat e, or economi cal approach to t heir work.
They apply order ing de vi ces based on t heoret ical
constr ucts discussed in ea rl ier chapters. Th ese might
incl ude modu lar grids, variations on a theme , or for-
mal manipulatio ns of compone nt-based syst ems.
To be effective, designers must be comfor tabl e
with th eir own met hod of thinki ng. This means t hat
t hey must carefully se lect the met hod s, tools, and
environment best suited to their style of th in king .
This chapter looks at al tern ative styles and some of
the means for supporting effective t hinking wit hi n
individual design processes.
Figure 11-3 Variations on a theme.
....-...,
.J
[
........
Fi gure 11-4 Ordering devices.
189
Figure 11-5 Drawing instruments.
PREPARATION FOR DESIGNING
Alt hough thoughts can be represented graphically by
using a great number of me dia (and there are whole
books devot ed to these di ffere nt media ), eac h
designer must find materials and instr uments wi th
which he will be most comfortabl e. It is worthwhi le
to experiment with these di fferent tools. They should
be eas y to use and mai nta in, and th ey should be
portable. Per sonally, I prefer pens to pencils because
the y produce a high-contrast image, making consi s-
tent line qu ality easy. They are permanent , whi ch
discourages th e tim e-consuming habits of erasing or
redrawing. I have found four types of pen that meet
my needs:
Liquid-ink cartridge pen-Using perman ent, jet blac k
ink; it produces a smoot h, quick line. Most po ints
wear ou t eventually, so I use cheap pens with fine
rounded points and ke ep sever al handy in case
one wears out.
Pointed felt -tip pen-T his used to be the most common
type of felt- tip. It has the advantage of providing a
second line weight by using the side of the point,
but the ink oft en th ins out, resulting in less shar p
images.
Fine-point felt-tip pen-Many of these pens have a thin
met al tube that greatly reduces the wear and

defor ming of the point. Look for the pens wi th the
darkest bla ck ink.
Extra-fine-point rollerball - These us ed to produce an
un even or unreliable line , but have been great ly
improved and have a longer-last ing supply of ink.
For good res ults, the drawing instr ument must be
mat ched wi th the ri ght paper. Alt hough th e liquid
cartridge pen works on most papers, nonporou s,
smooth-fi nish paper is the most adaptable for all
pen s. I buy cheap , white 8
1
h-by-ll photocopy paper
in SOO- sh eet pac kages. My test for an accepta ble
match of pen and paper is whether th e pe n can be
move d qui ckly in any direction without ca tching or
skipp ing.
Many architects get good results wi th soft pe nci ls
or colored pencil s, and so me combine media.
Everyone's interest s and thin king di ffer, so each per-
son shou ld tr y to find a simple bu t eff ective medium
for their personal gr aphic thinking.
ENVIRONM ENT
It is cur ious th at ar chitects, whose profession is con-
cern ed with suiting environments to needs, spend lit-
tle time st udying the environment in which they
190 Individual Design
-------
Figure 11-6 Studio environment set up.
wor k. Robert McKim provi des us wit h a good
descr iption:
A visual-thinking environment for one person should
be as well-designed as a contemporary hi tchen.
Work areas should be well illuminated, preferably
with natural north light and with out shadow or
glare. The drawi ng surface should be large and
adj ustable in height and angle. A n additional stand-
up table should be available for three-dimensional
work; spilled glue and kni fe ma rks soon spoil a
drawi ng surface. Organized storage should be pro-
vided close to each work area to diminish dist racting
clutter. Chairs and stools should provide back sup -
port in a work ing position. To alleviate back tension
and also to provide for the important element of
change, a stand-up, verti cal drawing surface should
be available: a black board, easel, or wall- m ounted
roll of paper. A large tack- space is needed for dis-
playing current idea ske tches. A lthough admittedly
an affront to those who associate product ive work
with open eyes and erect position, the visua l thinker
should also have access to a qui et place where he
can relax and tum his thoughts inward-or stop
thinking entirely: a reclining chair, a couch- even a
relaxing bathl'
Architects and designe rs sho uld consciously sel ect
the visual environment in whi ch they work to com-
plement th eir own style of thinkin g. I find th at my
own development makes me res ponsive to everything
visible. I support concentration by using a clear desk
wi th a blank white vertical sur face directly in front of
me. Other de signers may need a very stimulating
envi ronment for thi nking.
MENTAL/PHYSICAL CONDITION
Th e right material s and environme nt must be accom-
panied by a good mental and physical state for th e
indi vidual to th ink or solve problems effecti vely.
Everyone is su bje ct to tension and stress in th eir
work, and this is especially tru e of practicing archi-
tects. Experienced architects try to pace themselves
because th ey know that mistakes are made under
excessive pressu re. Freque nt exercise and re creation
are a basis for a good mental state , but designers can
also take specific measures to improve th eir prepara-
tion for wor k. Relax eyes by closing, the n ro ta ting
the m; ease neck t ension by sit ting up right with back
suppo rted and slowly bend t he head forward, back-
wa rd, and to each side in a cir cular motion; relax the
whole body by st retching and deep breathing.
Mental/Physical Condition 191
ABSTRACTTOCONCRETETHINKING
I
a
...
,
ba
I'd

.,..
Figure 11-7a Abstract sketch.
Figure 11-7b Concret e sketch.
, - - - -- - - - -
I
I
I
I
I I I II
_ _ __ ..J
Figure 11-7c Hardline drawing.
192 Individual Design
Graphic thi nking is most effecti ve when it respects
basic thinking processes. Lawrence Kubie asserts that
"Thinking processes act ually are automatic, swift and
spon taneous w hen all owed to proceed undist urbed
by other influences. Therefore what we need is to be
ed ucated in how not to interfere wit h the inheren t
capacity of the huma n mind to think." 2 For th is rea-
son, th e media and type of drawings used by archi -
tect s for graphic thinking di ffer significantly from the
drafted, "hard-line" dr awings usually ass ociat ed with
ar chitectural design . Graphic thinking sketche s must
be rapid, flexi ble, and unr estri ct ing to thinki ng
processes .
Within the range of these sketches, ther e ar e two
basi c tendenci es: exploratory abs tract sketches an d
definitive conc rete ske tches. Accor ding to McKim,
these respond to two typ es of thinking. "The first is
fast , cru de, holistic, and par allel, while the second is
deliberate, attentive, detail ed and seque ntial. ",
Designers generally lean toward one or the other of
these types of thinking and pro bably use a lit tl e of
both. To incre ase effectiveness, each designer should
be aware of hi s basic typ e of th inking an d be abl e to
re cognize when the other type is appropriate.
CONCEPTUAL TO PERCEPTUAL THINKING
Conceptual thinkin g seeks out the underlyi ng struc-
ture, order, or meaning of experience; it attempts tak-
in g possession of the exper ienc e, comparing it with
other experiences, and interpreting it in the light of
our knowl edge of reality. Perceptual thinking tries to
take in the direc t experience of an environment, not-
ing th e ele ments from which it is composed and the
personal reactions th e environment evokes. Often
these two modes of thinking are thought of as sepa-
rate or eve n in opposition. Creative, dynamic thi nk-
ing depends upon full integration of conception and
per ception because they inform and give meaning to
each other. Knowing that there are about four hun-
dred variet ies of goa t' s-mil k che eses produced in
France adds something to th e expe rience of eati ng
one of th em; neverthel ess , knowledge of these vari-
et ies does not ha ve much meani ng until you have
tasted one of them . The history of Gothic church con-
structi on , incl udi ng prin cipl es and vari ations, when
combined wit h the overwhelming sensations of mov-
ing through the darkness an d light of a Gothic church
nav e, provides a complete, integrated awareness that
could no t be achieved should either th e concept ua l or
perceptual el em ent be missing.
The design er must be able to move fre ely between
concept ual and perceptual thinking and should avail
himself of a variety of graphic me ans to achieve their
int egration.
Figure 11-8 Leicester Square, London.
Concept ual to Perceptual Thi nking 19 3
!,,rr'J
Figure 11-10 By Thomas Beeby. St udies for the Seyfart h House.
PRIVATE TO PUBLIC THINKING
Thinking and the communication it may require have
two modes. In the public mode, the indivi dual devel-
ops hi s ideas by communi cating wi th other peop le,
Co li n Che rry points ou t t hat "Co mmuni ca tion is
essentia lly a social affair.,.. The very word communi-
cate means share, an d inasmuch as you and I are com-
municating at this mo ment , we are one.... What we
sh are, we can not eac h have as our own po sses-
sian.. .. " I In t hi s se nse, t here is a public aspect to all
ideas because none of us lives in a vacuum. What we
hol d in our minds comes fr om interacti ons with the
peopl e and environment tha t surr ounds us ,
In the private mode of t hinking, the in di vidual
develops ideas in isolation from othe rs; comm unica-
tion in th is for m is d irect ed back toward on eself.
Many archi tects ar e re luctant to show th e sketch es
they use to deve lop ideas, and some even have diffi-
culty discussing them, These sketche s are tentative
and cr ude compared to presentat ion dra win gs, and
1'\.- " ......
-, \
, '>:
r
\
- -'
,
;. '-, J
l--' - __ ___.,
--::,
they of ten represent incomplet e thoughts. But these
sketch es also reveal the str uggle of a mind that does n' t
have all the answers. For some designers, this might be
embarrassing because of an illusi on that the gre at
design concepts flow instantly and completely from
the creative mind. But perhaps t here is more to it.
Co nceptu al sketches ar e very personal state ments,
almost a diary. We are intuit ively aware that th ey can
reveal ve ry pr iva te feel ings, concerns, or fan tasies.
They are no one else's busi ne ss.
Although individual design activity re quires both
public and private co mm unicati ons, the choice of
mode is personal. Each designer develops his own
style of sketching as an aid to thinking, Some may
choose to develop a clarity that can communicate to
other people, while ot hers may develop a pr ivate
graphic lan guage. Either way, you have to be comfor t-
able with it. If you can enjoy sket chi ng, chances ar e
thinking will also be more enjoyable.
Private to Public Thinking 195
OVERCOMING OBSTACLES
Even the best preparation does not assur e success in
desi gn. Architect ure st udents and sometimes even
practit ione rs ru n into thinking an d problem-solving
obstac les . The following lis t describes some of the
more common obstacl es and so me possible
responses.
1. Can' t get started-If you try to tackle proble ms
that ar e too big, you be come overwhelmed. Try to
br eak down the problem into different parts. Inst ead
ofdesigningthewholeschool,analy ze its pa rts:class-
rooms, r ecr eation, administra tion , etc. When these
problems are under control, look at how the pa rt s can
fit toget her to form a school.
Figure ll-l1a
2. Can' t get any good ideas-Sometimes we have a
fear of fai lur e;we are afrai d that our solution will be
judged to be very poor py others and that th ey will
lose confide nce in us. Thi s requires separ ating one 's
self from the design problem.If failures in life mea nt
that one's life was a failure,we wo uld all be in de ep
trouble. Fort unately, life goes on, and thi s problem
will soon be forgotten . The fut ure holds difficul t
problems as well as easier ones. It may help to tr eat
the probl em as a cha llenge in a game. Try your best
and use all of the resour ces ava ilable. Use some of
I
ggf 00
I'/\/E::::

mOl]]
.. !J]
.,
1.
the techn iques of manipulati on already discussed
and take a new look at the problem. If you cannot
move ahead on the basis of your ass umptions, then
arbitrarily cha nge the m.If there doesn' tseem to be a
su itable solution for the kitchen, consider a house
without a formal ki tchen. It may not be a solution,
butit might lead to a solution.
Z
Figure ll-l1b
196 Indi vidual Design
----
-


... ..
B
G
S,
Figure ll -ll e
2 =c= =
3 t ..,
-=-- - -- 4 t =:.
4.
Figure ll-ll d
3 . Can't make a decision-Sometimes designers
cannot progress on a project because th ey find it di f-
ficult to come to conc lusio ns or de cide on a course of
act ion. Spelling out the avai lable altern ati ves an d
then comp aring th em in light of a few basic cr ite ria
can fac ilitate choices. Represent ing crite ri a and t he
ratings of alternatives in graphic image s makes it pos-
sible to nave a picture of the inf ormation needed to
decide.
4 . Can't finish- Once a design ins tr uctor advi sed
that if we were working un der press ure and heard a
tapping soun d, we should stop and see if it was we
who were dotting in the grass on our drawing. He
said th is was a sure sign tha t we were avoiding a cri t-
ica l probl em in t he design . If you find t hat you are
filling up time or j ust going through the mo tio ns, it
may hel p to go back to t he ori ginal program or prob-
lem statement and ask what the basi c design objec-
tives are and what the design must achieve mi ni mally
no t to be a failure. The chances ar e you will find the
de ficien cy and save your self a lot of trouble later on .
Overcoming Obstacles 197
11<DJf.C/f
Q Q QQ

1 1
6 b
-TIMf-
? 1

0'6
Figu re 11-12 The lifetimecontext ofthe individual design project process.
DESIGN AS A LIFETIME PROCESS
Des ign me thodo logy hassomedi fficult ies,suchas its
focus on the single proj ect and presenting a rather
mech ani cal model of design wor k. It gives the
impression that the information is poured in at the
beginning and at stra tegic points along the way; then
the machi ne , call ed logical tho ught , grinds an d chews
the information, expe lling an appropr iate product at
the end .The actual complexity of the design process
mi ght be bett er unders tood if we imagine the
machine as having several switche s to make the indi-
vidua l par ts stop and go, sp eed up , or slow down.
Fur thermore , each switch has a control that flips the
switch back and forth at ra nd om. Th ese controls rep-
resent the action of the human mind within a design
process, for our minds are constantly active and
reacting to a whole environ ment surrounding a spe-
cific project. In many cases, the design process of a
successful archi te ct becomes unde rstandable when
seen as one small part of the ar chitect 's life. His
de sign process is governed by patt ern s of thought ,
interests,andvalues that are constantl y evol ving.
Graphic thi nking can be a significant aid to such
de velop ment. Cha rl es Je ncks noted of LeCorbusier,
"He st ar ted keeping a sketchbook, a pocket-si zed
writingpad ,tojot downideas, visual impressionsand
anecdotes. These sketchbooks, of which there are
more than seventy covering the whole of
LeCorbusier ' s life, wer e in themselves a significant
addition toJeanneret'sdevelopment, for they became
a new me dium of expression and a source-book for
later ideas. "Je ncks goes on to quote LeCorbusier:
"When one travel s and wor ks wit h visual things-
architecture, pa inting, sculpture- one uses one' s eyes
and dr aws,so as to fixde ep down in one' s experience
whatis seen.Once th e impression has been recorded
by th e pencil, it stays for good, entered, re gistered,
inscribed."5
Creative ar chitects oft en become fascinated with
a particul ar pr oblem or form that they mull over for
many years , drawn toward what they feel are funda-
mental ideas or concerns. For example, Wright pur-
sued many notions in his lifetime re garding su ch
things as plan or ganization, str ucture, and materials,
which he could pull together in a single desi gn such
as the Kaufman House at FaIlingWat er. In effect, the
success of thi s house is the result of very th orough
re sear ch overa good portion of hi s career.
19 8 Individual De sign
Fi gure 11-13b Bin odal organization wit h indirect pat h ent ry.
Figure 11-13a Cro ss plan wit h interlocking spaces.
Fi gure 11-13 The accumulation of design concepts in buildings
by Frank Lloyd Wright.
Figure 11-13c Three-part horizontal organization of the facade.

I 1 1, 111111\11\ II II III
-- - I I 'Ul : : ' 11 11 1
11
111 II 'I \
L. il/'11I1'1 /1 1 1' 1
I 1 I I
Il ' ',/I "I Ii I

- -- ' ,I II !
L bUD .
__---l ]
DJ
Figure 11-14 Combination of the previous elements using new materials in a new cont ext .
Design as a Lifetime Process 199


"'--- v-
v..
Figure 11-15 Elevati on sket ch. Guggenheim Museum.
The careers of cur re nt and future designers will 2. An exp anding variety of document al-on choices in
be si gnific ant ly infl uenced by digi tal media. If we print, vi deo , and projection formats.
keep in mind t he impli cations of design as a lifetime
3. Unpreceden te d resources for achievi ng and
proc ess- the pe rsiste nce of ideas and the stimulation
retri eval of a full range of visual images.
of a kn owledge bas e- digi tal media promise a
Th e impact of th ese new ca pabili ties is dir ectl y
tre me nd ous opportunity. Sign ifi cant new tool s
propor tional to our ability to connect graphic images
incl ude:
with thou ght processes.
1. An impressive array of illustra tion tool s in object-
and pixel-based computer graphic applica tions.
200 Individual Design
Figure 11-16 Elevation sketch. Guggenheim Museum.
)
/
/
I
/
Figure 11-17 Plan sket ch. Guggenheim Museum.
Design as a Lifetime Process 201

12 Team Design
A
lt hough a gr eat port ion of this bo ok dea ls
wi th individualdesign thinking,in ourworld,
desi gn rar ely takes place in isol ati on.
Geoffr ey Broadbentstresses the po int: "In the
nat ur e of architec tural de sign , i t is not possible for
any architect to wield power wit hout the full colla bo-
ration of other s. With very few exceptions, the archi-
tec t inevitably wor ks as a member of a group;
however strong his per sonal ity, he still needs a gr eat
ma ny ot her people-architec ts, techni cians, consult -
an ts , co ntract ors, and so on- to tra nslate his ideas
into reali ty."
Th e project-based design team has been one ofthe
major featur es of the modernAmerican architect ur al
fir m. Offices suc h as Skidmor e, Owings & Merr ill ,
The Architects Collaborative, and Caudill Rowlet t
Scott contributed significantly to the development of
the team concept. They demon stra ted that probl em-
or iented teams have severaladvantages:
1. Much mo r e expertise than th at poss essed by an
individualarchitect canbe brought to bear on the
project.
2. Awider range of buildi ng types can be tackled.
3. More cr eative thi nkingca n be stimulated t hrough
teamwork.
4. A fir m has a be tter chance of sur vival when it is
based upo n a pr inciple ofor ganization rat hertha n
t he persona lity ofa single archite ct.
The team concept has expande d well beyond the
limi ts of t he tr aditional ar chit ectural des ign team.
Teams now incl ude cli ents, users of th e intended
build ing, co ntractors , fin ancie rs, social sci entist s,
manufactur ers, and sp ecialists. We have learn ed t hat
the su ccess of a design often de pends on all of their
inputs. Tea mwor k has also overcome the constraints
of time and space. Through the use of the Intern et ,
teams ma y be compose d of arch it ects, consult ants,
and cli en ts d ispersed aroun d th e globe in di fferent
time zon es.
TEAMCOMMUNICATION
Gr ap hic co mmunication can playavery impo rtant
part in the success of teamwork . To be effecti ve, team
members must cons tantl y share infor mat ion and
ide as. With the use of graphic th inki ng skills , th ese
contr ibutions can be qui ckly pr esen ted to the group
and remain al ways available for retrieval and manip-
ulat ion. In addi tion , drawings help knock down the
barriers built by professional jargon , thereby aIl O\N-
ing persons from different discipl ines to communi-
cate, as exemplified on the facing pa ge with a proje ct
team that incl ude s an architect , a planner, a systems
engi neer,and a tran sport at ion spe cialist.
Scient ific research has recognized the importa nce
of a research community shar ing though ts as the sci-
ent ists pursue th e same probl em. Chemistr y, for
example,hasevo lved a graphic language thatsharesa
broa d range of ideas about .complex prob lems. The
graphic description of t he DNA molecule is a dra-
ma tic example of the importa nce of the integrati on of
grap hics and thinking. The di scovery of the double-
hel ix struc t ure of t he DNA molecule was ha iled as a
major br eakt hrough, ope ning up a whole new era of
research in or gani c chemist ry. Graphic t hinking has
aided th e DNAres earch in severalways:
1. A model of the ce ntral object of resea rch that is
usef ul and acc ep table to all of t he research com-
munity.
2 . A model t hat presents new cha llenges and pr ob-
lems to be solved .
3. A model that provides a dir ection for individual
resear chers to cont inue work in th ei r di fferent
areasofsp ecialization.
Figure 12-2 Dia gramofdoublehelixmodelofthe DNA molecule.
2 0 3
PfRFECT
E'XCFUENT
FAI R THEARf AOF A 5-5-5
5 THE: Miele 0 F A 10-/0 ,,(0
TRIANGLE I S :
Poor<-
T(ZIAIJ(,lE IS:
l'AIWi<E
-':';$Z:'
o
130
'?TREN&Tt+ IS
E-I"/"II<I(.,4LLY
;/
BY TlVAl-JGVlAT,'iCT TtH' TtiREE
T IlIAIJGVL),TIOl,/ OF
FOIUE> OFTliE 61t :,l,TE5T
MItGWI,UDE: 2-e-3 AIID
/0
I I AReA ..ASO

.. ,. .


\,::;' to
.,
,
3 20
f AGHAREA OF nJE' THREE
10
WE GET Tfjt:TI/IA]'IG-LE
15 cAL
LE
[7 T Ii E'
OF perrFS'T/ON. Q"'AU1'Y
Figure 12-3 ByWi lliam Caudill. Evaluation diagrams for projects.
Currently, several architect ural firms are develop-
ing graphic techniques to assist des ign teams . The
firm of Caudill Rowlett Scott (CRS) was a lea der in
team communication. In Architecture by Team,
Will iam Caudill explained the graphic techniques
used by CRS te ams to analyze problems, generate
solutions, and eval uate res ults. He stressed: "Once
there are empathy and communication among mem-
bers, the team will move an d every member wi ll be n-
efit. Wit hout the two, people canno t wo rk togeth er.
Wi thou t the two , there is no team.:"
Sharing des ign objectives is an important par t of
successf ul teamwork. In the early stages of a project
objectives may not be entirely clear. However, t he
team can oft en identify those influences or "design
determinants" that they agree should have impact on
the final resolu tion of th e design. Diagrams like those
shown opposi te serve as visual reminders of th ose
de termina nts throughout the design process.
0 - 0
0_
Figure 12-4 By William Caudill. Project process diagrams.
204 Team Design
Figure 12-5 Analysis diagrams.
Team Communication 205
APPLYING GRAPHICS
Grap hic no tati on can contribute to team design by
ill us tr ating two impor tant needs: informati on and
processes of working toward a solution of the de sign
problem. The design br ief (distingui shable fro m the
building program, which normally refer s to the pro-
gram of building fun ctions) contains most of t he
informati on ne eded to complete a bui lding design .
The design brief incl udes:
The program of functions
Description of users
Client ' s obj ectives
Financial con straints
Time cons traints
Zoning re strictions
Site analysis
Site access
Macro climat e
Micro cli mate
Buildi ng prot otypes
Special pl anning considera tions
Construction system
The diagrams and sketches on these two pages
ill ust rate some of the ways information fr om the
design brief can be presented to the whole tea m.
-=r==r ,-
Vl t W.s
-;71+.(
6'e+buts
s
----4 -'

':;rtt
Fig ure 12-6 Analysis card examples.
206 Team Design
:- -..(
: '
I
I ,
,
apcw1mf.{t\t 5l"ze!>
1bt:'"
1. br.".
0 000 1 0 0 0 0
00000 00000
OO OO DI[)OOOD
0 0000 DOOOO
-H

; , '. I
( I' \
,
\ '. \ " d!mD .
I \ ..
'; \ '\ ...
.-
N
Figure 12-7 Analysis card examples.

il WJ1:r ft

..._d Q ')
____I
__- ......1.9----
Applying Graphics 207
Figure 12-8 Evolution of the process network
diagram . I .z.
31
4
5
G 7
8\q
10 II 12 13
1
14 15
/ {P 17
e
E G-
A V Ii
c,
F
t ? A ~ C H A ~
A
BM?Cl-lA f<T SHow ING- 'PRBCJ7f;:Na
NETWoRK
TA'SK-ORIE:NTt::.[7 NETWoRK
208 Team Design
clleV\{
f?nef
Figure 12-9a Asimplified network.
Fi gure 12-9b Attachment of informati on to the net work.
TEAM DESIGN PROCESS-MAKING A NETWORK
When many people must work together, it is often
helpful to make a flowc hart of all the tasks and where
they fit in the context of the enti re project. These net-
works evol ved from simple ba r cha rts , which show a
simple schedule of tasks. By showing th e necessary
seq uenc e of tas ks, the basi s is laid for an elementary
network.
Networks ca n become qui te el abor at e if they
include the most minute tasks, but I prefer to keep
them simple in or der to concentrat e on the most
basi c act ivitie s. This simple network bec omes a sort
of rack on which to hang descriptions of inf ormation
need ed for different tasks. Since complex bu ildings or
complex desi gn proce sses require ch anges in team
composition at di fferent project stages, a ne twork is
also a handy way to ident ify points at which special
expertise is needed.
Team Design Process- Making a Network 209
Figure 12-10 Notes from a concept generati on meeting.
TEAM CREATIVITY
Because grap hic thi nking increases the output of
ideas for the individ ual, the possi biliti es for a group
are geometrically increased, assuming that the way is
opene d for everyone to comm unicate. Alex Osborn '
developed a method called br ainstorming that helps
to keep the chann els of thi nking open. He identified
four rul es that must be followed to generate ideas
with in a group during brainsto rming:
1 . Suspend j udgment on anyone's idea.
2. Freewheel; let your imagination roam.
3. Strive for qu an tity of ideas.
4. Build on each other' s ideas.
If on e member of the bra inst orming group concen-
trates on producing sketches of the ideas generat ed,
the already fertile sit uat ion is even mor e int ensified as
he fee ds bac k information to all members of th e
group. Th e number of possible new associat ions is at
least do ubl ed . The sketches should be as quick an d
loose as the ones shown here. Remember tha t only a
simple recognizable symbol for the idea is requ ired; in
some instances, this might be a word or ph rase.
210 Team Design
------- --
--
Figure 12-11 Not es from a brainst orming session.
EVOLVING TEAM TECHNIQUES
Tea m thi n king is an evolving area of research and
cr eati vit y. New approa ches are continua lly tested,
and visual co mmunica tio n could play an impor ta nt
role in realizing the potential of teams. As technologi-
ca l advances (graphic si mulation and reproduction)
are made, th e spe ed of graph ic mani pulation and
feedback is great ly increased. Real- time, large-screen
vide o project ion , pract ical t hre e-dimensional com-
put er graphic modelin g, and laser-dis k vis ual
libraries will provide unprecedented vi sual tools. The
possibilities are indeed exci ting .
Ma king useful and p ractical advances in team
t hinking depends on the qual ity of relation ships
among t he team members. A few su ggestion s may
help:
1. Accept each other ' s contr ibution to the sit uation
as having equal pot ent ial.
2. Place pe rso nal goals bel ow team goals .
3 . Help each other by concentrati ng on each mem-
ber ' s input.
4. Have your se nse of humor ready and use it.
Evolving Team Techniques 211
f p n ~ s s n d u i e j 2 1 . - 2 1 . < 3 1 n O ! : l







lV\()\j e M1?NT

]J

8?D

Figure 12-13 Urbancore studies.
Evolving Team Techniques 213
Theavenge penon soclaI conlacts ere
needsmorephysicel eninportant part 01
exercise eachday higheredlro8lion
( IMAGINATION) ( CIRCULATION )

/. , >

( SAFETY )
( COMMUNICATION )
. ...
:,!-: ' ; ' . :' ..\
( STlWLATION ) ( INf ORMATION ) ( )
1NTR000000 ON
CONTEXT
OBJECTIVES
PROCESS
RESULTS
DESIGN
EXPLORAT ION
ALTERNATIVES
PROPOSAL
Fi gure 12-14 Computer-generated t eam notes.
CRI TERIA
( ENTERTAINMENT ) ( RELAXATION)
ANALYSIS
PROGRAMMATIC
CONTEXT
FORM
FEASIBIUT Y
ANALYSI S
COMPARISONS
CONCLUSIONS
RECOMMENDATIONS
214 Team Design
Figure 12-15 Computer-generated team notes.
Evolving Team Techniques 215

13 PubLicDesi gn
T
he gen eral public is taking a more active role
in the planning and desi gn of communit ies,
and people are working more clo sel y wit h
design professi onals. Grap hic thinki ng has
cha nged to accommoda te this new de vel op ment. This
chapter dis cusses th e fundamental shifts in the pu b-
lic 's at tit ud e and shows how th es e shift s support
design an d problem-solving processes.
Explor ers of th e fifteent h and sixteenth cent uri es
veri fied the newly intro d uced concept ab out the
sha pe of th e ear t h, and th is ch anged forever ma n' s
sense of rel ationshi p to his world. In our century,
explore rs of th e universe ad ded anoth er dimen si on
with th e concept of t he eart h as a "space shi p," a won-
drously brilliant island floati ng in the vast blackness
of space. Once again, th e impact of our concept of
re lations hip to our en vironment, th e ear th, has and
wi ll have fund amental conseq uenc es. Ot her dramatic
changes have altere d our view of t he worl d : ho rse
and buggy to spaceships; musket to atomic anni hila-
tion ; telecommunicatio ns; mini com put ers ; energy
crisis; large-scale pollution of air and wa ter; elec tric
power failur es; and so on.
Books su ch as The Age of Disco ntinuity, Futur e
Shock, and The Temporary Society' have at tempted to
de scribe t hese shifts in values. In the ar ea of architec-
tur e and environme ntal de sign , the shift in values is
most dramatically expressed in the histori c preserva-
ti on movemen t. Now that change has become a cen-
tral feat ur e in our lives, people are beginning to exer-
cise th eir j udgm ent over which changes are desirable
and which are no t. They are developing new percep -
tions about historica l bui ldings as sources of continu-
ity in communitie s. They seem to seek st ability in an
atmosphere of over whelming cha nge.
I bel ieve that we are seeking a new sense of iden -
tity for ourselves and our co mmunities . Th e
increased value placed on th e en vironment is alre ady
having important effects on our economic system;
companies are searching for locations wi t h a gr ea t
inf lux of people rather than moving people to where
the jobs ar e. Earl y successful design res ponses to the
preservation movement as in Ghirarde lli Squa re and
the Canner y- in San Francisco ha ve been followed by
a wave of red iscovery and preservation movements
in th e main streets of towns acro ss t he country.
Community develop ment associations ar e spring ing
up everywher e as co nsumer movements convince an
incr ea sing numbe r of people that t hey can per son-
ally do somet hi ng to improve t he ir lives an d their
environmen t.
Figure 13-2
217
(
\
OV\e Gn'H\t1Mtatht>n
vs
-r(po - G,rn W)
Figure 13-3a. b Contrast in approachesto designcommunication.
I
,
A
r10
-,1,1;:-\
". I 1-- , 'I r-
\: I 1_ -_i ' ::-
\ !r. -.' lr: >
(.: i - _' ii ':',
I r , I--
I : :. , ':
l , I-
I .- - I r:.-
'\' i- _'i:' ; }
, ' ,y /
\,:;-..-;i
\'V
l

, I
,
,I
/
I
/
f i\
(a) (b)
Figure13-4 Freehanddrawingdoneover adraftedversion.
2 18 Public Design
Figure 13-5 By Harry Eggink. Local retail street East Cambridge
st udy.
COMMUNITY DESIGN
Jim Burns cla imed that archi tects must work more
di rec tly with the publi c to avo id the mista kes of the
past.
"Some of the envi ronmental changes... have had neg-
ative impacts that were not easily discernible at first.
They seemed to be good things to do-to relocate a
museum or provide new housing or put a spo rts
arena in a park . What happened eventually was that
the museum lost part icipants, the housing was dis-
liked, the park patrons shu nned the sports facilities.
The reason for these kin ds of failures is usually that
the change s broke connections between people and
the opportunities their com munity offered. "3
The best way to ass ur e t hat people ar e not cut off
from communit y opportunities is to involve them in
the design of their communities .
Figure 13-6 By Harry Eggink. East Cambridge residential
neighborhood.
If th e arc hitec ts are to promot e the involvement of
the publ ic in the de si gn p rocess, th ey must ta ke a
look at th e way ideas are commun icat ed . Some archi-
tects ar e acc us tomed to making high ly polished pre-
se nta tio ns to cl ients or boards of direct ors. The ir
drawings are s lick, wi t h an air of final it y and ce r-
tainty. When such drawings are us ed in a publi c par-
ticipa tion design project , the commun iti es have the
feeling they are bei ng talked at and not talked wit h;
they ar e int imidated and di scouraged from contribu t-
ing t heir ideas, no matter how much to the contra ry
th e desi gner pl eads.
Inviting communication star ts wit h the character
of the sketches.
1 . Ske tches should always have a loose, fr eehand
qualit y, a sort of incompl eteness suggesti ng that
they can be cha nged and wi ll be improved wit h
additional th in king. Eve n if a per sp ective has
been mech ani cally cons tru cted, it can be traced
over freehand to ach ieve a more tentative fee ling.
2 . Keep ske tches si mple and avoid abs tractions that
require interpretation. The examples above fro m
a Cambridge urban des ign study" are quite effec-
tive. Many people find it easi er to rel ate to ae rial
vie ws.
3 . Use man y labels to easily ide nt ify the parts of th e
drawings. Th e car toon caption bubble is a us ef ul
device for labeling or conveying th e possi bilities
of an environ ment.
Community Design 219
~
;;s ~ ~ /b ---,
~ ~ vu- P"" @
if4}>
Figure 13-7 By Steve Levine.
TAKE-PART WORKSHOPS
Seve ral archite cts and planners have worked vigor-
ously to devel op gr aphic communi cation metho ds,
making it possibl e for the public to understand and
enter into the design process. One of the innovators
in this tr end was Lawrence Halpri n:
I am concentrating on the issue of people's int erac-
tions with their environment both as individuals and
in groupe.: both aspects are important. We have
been searching for archetypal relationships... in
wor kshops which take place primarily out in the
field These taki ng part workshops allow people the
opportunity to discover and articulate their own
needs and desires for themselves and for their com -
munities... . They discover ways of communicating
with each other and arri ving at creative deci sions
based on mu ltipl e input.'
Jim Burns, pl anning consultant and former
Ha lprin associate with wide exper ience in or gani zing
workshops, described the workshop process as hav-
ing four basic steps:
220 Publi c Design
~ ST,.!.[E7 -
~ 6 ACN /
~
Figure 13-8 By Steve Levine.
1 . Awareness -Com m unit y member s ge t a better '
expe rience of those things that form the commu-
nity environment and how those things are inter-
conn ected. Awareness is achieved pr incipally by
going out into th e community and looking and
taking notes.
2. Perception- Citizens begin to understand th eir
communi ty and their per sonal relationsh ip to it
by modeling the coll ect ive experi ence of what
exists and th ei r hopes for wha t could exist.
3. Decision-making- Based on awareness and percep-
tions , the community describes what they wo uld
like done and whe n it sh ould be done.
4. I mplementation stra tegies-Dev ised to as sure that
the projects ad opt ed by the community are real-
ized ."
To compl ete these four st eps, workshops have
develope d a numb er of graphic aids (see Figures 13-7
through 13-11) to involve the communit y me mbe rs in
the design process.

I
54Yeli/weEN L7S 7/'1KE TH E
J./t'lu Slz'l2!MP -IM IN SHUrTZE T (}
f ile HOLIN-/) ~ A L L . 17IE IV tr. { '
ro l IfE 6GACH .
Figure 13-9 By Steve Levine. Figure 13-10 By Steve Levi ne.
Figure 13- 11 By Steve Levine.
Take-Part Works hops 221
.....
-,
........ .......
..,
7
:-P).
V" e-,
"...... "'::>--
<i.
,"
."
- ,
-I

Fi gure 13- 12 By John J. Desmond. Phoeni x st udy.
.
....
... 1:1)1'
;.+..- f,.,..... . "


Fi gure 13-13 By Peter Hasselman. Atlanti c Cit y st udy.
222 Public Design
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
REGIONAL/URBAN DESIGN ASSISTANCE TEAM
For decades,th e Ameri can Institute of Architects has
be en sending teams of professional s int o communi-
ti es to condu ct ur ban design studies. These teams,
whi ch incl ude arc hitec ts, eco nomists, urban desi gn-
ers, soc iologists, managers, and lawyers, work with
resource persons from t he community to ana lyze
problems and devel op st ra tegies. An import ant par t
of the Regi onal Ur ban Design Assi stan ce Team (R/U
OAT)? process is t he re por t t hey give to t he whole
community on th e findings of t he joi nt profess ional-
citi zen team. It is critical to t he fut ure progres s of
communi ty developmen t that the public underst ands
that the reportison ly a suggestion for an approach to
de velopment and not t he description of a final prod-
uct. The ske tche s used in the re port to th e commu-
ni ty attempt to give generalimages of enviro nme ntal
objectives wi thout proposing specific desig n solu-
tions.They provide us with models for public design
communication.
-
Figure 13-14 By William Durkee and Roy Man n. Portsmout h Figure 13-15 By William Durkee and Roy Ma nn. Portsmouth
st udy. st udy.
Fig ure 13-16 By Charles A. Blessing. Phoenix study.
American Insti tute of Architects Regional/Urban Design Assistance Team 223
1

Ir- )
ill
(::;
l__J-
" \
./
\I
/
'I
<.
/ " J
-\ vir
\ .
v
t-- '1

\
I,
I

,
) I
{\
I '
I :
{Ii

I
i
I

L\ Jl1
f--'/ /1- .

, I -
Figure 13-17 By Harry Eggink.Spatialzoningstudy.

u
{pOL
-

/
..'
Figure 13-18 ByHarry Eggink. Site forminvestigation. Figure 13-19 By Harry Eggink. Site study.
224 Public Design
-

,i )
'\
T 1\
\
I
\
J/./\
\
~ ;
t -- -,
- ~
/
/
WORKING SKETCHES
In an attempt to involve community members in the
de sign pr ocess, designer s of ten develop ideas and
draw in gs in a public, accessib le space. Explor at or y
drawings can be an effective means of informall y
eliciting the parti cipation of the comm unity. These
sketches may use familiar drawing conventions whi le
staying loose in style.
- ( - ~ '--..",r - ...
j
I
'>-'to - "? -,
"" - ,-'
< ~ f -,-'. \
"
Figure 13-20 By Harry Eggink. Elkhart, Indiana, urban design
study.
Working Sketches 2 2 5

:>
:-..
\ \1//
..-
<:;" '1- -
./
,, \ J/



Regional Se Uing
Cl tmattc Facto rs
Fi gure 13-21 By HarryEg gink.Climate andsolarsit e studies.
Dr awin gs publ ished in reports or communi ty
newspaper s usuall y ne ed to be more carefull y
planned. To avoi d th e boredom or inti midat ion of
confronting the publi c with too many drawings,each
drawi ngmustclearl y and economicall y communica te
the relationships among many design concerns.
Axonometric or birds-eye perspective views, such as
those shown on these two pa ges, appe ar to be the
most easily understoodby the publi c. Althoughoft en
ba sed on carefully constr ucted underlay drawings,
these illus trati ons are rendered in fr eehand so th at
they appear less formaland invite public di scussion.
Figure 13-22 By HarryEggink. Programmingdiagrams.
226 Public Design
-

Figure 13-23 By Harry Eggink. Programdevel opmentstudi es.
Working Sketches 227

-
Figure 13-25 Urban analysis, Athens, Ohio.
Working Sketches 229


14 Conclusion
A
rchitect ure and the ot he r art s hold a vital
place in the future of our cult ur e, cr eativity
be ing one of the most importa nt fact ors.
Looking over th is book, it occurs to me that
most of what I have writt en dea ls with how or what
could be done an d not so much wit h why.
The impor tance of th e ar ts to national survi val
was pointed out clearl y in the 1951 Massey Report
commissioned by the Canadian governmen t:
When Mr. Churchill in 1940 called the British peo-
ple to their supreme effort, he invoked the traditions
of his coun try, and based his appeal on the common
background from whi ch had grov-m the character
and the way of life of his fellow countrymen. In the
spiritual heritage of Great Br itain was found the
quicken ing force to meet the menacing facts of that
perilous hour. No thing could have been more "practi-
cal" than that appeal to thought and emotion.. ..
Canada became a national entity becaus e of certain
habits of mind and convi ctions which its people
shared and would not surrender. Our country was
sustained through difficult times by the powe r of this
spiritua l legacy. It wi ll flourish in the future in pro-
portion as we believe in ourselves. It is the intangi-
bles which give a nat ion not only its essential charac-
ter but its vitality as well. What may seem
unimpor tant or even irrelevant under the pressure of
daily life may well be the thi ng that endures, which
may give a community its power to survive. But tra-
dition is always in the making and from this fact we
draw a second assumption: the innumerable institu-
tions, movements, and individuals interested in the
arts, letters and sciences throughou t our country are
now forming the national tradition of the futur e. l
Architects are problem solvers, but the problems
of architectur e, like the problems of our society, run
much deeper than the so-called prac tical level. A
building should reinforce the spirit as we ll as provide
safety and security. Architecture must still be an art
as well as a scie nce.
Visual communicat ion is in the midst of sweeping
changes in both methodology and scope. Computer
and vi deo technol ogies are obvio usly provi ding the
designer with new graphic tools of a mazing power
and speed : computer-aided dr awing systems that cut
product ion time to a third of conventional draft ing;
expert or semi-expert systems th at bring to bear the
power ful me mory of the computer; vide o simulation
of the experience of moving through an environment
propo sed by th e designer. These same technologies
are revolut ionizing the role of visual communication
in the public domain; graphic techniques once held
as skills of th e spec ialist are becomi ng available to
anyone with a computer ; earl y exposure to computer
graphics and tel evision will provide fu t ure gene ra-
tions with unprecede nted vis ual liter acy.
In these earl y stages of ad opti ng new technolo-
gies, it is common to foc us on how we can accom-
plish various tasks with these machi nes. We become
fascinated wit h de veloping har dware and software
that can do more and do it faster. As I suggest ed at
the ope ning of this concl usion, in or der t o gain for
ourselves the full benefit s of science, we must be
equa lly focused on why we ar e using these technolo-
gies. A deeper und ers tanding of the purposes of
de sign is the key to developing new capabiliti es that
are truly support ive of our aspirati ons. As Lewis
Mumfor d wrote:
No matter how completely techn ics relies upon the
objective procedures of the sciences, it does not form
an independent system like the universe: it exists as
an element in human culture and it promises well or
ill as the social groups that exploit it promise well or
ill . The machine itself makes no demands and holds
out no promises: it is the human spirit that makes
dema nds and keeps promises.
2
231
-
U O I s n [ : J l I O : J
z z
" M i l ! , ' ] i l P O W r a i n d u i o j ' i l J O O W E - ' 7 I

Fi gure 14-4 By Nath an Moore. Computer model vi ew.
THE CHALLENGES
In ar chitect ur al education the temptation to focus on
t he contr asts between traditional an d digital media
see ms irresis tible. On the one ha nd is the beli ef that
digital media will no t only provide new opport unities
but render ot her media obsolete. On th e othe r sid e is
an equally strong commi tment to th e importan ce of
the quali tat ive impacts of traditional media. The reso-
lution of these contrasting positions lies in two cr iti -
cal perspecti ves- the ques tio n of appropriat ene ss of
media and the concep t of media int egrati on .
Figure 14-5 Devel opment sket ches, Hammonds Residence, House
+ House, archi t ect s.
The Chall enges 233
Fi gure 14- 6 Comput er-rendered view, HammondsResi dence, House+ House, architect s.
Appropriateness
When Ludwig von Ber ta lanfy, a pioneer in gene ral
systems theory, was asked w het her sys tems phi loso-
phy rendered sc ie ntific philosop hy obs olete, he
offered an ana logy that would appl y equally well to
the eva luation of commun ication medi a. He pointed
out t ha t sail -powered sh ips had lon g si nce been
replaced by diesel- and at omi c-powered ocean liner s
for intercontinental q ~ o t ranspor t. However, t his
did not inval idate the pr inciples of sailing. Sailboats
continue to play an import ant role in spor t and recre-
ation, while fuel-powered ships con tinu e to be devel-
oped to meet a range of com mercial tasks.
In graphic com munication, fr eehand drawing con-
tinues to be an evocative, comfor table, and effec tive
su ppor t for ideat ion for individual desi gn ers or
desi gn teams. Ske tc hi ng hel ps one to takc in and
"digest" environme ntal exp erien ces. The differences
between media such as charcoal , paper , clay, or pa int
promote di ffer ent pe rcep tions of the development of
a de sign and afford a tactile, kines thetic stimulus for
tho ught.
But compute r graphics have a decided edge for
ease and speed in the applica tion of conv entions such
as ort hograp hic, paraline, or perspective projection .
Th ree-di mensional modeling applications have devel-
op ed to a point where models of spaces can be
defined, illumi na ted and virtually traversed concur-
rent with design studies.
234 Conclusion
Int egrati on
Th e more promising perspec tive exploits th e comple-
mentary funct ion ali tics of t ra ditional and digit al
m edia. Ifwe focus on t he link between the media-
human t hough t- si gn ificant possi bili ties begin to
emerge. Revisiting t he process of grap hic t hinking
di scussed at the outset of t his book, we ca n see t he
image on t he com puter sc reen as on ly one compo-
nent of that pr ocess. In itself th e digital perspect ive
vi ew is meaningless. It is th e me aning the designe r
att aches to the ima ge that ma tters, and the richne ss
of that meani ng varies d epending on the dept h or
br eadth of the designer ' s percep tion. Powers of per-
cep tion, in tu rn , are related to th e bread th of th e
design er ' s expe rience with re lating a va riety of expe-
ri enc es of architect ur e with visual re present ation .
Th is train of dependencies brings us to fr eehand
sketc hing and its rol e as a tool for ga ining under-
standing of t he ro les of archit ec ture and environ-
men t.
Ult imately, graphic t hinking is about t he marvel
of human thought. Media come to life and reveal pos-
sibilities for design to t he extent th ey refl ect and pro -
voke thought and imaginat ion.
-

Figure 14-7 Computer model view.
Figure 14-8 Sketched int erpretati ons.
The Challenges 235
-
Notes

Prefaceto the Thi rd Edition
1. Peters, Thomas J. , and Waterma n, Robert H. ,Jr . In Search
of Excellence. New York: Harp er & Row, 1982.
Prefaceto the First Edition
1. Fro m "The Need of Percept io n for th e Perception of
Needs, " keynote speech by Dr. Heinz Von Foers ter deli v-
e red at th e 1975 Na t ional Conven tion of th e Am erican
Ins titute of Ar chitects, At lanta , Ge orgia.
Chapter 1
Broadbent , Geoff rey,. Design in Architectu re. New York:
John Wil ey & Sons, Inc. , 1973,p . 343.
2. Hamilton, Edward A. Graphic Design for the Computer Age.
Ne w Yor k: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1970,p . 16.
3. McKim, Rober t H. Experi ences in Visual Think ing.
Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1972,p . 22.
4. Arnheim, Rudolf. Visual Thinki ng. Berkeley: Universit y of
Cali forn ia Press, 1969, p . 13,
5. Arn heim, Rudolf "Gestalt Psyc ho logy and Artistic Form."
I n Aspect s of Form , ed ited by La ncc lot Law Whyt e.
Bloomi ngto n: India na University Press, 1966 , p.203.
6. McKim, Experiences in Visual Thinking, p.40.
7. Arn heim, "Gesta lt Psych ol ogy and Ar tist ic For m," p.206.
8. Levens, A. S. Graph ics in Engineer ing Design. Ne w York:
JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., 1962,p.415.
9, Arnheim, Rudolf.Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of
the Creative by e. Berkel ey: Un iversi ty of Ca lifor nia lrccs
1954,p. 46.
Chapter 2
1. All of the su ccessf ul architectural desi gn ers thn t I h uv.:
interviewed stressed th e importance of s ke tching ability in
theirwork.
2. Peds, Freder ick . Ego, Hunger, and Aggression . New York :
Ran do m House, 1969 .
3. Downer, Richard. Drawing Buildi ngs, New York:
WatsonGupti ll Pub licat ion s, Inc. , 1962, p . 9.
4. Cu llen, Gord on . Townscape. Lo nd on . The Ar chitect ural
Press, 1961.
5. Gundelfi nge r, John. As quoted in On -the-spot Drawing, by
Nick Megli n . New York: WatsonGuptiII Publi cations, Inc.,
1969 ,p . 62.
6. Folkes, Mi chael. Drawing Ca rtoons, New York:
WatsonGuptill Publications, Inc. , 1963, p . 19.
Chapter 3
1. Webster 's New World Dictionary, 2d ed. New York: William
Collins & World PublishingCo., Inc., 1976.
2. Arnheim, Art and Visual Percept ion. A Psychology of the
Creative Eye, p.33 .
3. Loc kard , Wi lli am Kir by. Design Drawing. Tucs on, AZ:
Pepper Publi shing, 1974, p. 124 .
4. Ja coby, Helmut. Archi tectural Drawings. New York: Pr aeger
Publishers, Inc., 1965.
5. Gunde lfinger, On-the-spot Drawing, pp. 61- 62 .
6. Lockard, Design Drawing, p. 262.
Chapter 4
1. Bonta, Jua n Pabl o. "Notes for 11 Semiot icTheory of Graphic
La ngua ges. " Paper pre se nted to th e Int ern ati onal
Conf erenceon Semi oti cs, Ulm, German y, 1972.
2. McKim,Experiences in Visual Thin hing, p. 12'1.
3. Bruner, Jerome. On Kn owing, Essays for the Left [fu nd.
Cambridge, MA: Belknap Pre ss of 1Jd( vard Un ivers . ty
Press, 1962, p. 123.
4. Arnheim, "Ges talt Psyc hology and Arti stic For. u . .p. 20' 1.
5. Bruner , On Knowing: Essays for the Left l Iand, p. 182.
6. McKi m,Experiences in Visual Thinking, pp. 1-21 1-26,
Chapter 5
1. Larson, Tom . Personal communicati on.
Chapter 6
1. Bes t, Gordo n. "Me t hod and Int ention in Arc hit ectura l
Des ign." In Design Methods in A rchitecture, edi ted by
Geoffrey Broad be nt an d Anthony Ward. New York: Ge orge
Wittenborn, Inc., 1969, p. 155.
2. Broad bent, Design in A rchitecture, p . 365.
3. McKim, Experiences in Visua l Thi nk ing; p. 105.
4. McKim, Expe riences in Visua l Thin k ing, p. 127
5. Ritte l, Ho r s t. "Some Principles for t he Design of an
Educa t ional Syst e m for Design ." Pa r i I, D!vIG Newslett er.
Ber keley, CA: Design Methods Group, De c. 1970 .
6. Pc na , Will ia m M. Problem Seek ing: An Archi tect ural
Programming Primer. Bos ton: Cahncrs Books Intern at ional,
Inc. , 1977 ,pp 170-179.
237
Chapter7
3. McKim, Experiences in Visual Thinking, p. 127.
1. Koeberg, Don, and Bagnall , Jim . The Uni versal Traveler. Los
Altos , CA: Wi lliam Kau fmann, Inc., 1976. p. 9.
2. McKim, Experiences in Visual Thinking, p. 45.
3. Rowan , Helen . "The Creat ive People: How to Spot Them."
THINK. New Yor k: IBM Corp. , Nov.- Dec. 1962, vol. 28 ,
no 10, p. 15.
4. Webst er's New World Dicti onary .
5. March, Lionel , and Steadman, Ph il ip . The Geomet ry of
Environment. London: RIBA Pu blicati on s Limited, 1971, p .
28.
6. Beeby, Thomas H. "The Grammar of Ornamen t/Orn ament
as Grammar. " VIA II1, The Jo u rn al of the Grad uate School
of Fine Ar ts, University of Pennsylva nia, 1978, p. 11.
7. Beeby, "The Grammar of Ornament/Ornament as
Gr ammar, "p p. 11-12.
8. Carl , Peter. "Towards A Pluralist Ar ch it ectur e."Progressive
Architecture. Feb. 1973, p. 84 .
9. Nor berg-Schulz, C. Existence, Space and A rchitecture. New
York: Praeger Publish ers, In c. , 1971, p . 109.
10. Hanks, Kurt , Belliston, Larry, and Ed wards, Dave. Design
Yoursel f. Los Alt os, CA: Wi lliam Kaufmann, Inc . , 1977, p .
112.
Chapter8
1. Rowan, "The Creat ive Peo ple: How to Spo t Them, "p. 11.
2. Rowan, "The Cr eati ve People : How to Spot Them," p. 13.
3. Pye, David. Th e Na t ure ofDesign. New Yor k: Re in ho ld
Publi shing Cor por ation, 1964 , pp.65- 66.
4. McKim, Experiences in Visual Th inking, p. 47.
5. Broad bent , Design in Architecture, p. 341.
6. Broadbent, Design in Archit ecture, p. 343.
7. Al exander, Ch ri sto pher, Is hikawa , Sara, an d Si lverst ein ,
Murray.A Pal/em Language. New Yor k: Ox ford Univers ity
Pr ess, 1977, pp .xliii-xliv.
Chapter9
1. Lockard, Design Drawing. p. 119.
2. Pena , Problem See k ing.' An Architect ura l Programming
Pri mer, p. 165.
Chapter 11
1. Mc Kim, Experiences in Visual Thinking, p .31.
2. Kubie, Lawr enc e.Ne uroticDist orti on of the Creat ive Process.
Gar den City, NY. Farr ar, Straus & Giro ux, Inc. (Noonday
Press), 1961.
238 Notes
4. Cherry,Colin. On Human Communication. Ca mbridge, MA:
MIT Pr ess, 1966, p . 4.
5. Jencks, Charles. LeCorbusi er and the Tragic View of
Architectur e. Cambridge, MA: Harva rd University Pres s,
1973.
Chapter 12
1. Broa d bent , Design in Archi tectur e, p . 358.
2. Caudill , Will iam W. Architecture by Team. Ne w Yor k: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co mpany, 1971.
3. For a d escr iption of brai nstor min g method s, see Gor don ,
William J. Synetics: Th e Developme nt ofCreative Capacity.
New York :Macmilla n Pu bli shing Co ., In c., 1968.
Chapter 13
1. Dr ucker, Pete r F. Th e Age of Discont inuity. New Yor k :
Har per & Row, 1968. Toffler, Alvin. Fut ure Shock . New
York: Random Ho use, 1970. Bennis, War ren G.,and Slater ,
Phil ip F.The Temporary Society. New Yor k: Ha rper & Row,
1968.
2. Thes e two renovation proj ects adap ted large older struc-
tur es for use as shopping complexes in the waterfr on t are a
of San Fr ancisco. They have bot h be e n ver y successful
socia lly, aes thetically, and econ omically.
3. Bur ns, Jim. Connections: Ways to Discover and Realize
Community Pot ential s. Stro uds b ur g, PA: Dowden, '
Hutchinson & Ross, 1979. p. 13.
4. Dowling, M. I., Eggin k, H. A., Lei sh , 8. ,an d O'Riorda n, J.
East Cambridge St udy. Ca mbr idge, MA: Graduate School of
Des ign, Harvard University, 1976.
5. Halpri n , Lawrence. From Process: A rchi tect ure No . 4
Lawrence Halprin. Ed ite d by Ching-Yu Cha ng. Tok yo:
Pr ocess Arch itects Publishing Company Ltd., 1978.
6. Burns,Connections : Waysto Discover andRealize Community
Potentials, pp . 2 1- 30.
7. The Amer ican In stitute of Ar chitects est ablish ed t he
Region al/Ur ban Design Ass istanc e Team Pr ogra m sever al
yea rs ago as a service provided by th e profes sion for the
pu blic. In its shor t history, th e pr ogram has se rved cities
th roughout ou r co u n try wit h a combi ned pop ul a tion of
over 10 milli on peopl e.
Chapter 14
1. Report of the Royal Commission on National Development in
the A rts, Letters an d Sci en ces. Ott awa , Canada: Ki ng's
Printe r, 1951.
2. Mumfor d, Lew is . Technics and Ci vil izat ion. New York:
Harcour t, Brace & Worl d,Inc., 1962. p. 6.
-

Bibliography

I. DRAWINGS AND GRAPHICS
Atkin, William Wilson. A rchitectural Present at ion Techni ques.
New York: Van Nost rand Reinhold Co., 1976.
Beittel, K. Mind and Context in the A rt of Drawing. New York:
Holt , 1972 .
Belli s, Herbert F. A rchitectu ral Drafting. New York: McGraw
Hill Book Co., 1971.
Bow ma n, Wi lliam 1. Graphic Communication. New Yor k: John
Wi ley & Sons, Inc., 1968.
Chi ng, Frank. A rchitectural Graphics. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1975.
Collier, G. Form, Space, and Vi sion. Englewo od Cli ffs , NJ:
Pren tice-Hall Inc., 1972 .
Czaja, Michae l. Freehand Drawing, Language of Design. Wal nu t
Creek , CA: Gambol Press, 1975.
DaVinci, Leonar do. N otebooks. New York : Dover Publica tions,
lnc ., 1970.
DeVries, Jan Vredeman. Perspec tive. New York: Dover
Publications, Inc., 1968 .
Down er, Richard. Drawing Buildings. New Yor k: WatsonGup till
Publicat ions, Inc., 1962.
Dubery, Fred, and Willat s, John. Drawing Systems. London: Van
. Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1972.
Golds tein, Na than. The Art of Responsive Dra wing. Englewoo d
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc. , 1973.
Goodban , Wi lliam I. , and Hayslett , Jack. A rchitect ural Drawing
and Planning. New Yor k: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1972 .
Guptill, Ar th ur Leighton. Dra wing with Pen and Ink . New York:
Reinhold Publishing Co. , 1961.
Hanks, Kur t, an d Belli ston, Larry. Draw! A Visual Appr oach to
Thi nking, Learn ing, and Communicating. Los Altos, CA:
William Kaufman n, Inc., 1977.
Han ks, Kur t, Bell iston , Lar ry, an d Edwards, Dave. Design
Yourself Los Altos, CA: William Kaufma nn, Inc., 1977.
Hayes, Cohn . Grammar of Drawing for A rtist s and Designers.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1969.
Hill , Edward. The La nguage of Drawing. New York: Prentice -
Hall Inc., 1966.
Hogarth , Pau l. Drawing A rchitecture: A Creative Approach. New
York: Walson-Guptill Publicat ions, Inc., 1973.
Ja coby, Helmu t. New Archi tectural Drawings. New York :
Praeger, 1969.
Jacob y, Helmut. New Tec hniques of Architectural Rendering.
New York : Praeger, 1971.
Kemper, Alfred. Presentation Drawings by American A rchitects.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1977.
Kliment , Stephen A. Creative Communicat ions for a Successful
Design Practice. New Yor k: Wat son-Gupti ll Publi cation s,
Inc. , 1977 .
Lockard, William Kir by. Drawing as a Means to Architecture.
New York: Reinhold, 1968.
Lockard, Willia m Kir by. Design Drawing. Rev. Ed. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982.
Lockar d, Willi am Kirby. Design Drawing Experiences. Tucson ,
AZ: Pep per Publicati on s, 1974 .
Lockwood, Arthur. Diagra ms. New Yor k: Watso nGupt ill
Publications, Inc. , 1969.
McGi nt y, Tim. Drawing Sk ills in Architectur e. Dubuque, IA:
Ken dall/ Hunt Publishing Co. , 1976 .
MendeIowitz, David M. A Guide to Drawing. New Yor k: Holt ,
Rein hart and Winston, 1976.
Murgin, Mat hew. Communicat io;z Graphics. New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1969 .
Ni col aides, K. The Natu ral Way to Draw. Boston: Houghton-
Mifflin, 1941 ; Paperback ed. , 1975.
No r t h Carolina Un iversity. State Coll ege of Agri culture and
Engineering. School of Design. The Student Pub licat ion of
the School of Design. Vol. 14, Nos. 1- 5, 1964-1 965.
O'Connell , William I. Graphic COn/munications in A rchitecture.
Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing Co., 1972 .
Pedrett i, Car lo. A Chronology of Leonardo Da Vinci 's
A rchitect ural Stu dies after 1500. Genev a: E. Droz, 1962.
Rottger , Ern st , and Klante, Dieter. Creative Drawing: Point and
Line. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1963.
Stegman , George K. Archi tectu ral Drafting Chicago: Amer ican
Technical Society, 1966 .
Stein berg, Saul. The Labyrinth. New York: Harper & Bro the rs,
1960 .
Thiel, Phillip. Freehand Drawing, a Primer. Seattle : Univers ity
of Washington Press, 1965.
Th urber, James . Th urber nd Company. New York: Harper &
Row Publishers Inc., 1966.
Walker, Th eodo re D. Plan Graphics. West Lafayette, IN: PDA
Publica tions, 1975.
Weidhaas, Ernes t R. A rchit ectural Drafting and Construction.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1974 .
White, Edward T. Con cept Sou rcebook. Tucson , AZ:
Archi tectural Media, 1975.
II. DESIGN AND PROBLEM-SOLVING
Ada ms, James L. Conceptual Blockbusting. New Yor k: Scribner,
1974.
239
Alexa nder, Christ ophe r. N otes on the Synthesis of Form.
Cam br idge, MA: Harvard Uni versity Press , 1967.
Alexa nde r, Chris tophe r, Ishi kawa , Sa ra, and Silvers te in,
Murr ay. A Pat tern Language. New York : Oxford Universi ty
Press, 1977 .
Alger, j. , and Hays, C. Creative Synthesis in Des ign. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ : Pr entice -Hall Inc., 1964.
Ar c her, L. Br uce. The Struct ure of Design Processes. London:
Royal College of Arl, 1968.
Ben der , To m G. Environment al Design Primer. New York:
Schoken , 1976.
Best , Go rdon. "Method and In tenti on in Ar chitect ura l Design. "
Design Met hods in Archit ecture. Edite d by Broadbe nt a nd
Ward. New York: George Witt enborn In c., 1969.
Broadbent, Geo ff rey. Design in A rchitectu re. New Yor k: John
Wi ley & Sons , In c., 1973.
Bro ad bent, Geoffr ey, and Ward, An thony, eds. I. Design
Me thods in A rchitecture Symposium. Ne w Yor k: G.
Wit tenborn, 1969.
Burn s, Jim. Connec tions: Ways to Discover and Reali ze
Comm unity Potential s. St ro udsbu rg, PA. Do wden ,
Hu tchinson & Ross , Inc., 1979.
Duffy, Fra ncis, and Torrey, Joh n . "A Pr ogress Repor t on the
Pattern Language." In Moor e, Gary T , Emerging Methods in
Environmental Design and Planning. Cambr idge, MA: MIT
Press, 1970.
Environmental Design: Research and Practice. En vironm en tal
Desi gn Res earc h Co nference. Los Angel es : University of
Californ ia, 1972
Ga rr e tt , L. Visual Design, A Problem Sol ving Approach. Ne w
Yor k: Reinhold , 1967.
Ha lprin, Burn s. Taking Part . Ca mbridge: MIT Pr ess, 1974 .
Halprin, Lawrence. RSVP Cycles. New Yor k: G eorge Braziller
Inc. , 1969.
Hc imsath , Cloris. Behavioral Archi tecture. New Yor k: McGra w -
Hill Book Co., 1977.
Jon es, Joh n Christopher. Design Methods. New York : John
Wi ley & Sons, Inc. , 1920.
Jo nes, Owen. The Grammar of Ornament. London: B. Qua ritc h,
19 10.
Koberg, Don, and Bagnall , Jim. The Universal Traveler. Los
Alt os, CA: Willi am Kaufm ann, Inc ., 1972 .
Manheim, Marvin L. Problem Solving Processes in Planning and
Design. Cambridge, MA: School of Enginee r ing. MIT, 1967 .
Moore , Cha rl es Will ard , Lyndon , Oon lyn, and Allen , Gerald.,
The Place of Houses. Ber kel ey, CA : Unive rs ity of Ca lifo rn ia
Pr ess, 2000.
Moor e, Ga ry T Emerging Methods in Environmental Design and
Planning. Cambrid ge, MA: Design Met ho ds Group . MIT
Press, 1968.
Mu mford, Lewis. The Ci ty m Hi story. New Yor k: Har court,
Brace & Worl d, Inc., 1961.
Nelson , George. Probl ems of Design. Ne w Yor k: Whit ney
Publishe rs, 1957 .
Pena , Wi lliam M., with Caudi ll, William W , an d Focke, John
W Problem Seek ing. Hous ton : Ca udill Rowlett Scott, 1969.
III. VISUAL COMMUNICATION AND PERCEPTION
Alexander, H. Language and Thinning. New York : Van Nostrand
Rei nhold Co. , 1967.
Arn heim, Rud olf . Visual Thi nking. Ber keley: Univers ity of
Ca liforn ia Press, 1969.
Bach , M. Power of Perception . Ga rde n City, NY: Doubl eday,
1966.
Bar tlett , F. C. Remembe ring. New York : Ca mbrid ge Univers ity
Press, 1977.
Bar tley, S. Principles of Perception. New York: Harp er, 1972.
Block, H., a nd Sali nge r, H. The Creati ve Vision. Glou ces ter,
MA: Peter Smith, 1968.
Bois, J . The Art of Aware ness. Dubuque, 1A: W C. Bro wn, 1973.
Br y, Ade laide, a nd Bair, Marjorie. Directi ng M ovies of Your
Mind: Visuali zat ion for Health and I nsight s. New York :
Ha rper and Row, 1978.
Ch omsky, Noa m. Language and Mind. New Yor k: Ha rcour t
Bra ce Jovanovi ch, 1972.
Ch oms ky, Noarn . "Review of B. F. Skinner Verbal Behavior. "
Language Magaz ine, Jan - Mar 1959.
Cunningham, S., and Rea gan, C. Handbook of Visual Perceptual
Train ing. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1972 .
Feldman , Edmund Burk e. Art As Image and Idea. Englew ood
Cliffs, NJ : Pr en tice-Ha ll Inc. , 1967.
Gibson , j. The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. Boston :
Houghton-Miffl in, 1966.
Gi bson , James. The Percept ion of the Visual World. Bos to n .
Hou gh ton-Miffl in , 1950 .
Harlan, C. Vision and Invention. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall Inc., 1970.
Hayak awa , S. Language in Th ought and Action . New York:
Har cour t Brace Jova novic h, 1978.
Huxley, A. The A rt of Seeing. Seatt le, WA: Madrona Publishers,
1975.
Jan son, H. W. The Nature of Representation: A Phenomenological
Enquiry. New Yor k: Ncw Yor k University Pr ess, 196 1.
j can ner et-Gris, Cha rles Edouard. New Worl d of Space. New
Yor k: Reynal an d Hitch cock, 1948.
Kepes, Gyorgy. Language of Vision. Chicago, IL: Paul The obold
and Co. , 1944 .
Lucki esh, Ma tt hew. Visual Ill usions, Their Causes,
Characteristics and Applicati ons. New Yor k: Dover, 1965.
McKim, Rober t H. Experiences in Visual Think ing. Mo n terey,
CA: Br ookes/Cole, 1972 .
The Notebook of Paul Klee. Vol. 1 The Thi nking Eye. New Yor k:
Witt en born , 1978.
Para menter, Ross. The Awahened Eye. Middletown , CT
Wesleyan Un ive rsity Press, 1968.
Pitcher, G. A Theory of Perceptio ns. Pr in ceton , NJ : Prince ton
Univer sity, 197 1
Robert son , T In novati ve Behavior an d Communi cat ion . New
York : Holt, 1971
Samuels , M., an d Samuels, N. Seei ng wi th the Mi nd's Eye. New
Yor k: Random Hou se. 1975.
2 4 0 Bi bliography
Summer, Robert. The Mi nd's Eye. New York: Dell Publi shing,
1978.
Vygotsky, Lev S. Thought and Languag e. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1962.
Walker, Theodore D. Perceptio n and Environmental Design. West
Lafayette, IN: PDA Publi shers, 1971.
Whi teh ead , Alfred Nort h. Sy mbolism , Its Mea ning and Effect.
New York: Macmillan Co. , 1959.
IV. CREATIVITY
Banker, W. Brain Storms, New York: Grove, 1968.
Ba rre tt , W. Time of Need: Forms of Imagination in the 20th
Century. New York: Harper, 1972.
Batt en, M. Discovery By Chance. New York: Funk and Wagnalls
Co., 1968.
Berrill , N. J. Man's Emerging M ind: The Story of Man 's Progress
Through Ti me. New York: Faw cett World Library, 1965.
Boas, G. History of Ideas. New York : Scri bners, 1969.
Bourne, L. Human Conceptual Behavior. Bost on : All yn and
Bacon , 1966.
Brown , R. The Creative Spi rit. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat,
1970.
Br une r, J., Goodnow, 1., and Austin, G. A Study of Thinking.
New York: Wiley, 1956.
Burton, W, Kimball, R., and Wing, R. Educat ion for Effective
Think ing. New York: Appleton , 1960.
Chang, C. Y. Creativity and Taoism. New York: Harper, 1970.
Cobb, S. Discovering the Genius Within You. Metuch en, NJ:
Scarecrow, 1967.
. DeBono, E. Lateral Th inking. New York: Harper, 1972.
DeBono, E. New Think . New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1968.
Dyer, E, and Dyer, J. Bu reaucracy vs. Creati vity. Coral Gables,
FL: Un iversity of Miami , 1965
Eberl e, R. Scamper' Ga mes for I maginative Devel opment.
Buffalo: D.O.K., 1972.
Ga rf ield, Patrici a . Creative Dreaming. New York: Ball ant in e
Book s, 1974.
Gombrich , F. H. A rt an d Illu sion. New York:
Ph ardon/Pantheon , 1960.
Gordon, W. J. J. Synectics: The Dev elopment of Creat ive Capacity.
New Yor k: Macmillan, 1968.
Green e, Herb. Mind and Image. Lexing ton, KY: University
Press of Kentucky, 1976.
Gruber , Howard E., ed. Contempora ry A pproaches to Creative
Thinking. New York: Ath erton Press, 1963.
Koestler, Ar th ur. The Act of Creat ion: A Study of Conscious and
Unconscious in Scie nce and Art. New York: Dell Publishing,
1973
Korner, S. Concept ual Thin ki ng: A Logical Inquiry. New Yor k:
Dover, 1959 .
Krippner, S. , and Hu ghes, W. Dre ams and Human Poten tial.
Pap er presented to American Associ at ion of Humanisti c
Psychology, 1969.
Maslow, A. H. The Farther Reaches of Human Na ture. New Yor k:
Th e Viking Press, 1973.
McKellar, Peter. Imaginati on and Th ink ing: A Psychologi cal
A nalysis. Norwood, PA. Nor wood Editions, 1978.
Osb orn, A. F. Applied Imagination: Principles and Practices of
Creat ive Thinking. New York : Scri bners, 1957
Pikas, A. A bst ract ion and Concept' Forma tion . Ca mbridge, MA:
Harvard University, 1966.
Pollock , T. Managing Creat ively. Boston : Cahner s Book s, 1971.
Prince, George M. The Practice of Creativity. New York: Harper
& Row (paperbac k, Collier Books, 1972 ).
Reed , F. Developing Creative Talent. New York: Vantage, 1962.
Rieser , Dolf . Art and Science. New Yor k: Van Nos t rand
Reinhold , 1972 .
Rowan, Hel en. "Th e Creative Peopl e: Ho w to Spot Them. "
THINK. New Yor k: IBM Cor p. Nov.-Dec., 1962, pp. 7-15.
Samples, Robe rt. I nt roduct ion to the Metaphoric Mi nd. Reading,
MA: Addi son-Wesley Publi shing Co., 1976.
Wat son, James D. The Doubl e Helix. Pasadena, CA: At heneum
Press, 1969.
B ibliography 24 1
Illustration Credits
1-1, 8-29: By permission of Biblioteca Ambr osian a , Mi lano.
From t he Codex A tlan tiCll s, figures 37 and 86 in Leonardo
DaVinci : Th e Royal Palace at Romarantin by Carl o Padrett i.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972 .
1-2, 1-3: Rep ro duced from the Catalogue of the Drawings
Coll ection of the Royal Inst it ut e of Br itish A rchitects, vol ume 9,
Edwin Lut yen s, pu bli sh ed by Gregg International, an imprint
of Avebury Publi shing Company, England, 1973.
1-4,7-3, 7-33 , 11-1: Repr odu ced from A lvar Aalto: Synopsis,
edited by Bern hard Hoesli , published by Bir kh auser Verl ag,
Basel, 1970.
1-5, 5- 11, 5-15: Cour te sy of Thomas N. Lar son, FAAR, Th e
Architec ts Collaborative .
1-6, 7-34, 11-10: Court esy of Th omas H. Beeby, Hammond,
Beeby, Babka , Archit ects, Chicago.
1-7, 2-6, 5-4: From At kin , Will iam W. Architect ural Presentation
Techn iqu es. e 1976 by Litt on Educational Publi shing, Inc .
Reprinted by pe rmission of Van Nos trand Reinhold Company.
1-8: Fr om Er man, Adolph . Life in Anci ent Egyp t. New York :
repri nt ed by Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1969. Distributed by Arno
Press, Inc.
1-17: From Cybernetic Serendipi ty: The Computer and the A rts.
New York: Praeger Publishe rs, Inc., 1968.
1-24, 5-2, 11-2: Cour tesy of Da vid T. Stieglitz, Stieglitz Stieglitz
Tries, Architects, Buf falo , NY.
1-27: Repr inted fr om th e Jul y 1978 issu e of Progr essive
A rchitect ure, copy right 1978, Reinhold Publishi ng Company.
2-2, 5-20, 5-22, 5-23, 7-29: Reprod uced by permission of Lisa
Kolber.
2-3, 7-18: Reprinted with the permission of Pr oces s Architects
Publishing Compa ny Ltd., Tokyo, and Lawr ence Ha lpr in.
Copyr ight 1978. From Process: A rchit ect ure No. 4 Lawre nce
Halprin.
2-4: Reproduced by permission of Karl Brown .
2-5: Reprinted wit h the permission of Des ign Pub lica tion s, Inc.
From t he Ma rch 1975 issue of Industrial Design Magaz ine.
2-7, 5-21, 5-26, 5-27: Repr odu ced by pe rmi ssion of Pat rick P.
NaIl.
2-38: Reproduced by permi ssion of Todd Carlson.
3- 1: Rendering of the Studen t Union Housing, University of
Albe rta at Edmonton, Ar chitects: A. J . Diamond and Barton
Myer s in as sociation with R. 1. Wilkin, Architect, and Bart on
Myers, Partn er-in-Cha rge. Rendering by A. J. Diamo nd.
3-21: Cour tesy of Thoma s P. Tr uax . From a resear ch study,
Ohio Univers ity School of Architectur e and Planning, 1974.
3-24, 3-25: Reprint ed fr om Hel mut Ja coby Archit ectural
Drawings. New Yor k: Pr aeger Publishers, Inc., 1965.
3-26: Reprint ed from Freehand Drawing: Language of Design, by
Michael Czaja. Walnu t Creek, CA: Gambol Pr ess, 1975.
3-27, 5-14: Courtesy of Michael F. Gebhar t , The Architects
Collabor ati ve.
3-28: Reprod uced by pe rmission of Bret Dodd.
5-5, 7-5, 8-30: Repr inted from atelier rue de Sev res 35, by
Gu illermo Jullian de la Fuente and Anthony Eardley, a cat a-
logue from an exhibition of project s ketche s and notes from
LeCorbu sier to Guillermo Jullian de la Fuente published by the
College of Archit ecture in collaboration with the University
Art Galler y, Uni ver sit y of Kentucky, Lexington.
7-6: Fr om Rich ard Saul Wur man and Eugene Feldman. The
Notebc ok s and Drawings of Louis I. Kahn. Ca mbridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1962.
5-1' By cour tesy of Archi tectur al Publishers Art emis, Zur ich .
Published in Louis I. Kahn . Copyright 1975 .
5-3, 5-9: Cour tesy of Edwin F. Harris, Jr., ' 59. From The St udent
Publica tion of the School of Design, vol. 10, num ber 2, North
Car olina State University, Ralei gh, NC.
5-6: From Papadaki , Stamo . The Worh of Oscar Nie meyer. New '
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1950.
5-7, 5-19: Cour tes y of James W. Anderson and Landplus West ,
l nc., Lan d Planne rs/ Landscape Architects.
5-8: Reprinted with the permi ssion of Lawrence Halprin. From
The RS VP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Envi ronment .
New York: George Braziller, Inc ., 1969.
5-10, 5-12,7-7: Courtesy of Gerald Exline. From Williams, A.
Richa rd. The Urban Stage (Study Dra ft ). Champagne-Urban a,
IL, 11:1976.
5-13: Reprinted wi th th e permission of Pro cess Ar chit ec ts
Publishing Company Ltd ., Tok yo, and Romald o Giurgol a,
Copyright 1977 . From Process: Architecture No. 2 Mit chell
Giurgola Architects.
5-17: Drawing by architect Hu gh Stubbins , from his book
Archit ecture: The Design Experience. New Yor k: John Wil ey and
Sons, 1976.
5-25: Reproduced by per mission of Thomas A. Cheesman.
5-24 Reprodu ced by pe rmission of James A. Walls.
7-11, 7-12: Fr om "The Gramma r of Ornament /Ornam ent as
Grammar " by Tho mas H. Beeb y, publi sh ed in VI A II I, The
j ournal of th e Graduate School of Fine Arts, Unive rsity of
Pennsy lvania . Reprinted wit h th e permission of Th omas H.
Beeby.
7-28: Reprinted fr om Norberg-Schulz. C. Ex is tence, Spa ce &
Archi tecture. New Yor k: Praeger Publi shers, Inc., 1971.
7-32: Cour tesy of Th omas P. Tru ax. From mast er ' s t hesis proj-
ec t, Ohio University, 1975.
-
242
8-14: Co ur tesy of Mar k S. Sowatsky. Fro m Atlantis 2, t hesis
proj ect , Coll ege of Arch itectur e a nd Pla nning , Ball State
Uni ver sity, Indian a, 1977.
10- 12, 10- 13, 10-14, 10-17: Re pr od uced by pe rmission of
Raymond Ga et an.
1015 , 10-16: Rep roduced by permi ssio n of Tim Treman.
12-3, 12-4: Reprin ted wit h t he permissio n of William W.
Ca ud ill , FAIA, Ca ud ill Rowle tt Scott , fro m hi s boo k
Archit ecture by Team. Ne w York: Van Nos trand Rei nh old
Company, 1971.
13-5, 13-6: Drawn by Harry A. Eggink. From the East
Cambridge Study, by Michael Ju sti n Dowling, Ha rry A. Eggink,
Br uce Leish , and Joan O' Riord an , Urba n Design Prog ra m,
Graduate School of Design, Ha rva rd Unive rsity, 1976 .
13-7,13-8,13-9, 13-10,13- 11. Reprin ted with the permi ssion of
the publishers and St eve Levi ne from Connections: Way s to
Discover and Realize Community Potential by Jim Burns.
Copyr ight 1979 by Do wden , Hu t chinson & Ross, Inc.,
Publi sher, Str oudsburg, PA.
13-13: Repri nt ed with the pe rmission of Pet er Ha sselman, AlA,
from the Atla ntic City Stud y. Ame rican Ins titute of Archi tect s,
Regiona l/Urban Design Assistance Team.
13-12: Rep r inted with the pe rmission of John De smond , FAIA,
fro m Phoenix Study. Ameri ca n Inst itute of Ar chitects,
Regional/Urba n Des ign Assista nce Team.
13-14, 13-15: Rep r int ed by th e permission of W. P_ Dur kee,
Urban Design As socia tes, Pit tsb urgh, a nd Roy Ma nn, Roy
Mann Associ ates , Ca mb ridge, MA, from Port smou th Study.
Ameri can In sti tute of Architects, Regional/ Urba n Des ign
Assistance Team.
13-16: Repr in ted wi th the pe rmission of Charles A. Blessi ng,
FAIA, fr om Phoenix Study. American Instit ute of Ar chitects,
Regional/Urban Design Assistan ce Team.
13-17, 13-18: Drawn by Har ry Eggink. Pre limina ry sketches for
Basketball Hall of Fame at New Castle, IN.
13-19: Drawn by Ha rry Eggink. Rogan House, Elkhar t, IN.
13-20: Drawn by Har ry Eggink. East Bank Develop me nt for
Elkh art, IN.
13-21 , 13-22, 13-23: Reprinted wit h the permission of Harr y
Eggin k fro m Aleph Park, a computer-based, high -tech, indu s-
trial si te planni ng ca se study (Harry A. Eggink and Robert J.
Koes ter, project di rec tors ; Mi chel e Mounayar, principal con-
s ulta nt ]. Muncie, IN: Ball State Univer si ty, College of
Arc hitect ure and Planning and Ce nte r for Ene rgy
Resea rch/Ed ucati on/Service, 1984 .
14- 1, 14-2, 14-3, 14-4: Rep roduced by permi ssio n of Na tha n
Moo re.
14-5: By David Th ompson Design. Reproduced by permission
of Hou se + House Arc hitect s.
14-6: Computer ren dering by Shawn Brown. Rep roduced by
permiss ion of House + House Architects.
Illustration Credits 243
Index

Aalto, Alva r, 3, 151
Abstraction:
ap plied, 86
and experi ence, 83
and problem solving , 113
Activity pa tte rn s, 96
Aestheti c orde r, 77
Alexander, Ch ristophe r, 156-157
Analogies , 144-147
Ana lysi s cards, 206-207
Arti cu lation , 165-166
Balance, 103
Beh avior, 78
Book or gani zati on , 13
Bra instorming,210
Buildingprogram,87
Cartoons, 34
Charac ter, 73
Challenges, 233-234
Climate, 95
Communica tion in the design process, 182
Communit y design, 219-22 1
Communit y workshop process, 220
Comparison, 82
Comprehensive vi ews, 40
Concept for mation, 149
Conceptua l/perceptua l th in kin g,200
Concrete:
images, 40 , 171
thinking, 200
Cond itioni ng, mental/physica l, 191
Cons istency,67
Consoli dation, 171-172
Cons truc tion process, 97
Contextvariab les, 82
Cost-be nefit ana lys is, 170
Creativity, 70
Da Vinci, Leonardo,
Design:
breif.212-213
communication, 14-15
as lifetime process, 198
objectives, 80
problems, 87
process, 180-181
De tails, 174
Direct ion, 71
Discove ry, 14 1
Di scr imina tion , 34
Dis ti llation, 70
Distortion, 128-129
Diversity, 105
Doodles, 36
Dr awing, 17
Drawi ng evaluation, 170
Econo my ofexpress ion, 74
Effec tive Communication, 11
Elabora tion, 173
Energy, 70
Env ironmen ta l prob lem-solvi ng, 187
Env ironment for thinking/designing, 190
Equipment , 190
Escape, 147
Evaluat ion, 167-169
Evalua tion criteria, 168
Exp erience reversal, 124
Exploration, 115
Extraction, 82
Fantasy analogy, 146
Figur e-ground drawings, 125
Focus , 71
For m, 100
Fre ehand drawing , 20-26
244
Games, visu al -mental, 37
Graphic:
grammar, ~ 6 8
grammars, altern ate, 58
language:56
applying, 64,206-207
pitfalls of, 64
Gra phic Th inking:
applied to design, 183
communica tion process,8-9
options, 184
role in architecture, 12
tra dition , 1
Graphic vocabul ary, 59-63
Growth of ideas, 134
Hierarchy, 106
Ideagram, 149
Ide ntities ,59
Ident ity, 67
Images, stru ct ur ing, 130
Imagin ati on , 35
Inc reasing effec tiveness, 147-148
Individual design , 189
Inventi on , 142-143
Inviti ng communication, 2 19
LeCorbusier ,2, 116, 152, 159,206
Linework,24
Manipulati on ve rbs, 135
Mass, 103
Matrix, 154
Modifiers, 60
Mood,73
Need,88
Ne twor k diagrams,208-209
Notebooks, 1
Obj ectives,design, 92
Observation,20
Observations, co mbining, 27
Ope n-ended images, 116-117
Oppor tunity-seeking, 115
Ordering images, 130- 131
Ornamentalgrammar, 120-123
Overcoming obs tacles , 196-197
Para llel projecti ons,46
Par ti, 149
Patte rn langua ge, 156-157
Per ception , 31-32
Percep tua l image, 8-9
Persona lanalogy, 144-145
Perspective ,41-43
Physi ca l be havior, 90
Physica lsite analys is, 98
Plan sec tion,48
Plan sketches, 48
Preparation for design ing, 190-191
Pr iorities,design, 91
Pro blem-s olving process, 180
Process, 179
Progra m, building, 76
Pro porti on, 102
Prototypes, 150-153
Public de sign ,2 17
Puzzles, visu al, 36-37
Pyramid of possi bilities, 134
Qualitative representation ,44
Random thoughts, 148
Recentering, 103
Reduction, 70
Refreshment, 70
Relations hips, 89
Repetition, 104
Representation:
eleme ntary forms, 40
qualit a tive,44
Reversals, 124-127
Rhythm, 104
Scale, 102
Section sketches,47
Selectivit y, 68
Sen se awar eness , 148
Simultaneity, 13
Site ana lys is, 98
Site selection, 94
Index 245
Sketch:
brsic element s, 24-26
buil dinga,22
det ails, 26
structure,24
tech nique,50
tones, 25
Sket ches,ab stract , 82
Sketch-notebook, 18
Skill develop ment , 17
Sources ofsolutions, 107
Spac e/order, 100-101
Stimulat ion, 131
Style,68
Symbolic analogy, 148
Synectics, 148
Team:
design ,203
techniques ,211-215
Thinking:
abstract , 192-193
concrete, 192- 193
pr ivate, 194-195
public , 194-195
reversals, 117
Tones, 25
Topological con tinu ity, 118-119
Tracing, 28
Transformation, 118
program to schemat ic desi gn,82-83
Uni ty, 105
Urban design, 222-223
Varibl es in design, 86-87
Verificat ion, 163
and exper ience, 175
Ver ticalsection,47
Vision,5-6
Visual:
communication,4
perception, 13
th inki ng, 6
Visual -me nta l games , 36
Vit ality,70
Wright ,Frank Lloyd, 118, 150, 199
Yin and yang, 124

24 6 Index