Application of Microchemical Characterization of Placer Gold Grains To Exploration For Epithermal Gold Mineralization in Regions of Poor Exposure

Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 1 26 www.elsevier.
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Application of microchemical characterization of placer gold grains to exploration for epithermal gold mineralization in regions of poor exposure
R.J. Chapman a,, J.K. Mortensen b
b a School of Earth and Environment, The University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia, 6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4
Received 7 February 2005; accepted 28 December 2005 Available online 20 March 2006
Abstract The style of gold mineralization (e.g., mesothermal, porphyry, intrusion related, high-sulphidation epithermal, low sulphidation epithermal) is normally established at an early stage in the gold exploration process from the study of the mineralogical and lithological examination of outcrop, but this approach is problematic in areas of poor exposure. However, placer gold is frequently present in local drainages, and may be characterized according to the alloy composition and the suite of mineral inclusions. In the temperate areas which are the subject of this study, this microchemical signature of the cores of placer gold grains reflects that of gold from the hypogene source. Thus, informed speculation on the nature of the source bedrock mineralization is possible through comparison of the microchemical signature of placer grains with the generic characteristics of gold from different styles of mineralization. A holistic approach involving consideration of the local geology and microchemical signatures of populations of placer gold grains can be used to infer the presence of epithermal gold mineralization. Epithermal gold deposits are characterized by a wide range of Ag values in the electrum grains and a corresponding complex mineralogy of the opaque inclusion suite. Having established that the placer grains are likely to be derived from epithermal mineralization, the sulphidation style may be inferred through comparison of the sulphide mineral inclusion suite with the compositional fields which define the sulphidation state of the mineralization. In addition, suites of telluride minerals can be used to constrain the possible sulphidation state of the mineralization using log f Te2/log f S2 diagrams. Further useful information is available from the study of non-opaque inclusions which can be used to indicate sulphidation state and the type of wall rock alteration associated with the mineralization. Two case studies have been undertaken to illustrate the value of this approach. The Eureka Creek locality in Yukon Territory, Canada lies in an unglaciated region where bedrock is covered by mainly residual overburden derived from local bedrock sources. At Borland Glen in Scotland there have been several periods of glaciation which have influenced geomorphology in particular by forming deep thicknesses of till and rare bedrock exposures. In neither case has outcropping mineralization been identified. This study describes how consideration of compositional and morphological data of placer gold together with an understanding of the geological setting has indicated that both placers are derived from low-sulphidation epithermal mineralization. The Eureka Creek locality forms part of a goldfield with a recorded production of roughly 150,000 oz. The microchemical signature of the placer gold is consistent with the signature of the low-sulphidation epithermal gold and consequently distinct from the major gold mineralization found to the north in the Klondike District. Interpretation of the opaque mineral inclusion suite using log f S2temperature diagrams indicates a temperature of formation near 200 C.
Corresponding author. Fax: +44 113 343 5259. E-mail address: R.Chapman@earth.leeds.ac.uk (R.J. Chapman). 0375-6742/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.gexplo.2005.12.004
R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126
A similar approach has shown gold from a highly anomalous placer occurrence in Borland Glen, Ochill Hills, Scotland to be of local origin and most probably derived from an episode of low-sulphidation epithermal mineralization unique to the region. Three phases of mineralization corresponding to different mineral inclusion/gold alloy compositions have been identified, only one of which has the potential to be of economic importance. The sequence of deposition of the three phases has been established. The mineralization from which the placers were derived is hosted at least in part by propylitically altered wall rock. The areal extent of the surface expression of the most significant gold type has been investigated through identification of gold grains which exhibit a diagnostic internal texture of different phases of alloy compositions each associated with specific inclusion assemblages. This approach has proved an efficient tool in demarking a new target area within a region where placer gold derived from sources of low economic potential is also moderately abundant. This study has highlighted the potential value of characterizing the mineral inclusion suites of placer gold grains as part of a wider array of analytical approaches including determining the alloy compositions and morphological studies. 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Gold; Exploration; Epithermal; Placer; Microchemical characterization
1. Introduction The emerging importance of epithermal gold deposits during the last 30 years has encouraged detailed study of their characteristics and genesis (e.g., White and Hedenquist, 1990; White et al., 1995; Sillitoe, 1999; Cooke and Simmons, 2000), and the increased understanding of the diversity of styles and characteristics of epithermal and related mineralization resulting from this work has been applied to exploration. Hedenquist et al. (2000) and Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) adopted a holistic approach to the characterization of epithermal occurrences based initially upon establishing the sulphidation state of the mineralization and the nature of the associated alteration. This information guides subsequent exploration strategies whose aim is ultimately to delineate and evaluate the mineral deposit. Establishing the sulphidation state of the mineralization and the nature of the alteration is dependent upon mineralogical and petrological characterization of the mineralization, which normally demands adequate exposure at surface. However, in some cases outcrop is obscured by deep cover, and the only evidence for local mineralization is the occurrence of eluvial and/or placer gold. There are many examples of placer gold occurrences for which the source mineralization has not been identified (e.g., the Klondike District placers, Yukon Territory, Canada (e.g., Knight et al., 1999a); Ninemile Valley, central Western Montana, USA (Lange and Gignoux, 1999)). Several workers have applied the chemical characteristics of the placer gold to aid the exploration process. Knight et al. (1999a,b) successfully correlated the Au/Ag ratios (commonly expressed as fineness = Au / (Au + Ag) * 1000) and Hg and Cu compositions of placer gold from the Klondike District in
Yukon Territory, Canada, with the signatures of gold from local bedrock gold sources. In an extension of this work, Dumula and Mortensen (2002) showed that the signatures of gold from different areas of western Yukon Territory were distinctive, and that knowledge of particular signatures could aid the exploration process. Townley et al. (2003) produced compositional fields in terms of Au, Ag and Cu content for gold from some low and high sulphidation epithermal deposits and CuAu porphyry deposits in South America and southeast Asia. This approach is not diagnostic for the style of mineralization, however, since many lode gold occurrences of other styles investigated by Chapman et al. (2000a, 2002) exhibit compositions within the fields quoted. Additional valuable information regarding the origins of placer gold can be obtained from the study of the microinclusion assemblages of opaque and transparent minerals found within the gold grains. The correlation of this information with the alloy compositions is the basis of the technique of microchemical characterization developed by the British Geological Survey (BGS) during study of placer gold grains in Devon, England (Leake et al., 1992). The gold alloy composition is quantitatively determined in terms of the main alloying elements (typically Au, Ag, Cu, and Hg) using an electron microprobe (EMP). Secondly the inclusion suite of opaque and transparent minerals revealed in polished section is determined using reflected light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or SEM only. According to the nature of the placer gold studied the various elements of the microchemical signature assume different importance. Thus alloy composition alone is capable of discriminating between placer gold from multiple sources in the Klondike District (Knight et al., 1999a) but the study of mineral inclusions has proved to be
more revealing in some cases; for example, in detecting subtle differences between metasediment hosted gold on a local and regional scale in Great Britain and Ireland (Chapman et al., 2000a,b). The most useful data derives from correlating different opaque inclusion assemblages with variations in alloy composition to identify multiple
populations of gold represented in a single placer. For example, Potter and Styles (2003) identified two distinct populations in the gold from the Estero Hondo mine in Ecuador on the basis both of different ranges of alloy compositions each hosting distinct mineral inclusion assemblages. One type was correlated with local skarn
Fig. 1. Locations of study areas. (A) Shows the Eureka Creek area, Yukon Territory, Canada. 1: Area of samples taken from colluvium adjacent to upper Eureka Creek, 2: upper Eureka Creek placer locality, 3: lower Eureka Creek locality, 4: Virgin Lode, 5: Hunker Dome Lode, 6: Violet lode, 7: Aime lode, 8: upper Dominion Creek, 9: lower Dominion Creek. (B) Shows the regional setting of the Borland Glen study area and details of Borland Glen, Ochil Hills, Scotland. 1: Calliacher Burn, 2: Glen Quaich, 3: Sma Glen, 4: Keltie Burn, 5: Area of Borland Glen study area.
mineralization, but the source of the second gold type remains unproven. Elsewhere the technique has been applied in several different ways; (1) to facilitate both local and regional analyses of the variation in gold signature and relationship to host lithology (Naden et al., 1994; Naden and Henney, 1995; Styles et al., 1995; Leake et al., 1997; Chapman et al., 2000a,b; Mortensen et al., 2004); (2) as a tool in the exploration process (Chapman et al., 2000c; Chapman et al., 2002) and (3) to identify broad differences in signatures of gold from different styles of mineralization worldwide (Chapman et al., 2002). This paper describes two case studies to demonstrate how establishing chemical and mineralogical characteristics of alluvial and eluvial gold grains can facilitate speculation on the style of source mineralization even when no surface exposure is available for study. The two case studies presented here relate to placer occurrences where the source mineralization has yet to be discovered. The technique of microchemical characterization of placer gold grains has been applied to the study areas and environs to show that the gold is most likely derived from local epithermal mineralization and subsequent investigations have focused on further characterization of the source mineralization based upon this premise. The locations of the two study areas are given in Fig. 1A and B. 2. Considerations for the study of placer grains derived from epithermal gold mineralization There are several avenues of investigation which may illuminate the nature of epithermal mineralization given the characteristics of the placer gold grains. These are described in detail below. 2.1. Gold alloy composition Shikazono and Shimizu (1988) compiled a large amount of gold compositional data from various styles of Japanese and Korean gold mineralization. They showed that the Ag contents of epithermal mineralization is commonly higher than for mesothermal gold mineralization and that the range of compositions of grains from within individual epithermal deposits is usually far greater than observed for mesothermal gold. Morrison et al. (1991) also compiled alloy composition data from a wide range of sources in order to compare variations in Au/Ag ratios of gold from a variety of styles of gold mineralization. These authors interpreted these data in terms of the controls of deposition from the mineralizing fluids and concluded that gold from
mesothermal environments exhibits a limited range of fineness between different deposits (average fineness values of 8001000), which reflects ore deposition primarily by sulphidation. Data generated through microchemical studies of gold throughout the world since the study of Morrison et al. (1991) is consistent with their observations. Studies of mesothermal gold from Malaysia (Henney et al., 1994), Great Britain and Ireland (Chapman et al., 2000a) and the Klondike District (Dumula and Mortensen, 2002) all show that gold derived from a single mesothermal mineralizing event exhibits a relatively narrow range of alloy compositions. In contrast, ore formation in epithermal environments commonly results from cooling, boiling and/or mixing of ore fluids either individually or in combination, which can result in the precipitation of precious metals from both bisulphide and chloride complexes. Consequently the fineness of gold precipitated in these environments can range from 0 to 1000, and Morrison et al. (1991) noted the range in alloy composition of gold grains from an individual mineralizing event is commonly also very large. 2.2. The opaque inclusion assemblage Microinclusions of both opaque and transparent minerals within placer gold have been noted by various workers (e.g., Desborough et al., 1970; Loen, 1993; Lange and Gignoux, 1999). Opaque inclusions usually exhibit a maximum dimension of between 3 and 20 m in cross section and may be manifested either as irregular blebs or euhedral particles. These inclusions may be simple minerals or comprise complex intimate associations of several phases. Examples of mineral inclusion characteristics observed during the present study are presented in Fig. 2. The consistency in the depositional environment of mesothermal gold described by Morrison et al. (1991) also results in relatively simple inclusion assemblages, typically dominated by sulphides and sulpharsenides. The most useful method of analysis of these assemblages from comparative purposes is the determination of the proportions of mineral species that belong to the various mineral classes (e.g., Chapman et al., 2000a). However, the variable depositional environments prevalent in the formation of epithermal gold commonly result in a corresponding complexity in the ore mineralogy. Whilst useful information can be gained from establishing the proportions of each mineral class represented, the study of individual mineral phases is particularly important. For example, the characteristic minerals found in different styles of epithermal deposits
Fig. 2. BSE images of characteristic features of placer gold grains. (A) Simple inclusions of galena in a gold grain from Borland Glen. The large inclusion appears to have acted as a buffer for alteration to high-Ag gold of variable composition. (B) Complex inclusion in placer gold grain from upper Eureka Creek. (C) Bi-telluride on outside of proximal placer gold grain from Borland Glen Discovery Bench. The grain also contains inclusions of calaverite. (D) A distinctive texture exhibited by gold grains from Discovery Bench, Borland Glen. A core of phase 2a gold is surrounded by phase 2b gold of variable composition. Wittichenite and hessite inclusions are present only in the relatively Ag and Hg-rich phase 2b gold.
have been described by Hedenquist et al. (2000), and this permits correlation with the inclusion assemblages of placer gold populations. Additional detailed information regarding the nature of the source mineralization can be gained by applying the work of Einaudi et al. (2003) who identified five potential sulphidation states for epithermal systems based upon thermodynamic considerations of the mineral assemblages present (Fig. 3). Depending upon the sulphide minerals present within the inclusion assemblage it may be possible to ascribe the mineralization to a particular sulphidation state, and some individual minerals (e.g., enargite) may be diagnostic. The implications of the presence of pyrite rather than pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite rather than bornite are important for determining the prevailing sulphidation state. Thus it is necessary to establish the stoichiometry of phases in the FeS system and CuFe S system for characterization of epithermal gold mineralization. The presence of minerals indicative of
mutually exclusive environments of precipitation (e.g., pyrite and pyrrhotite) within the inclusion suite may provide evidence for temporal variations in the sulphidation state of the mineralizing fluids. It may also be possible to deduce the evolution of ore fluids from the various minerals represented in inclusion suites of placer gold, although this is handicapped by the lack of contextural information readily available from the study of in situ mineralization. In some cases, complex inclusions consisting of multiple phases of tellurides sulphides may be the result of post-depositional equilibration (Cabri and Laflamme, 1976) and therefore these species cannot be used to deduce the environment of gold precipitation. The mol% of FeS in sphalerite in equilibrium with pyrite has been employed in some cases as an indicator of the sulphidation state of the mineralization (Barton and Skinner, 1967; Czamanske, 1974; Einaudi et al., 2003). Hence measuring the FeS content of sphalerite
Fig. 3. Classification of sulphidation states of epithermal gold (after Einaudi et al., 2003). Mineral symbols: asp = arsenopyrite; bn = bornite; ch = chalcopyrite; cl = covellite; dg = digenite; en = enargite; hm = hematite; ln = luzonite; lo = loellingite; mt = magnetite; po = pyrrhotite; py = pyrite.
inclusions within gold grains could provide an independent estimate of the sulphidation state of the source gold mineralization. However, the validity of this approach remains to be confirmed both as a consequence of the low number of sphalerite inclusions available for study, and the difficulty of establishing whether sphalerite and pyrite are in equilibrium when only placer gold grains are available for study. Nevertheless, a small amount of this type of data is presented and discussed here. 2.3. The transparent inclusion assemblage Characterization of the transparent inclusion suite is rarely important in the study of mesothermal gold mineralization, but it is an appropriate subject for study in relation to epithermal gold. Many gold grains retain fragments of host material either adhering to the outside of the grain (particularly if close to source) or as inclusions, and identification of these phases can provide evidence for the mineralogy of the hydrothermal alteration associated with the lode source. However, transparent inclusions found on the outside of placer gold grains may have precipitated under different conditions from the gold itself and superimposition of different conditions can result in apparently mutually exclusive mineral assemblages. Nevertheless, certain
minerals diagnostic of a particular environment (e.g., alunite) may be identified. One limitation in using SEM as the technique to identify inclusions is that it may not be possible to identify different phases of the same chemical composition. For example, the presence of adularia may only be inferred, as the EDS spectra is indistinguishable from that of orthoclase. The small size of the inclusions (typically <20 m) generally precludes investigation by XRD. 2.4. Other characteristics of placer gold grains In some cases other characteristics of gold grains may be helpful in interpreting the data from microchemical characterization. Morphological characteristics of placer gold grains have been used by several workers as indicators of transport from source (e.g., Hallbauer and Utter, 1977; Knight et al., 1999b; Townley et al., 2003). Useful correlation of shape modification with distance may be restricted to studies of drainage with the same or similar geomorphological evolution; however identification of gold grains very close to source is usually straightforward and based upon characteristics such as angularity, the presence of fragments of host minerals or rock, or imprints of the original matrix (Townley et al., 2003). The presence of crystalline gold may be a consequence
of lack of transport, but could in some cases indicate gold of authigenic origin. The presence of wall rock fragments attached to placer gold particles can provide valuable information on the original host environment. Data describing wall rock fragments may be used in conjunction with details of the opaque mineral assemblage to help constrain the type of alteration associated with the host mineralization. 2.5. Recognition of an epithermal gold signature 2.5.1. Discrimination of epithermal and mesothermal gold As stated above, the consistency of the depositional conditions prevalent in the mesothermal environment is normally reflected in the relatively simple microchemical signature of the individual gold grains, whereas the epithermal signature is frequently characterized by wide variations in alloy composition with a corresponding diverse inclusion assemblage. A high Ag content and Ag compositional range within a sample population is therefore suggestive, but not diagnostic, of epithermal gold. In particular it is important to establish that a wide range in alloy compositions does not simply reflect mixing of gold grains derived from multiple sources of gold derived from other styles of mineralization (e.g., analysis of placer gold from the Mourne Mountains, Northern Ireland, in Chapman et al., 2000a). Analysis of opaque inclusion assemblages is particularly useful in providing strong evidence for an epithermal environment. Fig. 4 shows the opaque inclusion signature of gold from several different styles of mineralization worldwide in terms of the S, As and
Te-bearing minerals. Mesothermal gold exhibits simple inclusion signatures on or close to the SAs axis. A small Te signature, for example gold from some localities in Northern Ireland and Scotland (Chapman et al., 2000a), is ascribed to a magmatic component in the mineralizing fluid (Earls et al., 1996). The Te signature is common in the epithermal mineralization of the southwest Pacific (White et al., 1995) and has been identified in bedrock gold from the Emperor Mine in Fiji (classified as low sulphidation by White et al., 1995) during mineralogical studies of bedrock and placer gold carried out by Naden and Henney (1995). These authors identified a sub-population of placer gold grains in the Wainamu River whose signature matched that of gold from the Emperor Mine and concluded that an undiscovered epithermal source was present within that river catchment. Further supporting evidence for epithermal mineralization may be provided by a complex internal texture of different alloy compositions within the same gold particle, resulting from different prevailing environments of precipitation (e.g., Fig. 2D). However some gold grains from mesothermal environments also exhibit complex textures (e.g., Leake et al., 1998) so this feature is not diagnostic. Nevertheless, multiple phases of mineralization may be identified if different alloy compositions host distinctive opaque inclusion assemblages. 2.5.2. Discrimination between epithermal and authigenic gold It is recognized that in some environments development of authigenic gold can alter the microchemical signature of a population of placer or eluvial gold such
Fig. 4. Composition of inclusion assemblages in terms of S, Te and As. Data for Malaysian gold from Henney et al. (1994). Data for gold from mesothermal environments in Britain and Ireland from Chapman et al. (2000a). Data for gold from Calliacher Burn from Leake et al. (1997). The points defining the inclusion assemblages for types 2a and 2b gold from Discovery Bench, Borland Glen are coincident.
R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126 Table 1 Details of samples Location Yukon Territory Upper Eureka Creek, placer Lower Eureka Creek, placer Hunker Dome Lode Upper Dominion Creek Lower Dominion Creek Scotland, Ochil Hills Discovery Bench, placer, proximal grains Discovery Bench, placer, distal grains Hodyclach Burn, placer No. of grains 88 56 118 19 10
that it is no longer representative of the hypogene source (see discussion in Chapman et al., 2000a). The degree to which authigenic gold contributes to a population of gold grains is governed by the prevailing climate and geomorphology of the location (Nichol et al., 1994). Studies of gold from lateritic environments in Australia (e.g., Lawrance and Griffin, 1994) and Ghana (Bowell, 1992; Bowell et al., 1993) have identified the mechanisms of gold mobility and describe some internal textures exhibited by authigenic gold grains. Alteration of placer gold can also occur in placer gold in temperate climates. Youngson and Craw (1995) describe two chemical mechanisms by which gold grain growth has occurred placer gold in New Zealand. The most significant additions of authigenic gold occurred as a consequence of an oxidizing alkali environment with only minor subsequent rim alteration in acidic groundwater, possibly according to the selfelectrorefining model proposed by Groen et al. (1990). Placer gold grains derived from localities in temperate climates with mildly acidic drainage frequently exhibit these gold rich rims but retain a core compositions faithful to the hypogene source (e.g., Loen, 1993; Lange and Gignoux, 1999; Chapman et al., 2000a). The textures exhibited by authigenic gold have been described by Youngson and Craw (1993) and are distinct from detrital gold derived from lode sources. In particular, the Ag content of authigenic gold is usually very low (typically <0.5%). The textures associated with deposition of authigenic gold are evident in polished section when grains are examined by SEM and have not been observed in any of 5290 grains examined from Great Britain and Ireland during the studies of Leake et al. (1997, 1998) and Chapman et al. (2000a,b, 2005). Neither has any evidence for gold grains which are entirely authigenic been observed in the Klondike District, Yukon Territory in studies by Knight et al. (1999a) or by Chapman et al. (2002). Consequently there is no evidence that the placer gold populations studied here have been modified by the addition of authigenic grains. 3. Experimental The locations of the study areas are shown in Fig. 1A and B, and details of the sample sites and samples collected are provided in Table 1. Samples of placer gold from Scotland were collected using the specialized field techniques described by Leake et al. (1997). Samples of placer gold from upper Eureka Creek were collected by panning. The upper Eureka Creek sample is a composite of grains remaining from the study of Dumula and
Between 63 34.4N; 138 52.4W and 63 33.2N; 138 56.6W 63 36.4N; 138 44.6W 63 5318N, : 138 5654W 602125 E, 7083625 N 615805 E, 7060414 N
NN 9930 0650
132
NN 9930 0650 NN 9910 0820
60 58
Scotland: gold localities in Dalradian Rocks Keltie Burn NN 865 250 Sma Glen NN 907 290 Glen Quaich NN 820 402 Calliacher Burn NN 830 450
16 6 12 37
A further 26 grains from upper Eureka Creek and 13 grains from lower Eureka Creek were examined to identify inclusion species.
Mortensen (2002). Gold grains from lower Eureka Creek were also obtained by panning at a site close to the confluence of lower Eureka Creek with the Indian River (Fig. 1A). Gold grains from the Hunker Dome lode (Klondike District, Fig. 1A) were liberated from quartz vein samples by crushing and grinding prior to separation through beneficiation. The samples of gold from Dominion Creek were obtained from active placer mines. The gold grains were mounted, polished and examined using the techniques described by Chapman et al. (2000a). It should be emphasized that the detection limit of Hg in a gold matrix using EMP is 0.3% and where appropriate this value is indicated on the figures. The overall compositions of gold grain populations in terms of Au, Ag and Hg can be depicted on ternary diagrams with the Hg value expanded to aid identification of the various fields of composition (e.g., Fig. 4). In cases where populations of placer grains are a binary AuAg alloy, or the concentration of a particular metal is diagnostic, it is easier to compare alloy compositions using plots of the cumulative percentile of population against increasing % metal
(e.g., Fig. 8). This method of presentation allows direct comparison of populations of different numbers of grains and permits identification of different subpopulations of gold through inspection of the resulting curve. Mineral inclusions are also recorded for each grain. The data in the appendix has been used to determine the number of grains in each sample population which contain specific inclusions. The proportions of mineral species which belong to the different mineral classes have been calculated and are presented in a triangular diagram in Fig. 4. Fewer grains are needed to characterize the range of alloy compositions than are required to establish the mineral inclusion suite, especially in cases where inclusions are uncommon, or the assemblage contains a large number of different minerals. Thus 12 grains from lower Eureka Creek and 26 grains from the Upper Eureka Creek locality were examined only for inclusion species. Some very small grains of gold liberated from the Hunker Dome material exhibited very thin leaf-like forms in polished section, resulting in analytical totals well below 100%. In those cases where the totals were below 95%, the analyses have been omitted from the database. However some of these tiny grains did contain opaque mineral inclusions and these have been incorporated into the overall analysis of inclusion species in Fig. 4. The full data set describing the gold grains which supports this study is included in the appendix. 4. Case studies 4.1. Case 1: Eureka Dome and Eureka Creek Eureka Dome and the adjacent Eureka Creek lie within the Tintina Gold Province (e.g., Hart et al., 2002). The study area is located 20 km to the south of the wellknown Klondike gold district (Fig. 1A). The area is unglaciated and a mantle of overburden overlies Cretaceous volcanic rocks and associated high level porphyry dykes, which overlie and intrude Late Devonian to mid Permian metamorphic rocks of the Yukon-Tanana terrane. Eureka Creek and Blackhills Creek immediately to the south (Fig. 1A) together form a significant placer gold producing area. Unfortunately complete production records are unavailable; however, 7267 oz of placer gold were produced from Eureka Creek between 1958 and 1964, and 59,272 oz from 1978 to 2003. A total production of 89, 995 oz of gold is recorded from Black Hills Creek mined during 1937, 1975, and between 1978 and 2003 (W. Lebarge, pers. comm).
4.1.1. Characterization of the style of mineralization present at Eureka Dome A study by Dumula and Mortensen (2002) reported that the rough morphology of gold grains collected from the colluvium on Eureka Dome was highly suggestive of a very local source, although no outcropping mineralization has yet been discovered in that immediate area. Placer gold from the upper Eureka Creek locality also exhibited evidence of very limited transport; however some placer gold grains from lower Eureka Creek, immediately upstream from the confluence with the Indian River (Fig. 1A), were flattened, suggesting transport from their source. Studies of the alloy composition of both placer gold from Eureka Creek and gold grains from colluvium at Eureka Dome were reported by Dumula and Mortensen (2002) who also noted that the Hg content of many gold grains was far higher than that normally associated with gold from the Klondike District (Knight et al., 1999a). The high Ag content of this gold was also interpreted as suggestive of an epithermal origin on the basis of the work of Morrison et al. (1991). The present study has augmented this database in an additional investigation of placer gold grains from two sites on Eureka Creek (Fig. 1A), including both the alloy compositions and the inclusion suites. Fig. 5 compares the alloy compositions of the Eureka Creek gold with that of lode sources from the Klondike and associated placers. The compositional characteristics of gold from bedrock occurrences in the Klondike has been investigated by Knight et al. (1999a) and Mortensen et al. (2004). Gold is hosted by discordant mesothermal quartz veins described by Mortensen et al. (1992) and Rushton et al. (1998). Two distinct compositional types have been identified: a low Ag gold alloy (1020% Ag) with little or no Hg is prevalent in the south of the region at Hunker Dome, the Mitchell occurrence and the Aime occurrence (Fig. 1A). A high Ag (2633% Ag), Hg-rich (typically 0.3% to 0.5%) variety occurs at the Virgin and Violet occurrences. Some placer gold occurrences in the north of the Klondike contain gold predominantly of the high-Ag type but south flowing rivers in the Klondike District (Dominion Creek, Quartz Creek and Sulphur Creek, Fig. 1A) carry gold of the Hunker Dome type (Knight et al., 1999a) and therefore this type is used for comparison with gold from the study area at Eureka Creek. The Ag and Hg contents of placer gold from the Eureka Dome area and the lode gold from the Klondike District are presented in Fig. 5. The alloy signatures of the Klondike samples correspond to that typical of mesothermal lode gold (i.e., a relatively low Ag content
10
Fig. 5. Compositional fields of gold from the Yukon.
and range). The small samples of placer gold from two sites on Dominion Creek both correlate closely with the compositional range of gold from Hunker Dome. In contrast the populations of gold grains analyzed from Eureka Creek exhibit a wider range of alloy compositions. The compositional range of the upper Eureka Creek gold is typically 2050% Ag and that from lower Eureka Creek is typically 2037%. The range of Hg content of lower Eureka Creek gold is also lower (typically 00.5%) than that of gold from the upper Eureka Creek (typically 00.8%). The inclusion assemblage of the lode gold from Hunker Dome is dominated by simple sulphides (pyrite and chalcopyrite) but there are insufficient inclusions within the gold grains from the two sites on Dominion Creek to establish the characteristics of their inclusion assemblages. The mineralogy of inclusions found within gold grains from upper Eureka Creek is far more complex and includes Ag tellurides and sulphotellurides some of which contain traces of Cu. Inclusions are uncommon in the gold grains from lower Eureka Creek and this precludes a meaningful analysis of the opaque inclusion signature. However two grains contained inclusions of argentite and hessite, which are abundant in gold from the upper site. Fig. 4 shows that the gold from Eureka Creek exhibits a high Te signature, which is interpreted as suggestive of a strong magmatic component to the mineralizing fluids (e.g., Baker et al., 2005). Although there are minor differences between the signatures of gold from the upper and lower sites on Eureka Creek neither are compatible with that of the Hunker Dome type depicted in Figs. 4 and 5. Thus the interpretation of both the gold alloy compositions and
inclusion assemblages support the earlier assertion of Dumula and Mortensen (2002) that gold from Eureka Creek is of a different type from that found to the north in the Klondike. Gold grains from both colluvium and placer at upper Eureka Creek exhibit very similar morphology and composition, which is consistent with the general observation for the region that placer gold from a particular source is predominant in local drainage systems (Knight et al., 1999a). Consideration of all the factors described above suggests that the placer samples from Eureka Creek are derived from local mineralization which is most probably epithermal in origin. 4.1.2. Gold alloy composition Observations of polished sections of upper Eureka Creek gold using back scattered electron (BSE) imaging show that most grains exhibit gold-rich rims and a homogeneous core. The range of Ag compositions of placer gold from upper Eureka Creek (2050%) encompasses that recorded for the 6 gold grains recovered from pits in the colluvium reported by Dumula and Mortensen (2002) (2035% Ag). The greater range of Ag values exhibited by the placer grains probably reflects the greater variety of depositional environments throughout the mineralized system. A few grains contain features such as Ag-rich tracks or multiple gold rich zones, which could be a consequence of either local, minor late stage alteration (Dumula and Mortensen, 2002) or temporal changes in the gold precipitation conditions or mechanism in the source lodes. The homogeneity of most grain cores suggest that there was a single major episode of mineralization in the Eureka Dome area, although the high variation in Ag content of placer grains is suggestive of vertical and/or
11
lateral zonation in the lode source, which could explain the minor variation in microchemical signatures between placer samples from the upper and lower sites on Eureka Creek. 4.1.3. Interpretation of the inclusion assemblages The inclusion assemblages of the Yukon gold samples are presented in the appendix, and the proportions of sulphides, tellurides and sulpharsenides are illustrated in Fig. 4. Gold from Eureka Creek exhibits a highly distinctive inclusion signature dominated by argentite, a silver suphotelluride (possibly cervelleite, Ag4STe) and hessite (AgTe). These inclusions have been recorded in grains representing the full range of alloy compositions (2050% Ag), again indicating that the population of gold grains are derived from a single source. The opaque inclusion assemblage may be compared to the criteria for classification by sulphidation style presented by Einaudi et al. (2003) (Fig. 3). The most useful evidence for definition of the sulphidation state is provided by the presence of both pyrite and pyrrhotite in one of the gold grains. This is indicative both of a low-sulphidation environment and precipitation conditions close to the pyritepyrrhotite boundary (Fig. 3). Whilst the other sulphide minerals present are consistent with low-sulphidation epithermal mineralization, they do not afford such a precise
definition of the conditions of ore formation. Further evidence for low-sulphidation mineralization is provided by the presence of calcite inclusions within some gold grains. Te-bearing minerals are an important component of the opaque inclusion suite in gold from upper Eureka Creek and these may be used to gain some information concerning the prevailing sulphidation state using the work of Affifi et al. (1988a), who identified the stability fields of various sulphides and tellurides in terms of the S and Te fugacities. The variation in the stability fields associated with a temperature change between 100 C and 300 C (i.e., the possible temperature variation in the epithermal environment) was shown to be sufficiently small to permit the use of a single diagram depicting stability fields at 200 C for the initial study of a particular mineral suite (Affifi et al., 1988b). Fig. 6 shows how this relationship can be applied to the study of gold from upper Eureka Creek. Ten of the 63 inclusions identified in the gold from upper Eureka Creek are compound inclusions (e.g., hessite/pyrite/ chalcopyrite, hessite/silver sulphotelluride/tetrahedrite and hessite/silver sulphotelluride/chalcopyrite). These minerals are intimately mixed and possibly represent phases formed in post-depositional equilibration. Consequently they cannot necessarily be used to infer the environment of deposition, and the following discussion
Fig. 6. Stabilities of some sulphides and tellurides as a function of the fugacities of S2 and Te2 at 200 C (adapted from Affifi et al., 1988b). Area of deposition of gold at Eureka Creek can be established from the occurrence of both argentite and hessite, and pyrite and pyrrhotite. Mineral symbols as for Fig. 3, plus: al = altaite, ar = argentite, bs = bismuthinite, bt = bismuth tellurides, cn = cinnabar, co = coloradoite, cv = calaverite, fo = frohbergite, ga = galena, hs = hessite.
12
relates only to single inclusion species. The presence of both hessite and argentite inclusions shows that precipitation conditions were close to their boundary as shown in Fig. 6. The intersection of this boundary with that defining the pyritepyrrhotite boundary further resolves the conditions of precipitation, which are of very low S and Te fugacities (log f Te2 19.4, log f S2 16.1). Correlation of this information with the stability fields depicted in Fig. 3 shows that at 200 C log f S2 16 at the pyritepyrrhotite interface, and therefore the temperature of deposition was close to this value. Four grains of upper Eureka Creek alluvial gold contained sphalerite inclusions which were sufficiently large to permit determination of Zn, Fe and S by EMP. Mol% FeS values of 0.10, 0.18, 0.78 and 0.76 were recorded. Pyrite is also a common inclusion in gold grains from this location, but no individual gold grains were identified which contained both pyrite and sphalerite. Nevertheless, on the basis of data presented by Einaudi et al. (2003) these data suggest that the sulphidation state is low, which is consistent with information gained from the opaque mineral assemblage. 4.1.4. Comparison with ore deposits of related mineralogy Identification of the micro-inclusion assemblages present in Eureka Creek gold also permits comparison with other gold deposits which may help to characterize the most likely style of lode source from which the placer gold was derived and thus provide important criteria that may be employed during exploration for that source. The inclusion assemblage of the Eureka Creek placer gold closely resembles that of low-sulphidation epithermal mineralization in the Carboniferous Scott oreshoot of the multi-million ounce Pajingo AuAg deposit in northern Queensland, Australia (e.g., Bobis et al., 1995), where the principal ore and sulphide minerals are pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, hessite, tetrahedrite, hessite, argentite and petzite. Tennantite is also present at Pajingo, but is absent in the inclusion assemblage of gold from upper Eureka Creek. 4.1.5. Summary of information gained from Eureka Creek gold Placer gold in the Eureka Creek drainage is distinct from that occurring in the nearby Indian River both in terms of abundance, size and morphology. All information gained from mineralogical study of the placer gold from Eureka Creek suggests that the source gold mineralization is chemically and mineralogically distinct from lode gold typically found in the Klondike
District to the north. The microchemical signature is consistent with low-sulphidation epithermal gold mineralization. If this assertion is correct, then the conditions of deposition can be predicted from further consideration of the inclusion assemblage. At Eureka Dome the S and Te fugacities have been constrained to close to the argentite/hessite and pyrite/pyrrhotite phase boundaries. This permits deduction of the temperature of deposition as having been near 200 C. 4.2. Case 2: the Borland Glen prospect, Ochil Hills Perthshire, Scotland Alluvial gold occurs over an area of approx. 200 km2 throughout the central Ochil Hills in Scotland, which are underlain by Devonian andesitic volcanic rocks (Coats et al., 1991) (Fig. 1B). The area has been heavily glaciated and exposure in the auriferous drainage is poor with thicknesses of more than 10 m of glacial debris common. The Borland Glen locality (Fig. 1B) proved highly anomalous for placer gold and consequently detailed exploration was undertaken, initially by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and later by Navan Resources (Anderson, 1994). The anomaly centered on a 200 m 2 bench ( Discovery Bench ), but the abundance and particle size of placer gold decreased substantially downstream. A regional sediment survey carried out by the BGS identified additional anomalous placer gold over the watershed in Hodyclach Burn (Coats et al., 1991) (Fig. 1B). The assumption that the placer gold anomalies in Borland Glen and Hodyclach Burn were derived from a common source influenced the subsequent exploration strategy which focused on the area between these sites (Fig. 1B). Detailed geophysical surveys identified some anomalies in areas of intense alteration and brecciation, which were subsequently drilled. Although low gold values were recorded in hydrothermal veins within highly altered bedrock, the low gold concentration could not account for the amount of alluvial gold present 300 m downstream at Discovery Bench. Navan Resources held the license for the area between 1990 and 1994, during which time evaluation of the placer gold values was undertaken by an extensive programme of pit sampling (Anderson, 1994). 4.2.1. Characterization of the style of mineralization in Borland Glen The Ochil Hills volcanics lie to the south of Devonian red sandstones which are bounded by Dalradian rocks to the north (Fig. 1B). Clasts of Dalradian rocks have been observed in the glacial drift
13
at Borland Glen during this study and hence it is appropriate to assess the likely degree of transport of gold of Dalradian origin into the study area. Fig. 1B shows the gold localities within the Dalradian rocks to the north which are closest to the Ochil Hills. Details of the sample populations are included in the appendix. Only a small number of grains are available for study from Sma Glen (Glen Almond), Keltie Burn (near Crieff) and Glen Quaich. A more significant occurrence is the in situ mineralization at Calliacher Burn, described by Ixer et al. (1997). Here, 14 quartz sulphide veins gold were emplaced into Dalradian rocks at temperature between 140 and 320 C by CO2 and NaCl-rich fluids. Base metal sulphides are predominant but small amounts of Te mineralization are present as hessite and native Te. The gold is Hg-rich (max 6.2%) (Leake et al., 1997), and this characteristic is shared by some grains from Glen Quaich to the south (max Hg 1.72%). In contrast, grains from Keltie Burn and Sma Glen are Hg-poor, whilst gold from Sma Glen is also Agpoor. Fig. 7 depicts the Ag contents of gold grains from these localities and shows that the populations of gold grains studied from different localities to the north of the Ochil Hills are themselves distinctive. Thus there is no evidence for glacial transport of grains south from Calliacher Burn to either Sma Glen or Keltie Burn and consequently the relatively high abundance of placer
Fig. 7. Comparison of Ag contents of populations of placer gold from localities in the Dalradian rocks closest to the study area with proximal gold from Discovery Bench.
gold at some localities in the Ochil Hills (Chapman et al., 2005) is unlikely to be a consequence of transport of gold from north of the region. This assertion is further supported by the observation of Coats et al. (1991) that placer gold is absent in the sandstone belt which separates the Ochil Hills from Dalradian rocks (Fig. 1B). Although no bedrock gold occurrences have yet been identified in outcrop in the Ochil Hills, Chapman et al. (2005) showed that placer gold of distinct microchemical signatures is confined to specific drainage systems, indicating that in general placer gold is close to the original source. For example, the microchemical signatures of placer gold from the lower reaches of Hodyclach Burn and gold from Discovery Bench were distinct, and thus these two populations of placer gold are derived from different sources. In particular, gold from Discovery Bench was characterized by the presence of Bi-tellurides (identified as a solid solution of Bi in tellurobismutite by Leake and Bland, 1992) and a CuBi sulphide (identified as witichenite by Leake and Bland, 1992). Examination of placer gold grains from Discovery Bench revealed that many grains have characteristics incompatible with significant transport, such as fragile crystalline form, pristine faces bearing the imprint of quartz crystals, and attached quartz and/or hematite. The local variation in abundance of placer gold is well documented as a consequence of the enthusiastic activities of amateur prospectors, who have identified a decrease in grade over 60 m beginning 40 m upstream of the Discovery Bench and this observation agrees with the placer gold grade data from pits reported by Anderson (1994). The Ag content of most proximal placer gold from Discovery Bench is between 5% and 9% (Fig. 7). This is an atypical signature for epithermal gold both in terms of the content and variation of the Ag values. Neither is the inclusion signature (Fig. 4) typical of low sulphidation epithermal mineralization. However the inclusion assemblage is both distinct from Dalradian hosted gold and suggestive of a magmatic related mineralizing fluid. The assemblage of Bi-tellurides and CuBi sulphides was also reported at the Exciban gold deposit in the Philippines (James and Fuchs, 1990) and subsequently described as a low-sulphidation epithermal deposit by White et al. (1995). James and Fuchs (1990) noted that the mineralization was difficult to characterize using the standard mineralogical criteria and concluded that this was a consequence of emplacement at a depth greater than normally associated with epithermal mineralization, defined as 50 m700 m below the palaeowater table by Hedenquist et al. (2000). If the Discovery Bench gold also represents a deep epithermal event, it
14
could be expected that the variation in alloy composition would be small, reflecting a relatively constant depositional environment. All the evidence presented above suggests that the placer gold at Discovery Bench is both local to source and an example, albeit atypical, of epithermal mineralization. In this study, additional sampling was undertaken in the headwaters of Hodyclach Burn and the Discovery Bench area (Fig. 1B) to further elucidate the location and nature of the source mineralization. 4.2.2. Relationship of placer gold morphology to microchemical signature Alluvial gold grains collected from the Discovery Bench site were classified according to morphology, and two subsamples were selected as representing proximal gold (i.e., transport < 50 m according to the criteria of Townley et al., 2003) and distal gold (i.e., waterworn and flaky). In a few cases, Bi-tellurides and other Bibearing minerals were observed on the outside of proximal gold grains (e.g., Fig. 2C). This observation further supports the hypothesis of a very local source for the proximal gold given that Bi-tellurides are unstable in oxygenated water. A comparison of the alloy composition of placer gold from Hodyclach Burn and the two morphological sub-sets from Discovery Bench in terms of AuAgHg signatures are presented in Fig. 8. Proximal gold from Discovery Bench forms a tight field on or very close to the AuAg axis with a small number of Hg-rich outliers. Distal gold from Discovery Bench shows a
compositional field more similar to that from Hodyclach burn with a greater number of Ag-rich grains and many grains with elevated Hg. The differences in the alloy compositions between proximal and distal gold from Discovery Bench are reflected in the differences in the opaque inclusion suite, with the As signature of the distal population being more similar to that of gold from Hodyclach Burn (Fig. 4). Fig. 7 includes the Ag plot of the proximal grains from Discovery Bench which allows identification of a dominant sub-population containing between 6% and 9% Ag. The marked break in slope at 9% Ag is interpreted as indicative of a separate sub-population of relatively Ag-rich gold. Thus the classification of grains by morphology prior to microchemical characterization helps prevent the generation of a composite and consequently less useful signature. 4.2.3. Identification of phases of Au mineralization in proximal gold using alloy composition and inclusion assemblage Inspection of polished sections of the population of angular grains from the Discovery Bench site showed that many grains were heterogeneous, containing up to three distinct phases of gold. The population of angular grains was split into two subclasses of homogenous grains and heterogeneous grains. Alloy compositions of the homogenous grains and the different phases present in heterogeneous grains are presented in a plot of Ag % vs. log % Hg in Fig. 9. The vertical line in Fig. 9 represents the break in the curve of silver contents of
Fig. 8. Comparison of alloy composition of proximal placer gold from Discovery Bench with distal placer gold from Discovery Bench, placer gold from Hodyclach Burn and Calliacher Burn.
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Fig. 10. Schematic representation of order of emplacement of phases 1, 2a and 2b gold as deduced from gold grain textures.
Fig. 9. Compositional fields of gold from three phases of mineralization in gold from Discovery Bench. Bi-tellurides (black infill) occur only in phase 1 gold, and hessite (light grey infill) and wittichenite (dark grey infill) in phases 2a and 2b gold. Phase 2b gold is distinguished by elevated Hg.
Discovery Bench proximal grains from Fig. 7, and is placed at 9% Ag. The inclusions occurring within gold of different compositions are listed in Table 2, and Fig. 9 shows the alloy compositions of grains containing the most useful inclusions for characterization purposes (i.e., Bi-tellurides, wittichenite and hessite). The microchemical signatures of the grains reveal three compositional fields and their spatial relationship identified within polished sections of grains indicates the sequence of deposition, which is illustrated schematically in Fig. 10. The first phase, comprising most homogenous grains and homogenous cores of some heterogeneous grains, is characterized by low Hg (below detection limit) and Ag up to 9%. Bi-telluride inclusions are found only in this gold type. The second phase also exhibits limited compositional variability with each grain and is characterized by low Hg, Ag contents of over 9% and an
Table 2 Characteristics of gold mineralogy in rough gold from Borland Glen Gold phase 1 2a 2b Ag range % 5.39 Typically >9 >9 Hg range % <0.2 <0.3 0.36.5 Characteristic inclusions Bi-tellurides Wittichenite, hessite, galena Wittichenite, hessite, galena
opaque inclusion suite of wittichenite and hessite. It appears likely that two grains containing less than 9% Ag (6.5% and 7.5% Ag) and wittichenite inclusions represent the lower extreme compositions of the second phase of gold mineralization. The third type of gold is highly variable in composition even within individual grains (Fig. 2A) and the reported analyses pertain to the most abundant composition identified during SEM analyses. The inclusion suite of this gold also contains wittichenite and hessite, but the alloy is both relatively Ag-rich (> 9% Ag) and most significantly Hg-rich (0.3 11% Hg). None of these phases corresponds to the predominant gold type recorded throughout the surrounding drainages by Chapman et al. (2005). An example of a complex grain containing heterogeneous Ag- and Hg-rich gold is shown in Fig. 2D. The texture of the darker phase is suggestive of partial replacement of the gold core, and it may be that the Hgrich gold represents an alteration of earlier gold. The second and third phases of gold exhibit identical inclusion suites in terms of the component mineral classes (Fig. 4) and differ only in the Hg content of the alloy. Hence they have been classified as phases 2a and 2b. The three phases are defined in Table 2 in terms of their microchemical signature. 4.2.4. Interpretation of inclusion assemblages Neither phase of gold contains sulphide minerals useful for defining the sulphidation state of the lode source(s); however the presence of carbonate inclusions is suggestive of a low-sulphidation environment. By reference to Fig. 6, the presence of pyrite, Bi-tellurides and Pb as PbCuS as opposed to altaite provides some
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constraints on the conditions of formation of phase 1 gold although these are not particularly definitive. The stability field of Bi-tellurides is relatively large (Fig. 6), whilst that of frohbergite (FeTe2), is more tightly constrained. Although the stability field of BiFe telluride is not available, it seems likely that this phase is indicative of relatively high values of f Te2. The presence of calaverite inclusions within phase 1 gold attached to Bi-telluride (Fig. 2C) provides further evidence of high values of f Te2 (Fig. 6). Affifi et al. (1988b) interprets the paragenesis of mineral assemblages in various epithermal gold occurrences worldwide in terms of the progressive decrease in f Te2 as indicated by the initial precipitation of calaverite, and therefore it is possible to speculate on the evolution of the mineralizing fluid from the range of mineral inclusions present within phase 1 gold. Inspection of Fig. 6 shows that pyrite precipitates at lower values of f Te2 than frohbergite, suggesting that f Te2 decreased during precipitation of phase 1 gold. There is no indication that f S2 changed during the evolution of the mineralizing fluid and it seems likely that the value of log f S2 was around 17. With reference to Fig. 3 this correlates to a temperature of around 200 C for low sulphidation environments, although it is not possible to be specific. The evolution of the phase 2 mineralizing fluid also involves a reduction in f Te2 as calaverite inclusions were again observed within two grains of phase 2a gold. However the dominant phases within the mineral inclusion suite are galena, with various other mixed sulphides such as wittichenite, an unspecified CuPb sulphide and PbBi sulphide. Bi is present only within these ternary and quaternary phases, either as a sulphide or telluride. Inspection of Fig. 6 shows that the phase 2 mineralizing solution was distinct from that from which phase 1 gold precipitated in that the value of f S2 was higher. The presence of both calaverite and galena in a single gold grain indicate a minimum log f S2 value of 14, and the presence of Bi as sulphide minerals suggests it may be even higher than this. Thermodynamic data for the CuBiS system would aid clarification here. It seems probable that whilst the fluid which deposited phase 1 gold changed only with respect to f Te2, that which precipitated phase 2 gold followed an oblique path probably similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 6. Although it is difficult to define this path accurately using the information available, it seems clear that the value of f S2 was higher than for phase 1 gold, although it is difficult to translate this variation into a distinct difference in temperature of deposition using Fig. 3.
Fig. 2A shows several galena inclusions most hosted in phase 2a gold but another mostly surrounded by phase 2b gold. The texture suggests that the galena inclusion has impeded the progress of a diffusion front in which type 2a gold was replaced by type 2b. If this were the case it could be expected that the inclusion suites of gold types 2a and 2b would be very similar assuming the inclusions were unaltered by the changes to the gold alloy, and Fig. 4 shows that the inclusion suites in gold of phases 2a and 2b are indeed identical. Thus it is probable that the formation of type 2b gold represents the alteration of existing gold grains by an increasingly Hg-rich fluid near the end of the mineralizing event. One homogenous grain of phase 2b gold contains an inclusion of sphalerite with 1.5 mol% FeS. On the basis of information provided by Einaudi et al. (2003) this value is indicative of a very high sulphidation state. However the grain also contains an inclusion of calcite, which is incompatible with formation in a high sulphidation environment. Sphalerite inclusions in two gold grains from samples collected 1 km further downstream the Borland Glen catchment studied by Chapman et al. (2005) yielded mol% FeS values of 7.5 and 9.2 which suggest an intermediate high sulphidation state, although all other evidence from inclusion studies suggested that the gold was derived from low-sulphidation gold mineralization. One possible reason for the apparent discrepancy is the requirement that the sphalerite should be in equilibrium with pyrite, which may not be the case at the point of precipitation of the inclusions. Further work is required here to establish the validity and limitations of this potentially useful approach. The transparent inclusion assemblage in gold from Discovery Bench is dominated by quartz, but Fe oxides are also commonly attached to the outside of gold grains. Many other mineral species have been identified, mainly comprising chlorite, kaolinite and carbonates. The FeAl silicate minerals present show variable composition and are difficult to identify from the EDS spectra alone, however the assemblage is consistent with that of propylitic hypogene alteration. 4.2.5. Use of diagnostic gold grain textures to establish the geographical range of Discovery Bench mineralization The signature of Ag-poor gold containing Bitelluride inclusions is unique to phase 1 gold within the auriferous district of the central Ochil Hills, and has established Borland Glen as the site of a distinctive
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mineralizing event. Bi-tellurides have been observed in gold from other localities within a 10 km radius of Borland Glen, but these are usually hosted by gold of a higher Ag content than phase 1 gold (Chapman et al., 2005). Another distinctive texture found in 5 of the 130 angular grains from Discovery Bench is illustrated in Fig. 2D. This texture has been observed only in grains from this site and consists of Ag-rich gold containing multiple inclusions of wittichenite surrounding a core of relatively Ag-poor gold. The distribution of grains exhibiting this texture upstream from Discovery Bench provides information on the lateral extent of the most abundant, and therefore probably most economically significant type of mineralization. Accordingly, a large number of gold grains have been collected from lodgement till and alluvium and examined by SEM specifically to establish whether this texture was present. Target grains were identified in all samples collected from lodgement till, and from basal gravels underlying till up to 100 m upstream of Discovery Bench. Further upstream the signature of the alluvial gold is that of the main regional type (Chapman et al., 2005), so the area of abundant alluvial gold is coincident with the distinctive microchemical signature. 4.2.6. Summary of information gained from microchemical characterization of Discovery Bench Gold Placer gold from the Discovery Bench at Borland Glen exhibits a microchemical signature distinct from that of gold from localities both within the Ochil Hills and from Dalradian rocks to the north. Furthermore, the observed abundance of placer gold upstream from Discovery Bench correlates exactly with the incidence of grains exhibiting this distinct signature. This, in conjunction with morphological and mineralogical observations of the gold grains themselves, is strong evidence for very local derivation of the gold placer. Whilst the signature of the placer gold is atypical of low-sulphidation epithermal gold both in range of Ag composition and the dominant inclusion species, it does resemble epithermal gold from another atypical deposit in the Philippines. Given the setting of the placer gold within the Devonian volcanics of the Ochil Hills it is considered appropriate to treat the gold as epithermal for the purposes of more detailed mineralogical study. The application of detailed microchemical characterization of Discovery Bench gold has greatly increased the understanding of the genesis and extent of the bedrock mineralization. The gold generally appears to be of the low-sulphidation type and represents at least
two separate and distinct episodes of mineralization. The characteristics of each phase have been defined, and the sequence of deposition established. The mineralization is likely to be at least in part hosted in a zone of propylitically altered wall rock. The narrow range in Ag content of phase 1 gold and the low Ag contents (69%) are atypical of epithermal gold (Morrison et al., 1991). Similarly the opaque inclusion assemblage is less complex than that exhibited by phase 2 gold. This may indicate that the precipitation of phase 1 gold occurred under more stable conditions, which is consistent with the hypothesis of a deep seated epithermal environment where precipitation is more likely to have resulted from a single depositional mechanism. The identification of distinctive combinations of mineral inclusions and specific host alloy compositions within heterogeneous gold grains has facilitated evaluation of the areal extent of gold unique to Borland Glen within an area which exhibits varying concentrations of placer gold derived from other smaller sites of gold mineralization with potentially less economic potential. 5. General discussion Some general principles for the identification and characterization of epithermal mineralization can be established from this work. Epithermal mineralization is likely to exhibit a more diverse signature than other styles of mineralization, both in terms of range of alloy composition and in particular the mineral inclusion assemblage, where ternary phases appear to be common. Although alloy compositions exhibiting high Ag values and elevated Hg may be suggestive of epithermal gold, they are not diagnostic and similar compositional ranges are sometimes associated with mesothermal gold mineralization such as that at Calliacher Burn in Scotland (Figs. 7 and 8). Study of the opaque inclusion assemblages provides clearer evidence for the genesis of the gold. A holistic approach to characterization of the sulphidation type of epithermal mineralization can be undertaken using both opaque and transparent mineral assemblages together with speculation on the type of wall rock alteration. The degree to which the environment of precious metal precipitation can be defined is dependent upon the individual mineral species present. The characterization of alluvial gold grains from an epithermal environment involves more detailed study than required for mesothermal gold because of the complex textures of both grains and inclusions and the need to characterize the non-opaque inclusion assemblage.
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The detailed study of the mineral inclusion assemblage may provide an indication of the evolution of the mineralizing fluid during the course of mineral precipitation. It is interesting to speculate that a large variation in mineral species within the inclusion suite of gold grains of similar alloy composition may be indicative of a rapidly evolving solution, which in turn suggests relatively trivial mineralization. On the other hand, persistent inclusion species could indicate stable values of fTe2 and fS2, consistent with a larger mineralizing system. This speculation is supported by the evidence from Discovery Bench where type 1 gold containing a simple inclusion assemblage dominated by Bi-tellurides is substantially more abundant than type 2 gold, which contains a wide variety of sulphide and telluride mineral species. Whilst time consuming to characterize, these complex internal textures and opaque mineral assemblages can be used to advantage in areas of multiple phases of gold mineralization as markers to delineate the geographical range of potentially the most economically important gold type. 6. Conclusions Microchemical characterization of placer gold can provide a substantial amount of information concerning the nature of the source mineralization even in cases where the lode source(s) remains undiscovered. Specifically the technique can: 1. Permit informed speculation on the style(s) of source mineralization through comparison of the microchemical signature of a population of placer grains with generic characteristics of different styles of gold mineralization. 2. Be used in conjunction with morphological criteria of gold grains to provide an accurate characterization of local gold sources. 3. Constrain the sulphidation state of source mineralization and permit speculation on the approximate conditions of ore formation in cases in which the placer gold grains exhibit a suitable suite of opaque and non-opaque inclusions. 4. Suggest the nature of the type of wall rock alteration, taking into consideration the possibility of overprinting, again given that a suitable suite of transparent inclusions be present. 5. Recognize and characterize multiple episodes of mineralization in the same location, aiding definition of the distribution of potentially the most economically important type.
Acknowledgements John Krenc, Chris Deighton, Richard Deighton and Mark Gregory are thanked for their enthusiastic help with sample collection in Scotland. The authors would also like to thank Mr. Jim Paterson of Borland Farm, Glendevon, for permission to sample Borland Glen, and Mr. Mitchell of Coul Farm for permission to sample Hodyclach Burn. Kerr Anderson provided information describing the operations of Navan Resources in Borland Glen. Samples of gold from Eureka Creek were contributed by Lionel Jackson and Bill Wengzynowski. Samples from Dominion Creek were donated by Tim Colman and Lisle Gatenby. We are also indebted to Professor Rob Raiswell of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Leeds for access to the analytical facilities and for his assistance in the field. Dr. Eric Condliffe and Dr. Mati Raudsepp provided continual support during the analysis programmes at the University of Leeds and UBC respectively. Robert Marshall is thanked for his excellent preparation of polished samples. Finally we are indebted to Dr. Garth Earls and an anonymous referee for their helpful comments during the review of this paper. Appendix A A.1. Microchemical data for gold grains Hunker Dome Lode gold
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Inclusions py py py py py py py, ga, sph Au 84.19 82.97 83.27 79.96 85.80 84.96 86.72 87.14 83.29 85.26 84.76 74.96 84.60 81.96 86.14 85.51 80.84 84.86 80.08 80.77 80.97 85.10 80.70 Ag 14.73 14.37 14.48 18.42 14.34 14.92 13.07 13.27 16.63 14.51 14.45 13.33 14.72 17.88 12.77 14.54 18.16 14.43 19.30 18.98 18.72 14.67 18.84 Cu 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 Hg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.14 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 Total 98.94 97.34 97.78 98.39 100.19 99.93 99.80 100.42 99.93 99.77 99.27 88.30 99.36 99.87 99.07 100.10 99.02 99.32 99.40 99.75 99.69 99.81 99.55
ch py py ch, py py py py
py
R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 80.83 84.72 81.00 81.01 77.87 78.68 78.95 83.27 80.32 82.49 81.38 76.63 80.51 81.74 85.46 81.95 78.53 79.33 79.99 79.41 58.89 80.42 83.04 78.57 82.73 80.09 79.30 79.88 72.49 82.51 80.14 79.52 78.19 80.12 83.71 79.84 80.78 84.35 78.67 79.09 78.46 83.32 82.95 80.25 80.51 82.19 81.02 79.92 54.78 89.34 79.56 88.69 90.51 78.51 81.33 79.40 80.66 66.24 82.90 83.34 18.77 14.87 17.31 18.15 18.60 15.27 18.36 14.78 18.80 16.36 14.29 19.42 18.46 14.33 11.42 14.68 18.67 18.06 18.03 18.56 10.89 17.65 14.44 18.89 14.86 17.43 17.26 18.54 16.79 16.25 17.85 17.21 19.26 17.05 14.74 18.43 18.50 14.71 18.07 18.68 18.81 14.54 14.94 18.55 17.77 16.70 18.01 18.72 43.65 10.50 19.86 10.14 9.57 19.26 16.44 18.27 17.50 32.17 13.86 14.89 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.16 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 99.60 99.79 98.43 99.16 96.50 93.96 97.34 98.12 99.12 98.88 95.68 96.12 99.00 96.08 96.90 96.68 97.22 97.40 98.04 97.98 69.81 98.06 97.50 97.47 97.60 97.53 96.65 98.43 89.29 98.78 98.01 96.84 97.45 97.18 98.47 98.29 99.44 99.07 96.77 97.81 97.32 97.86 97.88 98.85 98.28 98.91 99.08 98.65 98.44 99.89 99.42 98.85 100.11 97.79 97.78 97.70 98.18 98.42 96.78 98.26 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 ch py py py 81.65 78.55 79.88 84.57 79.84 76.52 82.56 81.80 81.27 81.40 84.25 90.47 79.45 83.13 80.36 87.26 82.84 81.79 76.61 80.37 82.00 74.96 84.14 83.60 78.33 83.83 79.22 81.43 84.57 84.20 79.87 83.46 83.04 79.79 84.05 13.71 20.16 19.15 14.74 19.15 19.94 12.88 14.81 17.70 14.69 14.20 9.08 19.38 14.83 18.48 11.79 14.83 14.77 20.98 17.96 15.18 23.19 14.78 12.44 19.29 15.02 19.07 14.24 14.64 14.97 18.42 14.82 14.87 18.57 14.63 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13
19 95.37 98.73 99.04 99.33 99.03 96.46 95.49 96.61 99.07 96.11 98.47 99.62 98.87 97.96 98.93 99.07 97.69 96.62 97.82 98.36 97.20 98.16 98.92 96.12 97.63 98.85 98.29 95.68 99.31 99.24 98.34 98.31 97.91 98.37 98.85
py
py
py ch, py
py
ch py py py
py ga py py
py py
py py
ch py
py, ch py
Upper Dominion Creek

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Inclusion Au 78.64 84.20 80.77 79.11 80.76 82.34 80.82 78.43 79.97 90.49 81.23 80.29 83.98 83.30 80.17 77.41 76.93 76.45 80.97 Ag 21.82 16.79 20.14 21.20 19.27 18.24 19.46 21.88 20.26 9.76 19.75 20.36 16.61 17.36 19.71 23.05 23.46 23.99 19.21 Cu 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.06 Hg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.06 0.00 0.00 Total 100.52 101.00 100.95 100.34 100.08 100.65 100.29 100.33 100.29 100.27 101.03 100.67 100.62 100.72 99.92 100.60 100.46 100.44 100.25
py py py
py py py py, ch py py
py
(continued on next page)
20
Lower Dominion Creek

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Inclusion c Au 83.11 83.29 87.90 72.34 78.35 82.63 87.39 80.99 82.02 75.91 Ag 17.21 16.75 12.53 28.09 22.27 17.53 13.01 19.54 18.45 24.83 Cu 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.02 Hg 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.12 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.07 0.00 Total 100.34 100.04 100.50 100.56 100.81 100.17 100.48 100.59 100.55 100.76
Upper Eureka Creek

Inclusions No. Simple 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 hs ar, pl Complex Au 73.64 63.42 69.30 65.45 70.78 68.37 72.07 74.07 62.51 76.36 63.17 59.42 62.86 55.86 78.00 75.55 68.12 58.60 73.02 52.59 74.98 66.64 68.45 34.57 75.37 73.84 54.87 38.14 52.39 57.85 40.42 56.33 68.68 57.19 59.65 74.51 61.20 69.59 54.44 41.14 Ag 27.01 37.49 30.96 34.79 28.55 31.54 28.64 26.03 38.06 24.15 36.72 40.73 38.04 44.76 22.46 24.55 30.31 37.98 26.39 47.53 24.95 33.57 31.80 66.46 24.48 26.34 44.22 60.48 46.45 41.06 58.03 42.79 30.53 41.95 39.57 25.13 38.81 29.59 44.63 47.92 Cu 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 Hg 0.27 0.00 0.17 0.16 0.00 0.14 0.01 0.24 0.23 0.14 0.28 0.39 0.00 Total 100.67 100.91 100.26 100.24 99.33 99.91 100.72 100.12 100.57 100.52 99.88 100.15 100.90 100.61 100.49 100.10 98.45 96.58 99.41 100.13 99.92 100.22 100.25 101.03 99.85 100.23 99.09 98.62 98.83 98.91 98.45 99.12 99.23 99.14 103.79 99.68 100.01 99.21 99.08 89.06
ar
ar + tr Cu
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
m ar, r
py
sph, (pl + Fe)
ar m
hs/ (hs + Au) hs/ch/ce
py py hs, r py hs/py/ch
c ch hs, ch, tet ar sph
tet/hs
0.00 0.31 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.02 1.70 0.01 4.34 0.01 0.17 0.01 0.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.41 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.00 0.79 0.00 0.62 0.01 0.64 0.00 0.72 0.00 0.46 0.02 0.23 0.00 0.32 4.58 0.85 0.04 0.41 0.00 0.20 0.02 0.91 0.00 0.24 0.00 11.38
1. ar/(ar + tr Te) 2. hs/(ar + tr Te) 3. tet/ar/ (ar + tr Cu)
60.26 37.46 66.72 33.25 79.24 76.73 63.82 72.60 68.66 74.46 58.90 51.77 68.72 57.64 46.57 63.01 47.77 78.69 73.74 72.01 51.68 55.20 71.57 56.67 77.53 54.23 69.85 71.26 56.47 41.10 42.31 57.54
39.39 59.31 30.13 65.84 20.68 23.29 35.22 26.90 31.08 24.64 40.36 47.30 30.84 40.92 52.10 36.14 51.07 21.01 25.51 27.44 47.43 43.44 27.39 41.52 22.91 44.43 29.51 29.19 43.15 59.55 57.42 42.60
0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02
0.26 1.94 3.25 0.00 0.44 0.35 0.79 0.27 0.30 0.61 0.96 0.65 0.35 1.49 0.53 0.26 0.22 0.43 0.40 0.31 0.11 0.51 1.13 0.53 0.42 0.39 0.05 0.11 1.05 0.53 1.44 0.34
99.64 96.76 96.87 99.10 99.97 100.06 99.05 99.55 99.76 99.13 99.27 99.08 99.57 98.56 98.66 99.16 98.84 99.75 99.30 99.49 99.11 98.64 98.99 98.19 100.50 98.66 99.37 100.45 99.62 100.65 99.73 100.51
73 74 75 76 77 78 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88
ar, (ce + tr Cu) ar, ce hs, ch, py, c ce
65.20 35.39 0.00 66.06 34.00 0.01 63.58 36.49 0.00 57.76 36.17 0.00 hs/ce/tet 69.90 68.42 71.61 59.44 54.65 68.67 68.88 64.77 53.15 75.40 64.18 30.54 31.82 28.92 41.22 45.81 31.56 31.48 35.38 47.79 24.15 36.19 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01
0.16 100.77 0.10 100.19 0.04 100.11 6.20 100.14 0.08 0.18 0.00 0.20 0.41 0.10 0.08 100.57 100.44 100.57 100.91 100.90 100.34 100.46
ce 1. b/hs sph, c, r hs ce, (ar + tr Cu), sph
sph, ga c
0.23 100.40 0.30 101.29 0.33 99.91 0.46 100.91
Other inclusions: ar, ar + tr Cu (2), ars, Ch (3), hs, py (5), c, r.
21
Lower Eureka Creek

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 Inclusions Au 52.10 72.05 76.53 75.96 76.34 76.31 67.49 62.35 78.80 65.68 76.80 63.17 69.78 70.95 74.85 73.28 63.87 71.35 78.87 65.47 77.20 78.40 68.47 70.74 75.47 65.43 73.54 71.09 66.63 65.07 71.61 71.10 70.55 82.79 74.84 71.14 79.84 63.21 74.37 62.31 74.49 82.44 61.06 71.80 78.26 64.31 75.64 68.29 73.22 78.31 61.26 70.31 59.12 78.97 73.82 77.01 Ag 48.28 26.83 23.41 23.56 21.17 23.14 32.47 37.61 21.20 33.83 23.27 36.89 29.18 28.18 25.20 27.27 35.82 28.89 20.54 33.96 22.81 21.75 31.86 29.36 24.18 34.91 26.05 28.90 33.36 34.86 28.24 28.83 29.69 16.79 25.43 29.05 20.39 36.49 25.74 37.05 25.33 17.74 38.07 28.04 21.30 35.85 24.16 31.50 26.56 21.86 39.32 29.75 41.15 20.84 25.46 22.85 Cu 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 Hg 0.73 1.06 0.27 0.10 2.55 0.00 0.15 0.29 0.30 0.02 0.00 0.40 1.07 0.31 0.37 0.03 0.38 0.03 0.47 0.15 0.00 0.04 0.17 0.20 0.12 0.08 0.00 0.23 0.48 0.42 0.06 0.21 0.07 0.03 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.04 1.11 0.42 0.00 1.27 0.09 0.48 0.21 0.14 0.24 0.09 0.06 0.12 0.38 0.32 0.11 0.52 0.00 Total 101.16 99.96 100.27 99.66 100.07 99.50 100.17 100.27 100.35 99.53 100.10 100.48 100.08 99.46 100.44 100.58 100.10 100.26 99.90 103.72 100.04 100.19 100.51 100.36 99.79 100.46 99.65 100.26 100.47 100.35 99.92 100.14 100.32 99.61 100.54 100.22 100.24 100.31 100.15 100.50 100.27 100.21 100.43 99.96 100.07 100.39 99.99 100.03 99.88 100.25 100.70 100.47 100.61 99.93 99.82 99.88
A.2. Microchemical data for grains from the Ochil Hills Proximal grains from Discovery Bench, Borland Glen. Grains where multiple analyses were carried out on different phases are indicated
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Phase i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ii i ii i i ii iii i i i i i i i ii i ii i i i ii i i i i i i i ii i i ii Inclusions bt, Bi FeTe Au 95.35 91.49 78.36 91.88 97.42 95.73 89.59 91.41 92.89 92.32 94.51 93.91 93.00 91.41 92.65 90.66 84.22 83.58 78.58 84.88 78.34 92.37 85.33 71.12 52.48 93.62 83.23 85.94 92.80 92.00 92.53 92.52 80.33 83.50 74.57 90.80 93.03 91.34 77.51 89.15 93.65 93.12 92.85 91.62 92.72 76.96 47.73 91.37 73.71 85.04 Ag 4.57 8.49 22.06 7.68 0.45 4.12 10.25 8.46 7.02 7.26 5.38 5.55 6.85 7.95 6.61 8.71 15.77 16.13 21.17 15.32 22.19 7.33 14.37 28.59 46.02 5.59 16.46 13.42 6.58 6.98 7.09 6.07 16.56 15.97 25.43 8.67 6.47 8.13 19.85 9.97 6.26 6.25 7.15 8.34 6.90 22.38 46.56 7.50 22.77 14.40 Cu 0.09 0.03 0.01 0.13 0.01 0.10 0.10 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.07 0.08 0.05 0.09 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.03 Hg 0.10 0.00 0.12 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.12 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.08 0.00 0.68 2.56 0.03 0.15 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.00 2.85 0.06 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.01 2.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.07 6.35 0.08 3.29 0.18 Total 100.10 100.02 100.54 99.87 99.58 99.96 99.96 100.02 100.09 99.65 99.97 99.54 99.93 99.50 99.33 99.46 100.07 99.73 99.76 100.22 100.74 99.85 99.71 100.43 101.07 99.30 99.87 99.40 99.49 99.07 99.71 98.68 99.75 99.53 100.01 99.63 99.56 99.52 99.98 99.18 100.01 99.45 100.07 100.01 99.67 99.41 100.66 99.00 99.78 99.65
py ga
bt, BiFeTe, b
wi, hs bt wi, ga, ca
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
ga
bt
py
ga, PbBiS, hs, PbBiAgS wi hs, c
40 41
Other inclusions: hessite, argentite + tr Cu.
22 41 i ii iii i i i i ii i ii i ii i ii i i i i ii i ii i i i i ii i i ii i ii i i i i ii iii i ii iii i i i i i i i i i i i i i ii i i ii iii i hs, c
R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126 73.71 85.04 56.66 80.99 93.88 87.62 91.04 44.86 92.99 80.83 84.73 75.81 89.87 69.24 91.93 74.97 90.71 89.57 58.96 92.33 87.69 93.44 92.05 85.29 90.35 62.19 91.56 91.59 82.18 91.01 69.37 92.84 85.31 73.25 89.07 53.72 80.91 90.88 70.23 57.80 82.99 92.58 90.64 81.18 91.24 94.04 92.13 94.04 91.29 92.24 92.88 88.85 88.33 50.27 92.16 92.97 nd 80.14 85.77 22.77 14.40 43.20 18.66 5.55 11.81 8.23 53.11 5.80 15.65 14.84 24.36 9.44 29.88 6.85 24.59 8.20 9.72 38.57 6.85 9.45 5.96 7.14 13.99 9.59 33.13 7.54 7.82 16.58 8.01 29.13 5.27 13.67 23.86 9.63 42.13 17.88 8.63 28.13 41.23 16.48 7.13 8.17 18.96 8.20 5.18 7.69 5.29 7.91 7.12 6.37 10.48 11.25 47.16 7.40 5.79 7.50 17.01 13.70 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.13 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.08 0.07 0.00 0.09 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.06 0.08 nd 0.10 0.00 3.29 0.18 0.82 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.14 1.83 0.00 2.81 0.00 0.02 0.28 0.85 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 2.97 0.00 1.86 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.02 4.60 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.00 0.74 0.05 0.00 2.79 0.00 4.11 0.25 0.00 1.06 1.57 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.66 0.00 0.00 nd 2.13 0.00 99.78 99.65 100.69 99.75 99.50 99.47 99.49 99.81 98.87 99.34 99.64 100.21 99.67 99.97 98.88 99.62 98.97 99.34 100.54 99.30 99.08 99.45 99.36 99.32 100.00 99.95 99.16 99.46 99.21 99.10 99.24 98.25 99.02 99.91 98.73 100.00 99.06 99.58 99.43 100.62 99.50 99.88 98.88 100.18 99.48 99.28 99.89 99.45 99.30 99.43 99.32 99.37 99.61 101.09 99.64 98.84 nd 99.39 99.47 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ii i i i ii i i i i i i i i i ii i i i i i i i ii i ii i i i i ii i ii i ii i ii i ii i i i i 68.62 90.63 93.84 92.55 92.75 92.17 77.03 86.73 90.08 89.20 93.58 92.53 91.63 93.86 91.01 81.13 68.55 91.28 93.72 82.39 72.30 77.26 89.11 92.63 89.71 92.74 92.53 89.98 91.43 84.07 75.41 93.06 92.99 92.43 86.76 91.28 90.32 89.74 68.32 95.13 73.28 63.05 91.82 92.17 90.36 83.08 91.34 79.03 87.78 78.50 90.31 77.01 91.09 73.19 83.26 91.17 90.11 78.62 25.87 8.27 5.39 6.38 6.66 6.89 22.25 12.30 9.07 10.29 5.79 6.71 7.28 5.79 8.47 18.62 26.01 8.08 5.04 17.11 26.88 19.74 10.32 6.25 9.48 6.12 6.48 8.39 7.58 15.53 23.68 6.02 6.11 6.42 12.42 7.23 9.25 9.87 27.14 4.34 23.05 32.83 7.88 7.40 9.84 14.76 7.95 19.17 11.60 18.23 9.14 22.27 8.74 23.73 16.03 8.20 9.16 21.35 0.01 0.04 0.07 0.05 0.09 0.06 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.10 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.02 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.08 0.10 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.07 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.05 0.02 0.13 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.11 0.04 0.01 5.44 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.04 0.00 5.35 0.01 0.15 0.00 0.51 2.46 0.08 0.08 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.06 0.72 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 4.24 0.03 3.43 4.23 0.00 0.01 0.00 2.01 0.00 1.49 0.00 2.42 0.00 0.57 0.00 3.06 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.07 99.97 98.97 99.32 98.99 99.58 99.13 99.30 99.06 99.20 99.53 99.54 99.30 99.00 99.81 99.54 99.75 99.90 99.45 99.01 99.52 99.70 99.46 99.54 99.02 99.29 98.91 99.09 98.45 99.10 99.69 99.83 99.24 99.25 98.92 99.24 98.60 99.63 99.70 99.72 99.58 99.76 100.11 99.76 99.64 100.22 99.98 99.36 99.71 99.40 99.17 99.50 99.85 99.87 100.00 99.30 99.51 99.34 100.09
bt
42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
bt
bt sph, c
ch, g bt, BiFeTe r
ga
hs, (hs + Au) c
CuS wi
py
wi wi
py
ga, py, ca, (hs + Au) wi
bt ch
65
66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
118 119 120 121 123 124
CuBiS, CuS hs, wi, ga, bt, CuS, (bt + S) wi, CuS, Ch, Bi phase, m, c
ch, CuPbS, c
c py, g wi, hs, bt + Au, ca
bt CuS, wi m bt wi CuPbS, ga, ce, CuTeS
125 126 127 128 129 130
81
R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126 131 132 i i ii iii 88.33 87.81 78.26 98.94 11.06 11.76 18.71 1.04 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.04 2.41 0.10 99.42 99.65 99.39 100.09 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 90.38 91.60 85.17 91.78 89.85 79.18 88.84 97.65 8.84 8.13 13.87 7.43 9.26 19.42 10.11 1.08 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.28 0.47 0.48 0.19 1.54 0.39 0.24
23 99.40 100.05 99.54 99.72 99.31 100.17 99.40 99.05
wi, ga, co
Discovery Bench distal grains

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Inclusions ars ars Au 88.01 75.61 88.41 89.18 85.05 89.70 76.40 59.08 89.16 83.87 93.15 90.91 88.74 74.45 90.46 91.65 92.69 86.82 86.26 90.52 82.56 91.46 87.33 82.24 80.62 92.50 94.32 91.41 93.05 95.43 90.39 88.00 92.85 96.98 90.62 86.87 87.72 92.34 89.56 90.38 92.09 93.83 89.42 93.81 88.38 90.60 90.19 88.98 89.90 94.42 91.24 92.70 Ag 10.32 23.89 10.88 9.90 13.45 9.26 23.86 41.30 9.45 14.99 5.56 8.08 10.46 25.04 8.79 6.23 6.22 12.08 12.07 8.12 17.14 7.08 11.48 17.05 17.63 6.58 4.59 7.73 5.37 0.97 8.87 11.37 6.28 1.32 8.03 10.10 11.85 6.44 9.31 8.39 7.07 5.08 9.14 3.25 10.57 8.17 8.75 9.14 9.22 5.67 7.73 6.57 Cu 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.52 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.02 2.27 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.57 0.02 0.41 0.03 0.03 0.08 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.03 1.30 0.02 0.03 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.14 0.04 Hg 0.29 0.18 0.10 0.08 0.18 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.03 0.50 0.16 0.01 0.20 0.02 0.48 0.49 0.30 0.29 0.07 0.11 0.47 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.25 0.09 0.18 0.00 0.17 0.03 0.14 0.00 0.46 2.34 0.25 0.38 0.00 0.14 0.11 0.34 0.22 0.42 0.21 0.25 0.10 0.52 0.30 0.00 0.02 0.56 Total 98.65 99.69 99.42 99.68 98.70 99.33 100.26 100.38 98.81 98.92 99.23 99.19 99.24 99.72 99.32 98.38 99.42 99.26 98.67 98.74 99.82 99.04 98.91 99.32 98.26 99.40 99.18 99.26 98.63 98.69 99.49 99.42 99.31 98.86 99.13 99.75 99.86 99.20 98.96 98.92 99.31 99.29 98.80 98.79 99.18 99.06 99.12 98.67 99.44 100.15 99.14 99.87
ch, NiCoAuTe
Hodyclach Burn
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Inclusions Au 87.79 91.19 92.66 87.97 85.20 74.29 93.26 93.64 96.51 93.43 83.88 79.58 83.77 84.99 91.05 94.17 92.78 90.48 92.13 75.32 70.43 84.53 96.70 96.32 95.38 74.15 91.81 87.55 93.02 91.94 90.83 87.92 92.43 74.70 91.80 66.48 80.55 91.50 90.38 85.69 91.52 94.54 88.51 96.34 88.70 72.07 Ag 9.49 6.06 6.20 11.56 14.75 25.31 6.69 6.18 2.76 5.36 15.80 21.02 16.90 14.94 9.35 6.10 7.39 9.68 7.66 24.81 29.36 15.69 3.56 4.34 5.04 26.49 7.86 12.37 6.81 8.31 8.63 11.93 7.17 25.19 8.11 33.16 19.69 8.51 8.40 13.85 8.11 5.54 11.69 1.76 11.20 28.42 Cu 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.10 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.41 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.01 0.20 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.00 1.82 0.00 0.00 Hg 0.31 0.68 0.56 0.35 0.00 0.03 0.39 0.00 0.62 0.84 0.18 0.17 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.08 0.14 0.03 0.49 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.26 0.01 0.18 0.53 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.64 1.05 0.00 0.23 0.45 0.00 0.04 0.71 0.21 0.48 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.53 0.00 Total 97.61 97.94 99.41 99.89 99.95 99.63 100.34 99.87 100.00 99.67 99.89 100.83 100.70 100.07 100.41 100.39 100.36 100.22 100.30 100.12 99.95 100.23 100.67 100.74 100.70 100.66 99.90 100.46 100.09 100.30 99.47 100.51 100.65 99.88 100.15 100.11 100.26 100.09 99.51 99.79 100.11 100.08 100.20 99.91 100.43 100.48
gers, ga
hs ars CuS, ch, bt + tr Cu
ars
ars py
ars
ga
24 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 93.03 63.08 91.87 92.29 93.44 92.88 93.91 79.78 91.17 83.97 92.28 79.61
R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126 6.14 34.15 7.99 7.02 6.63 7.44 5.80 19.72 8.66 16.10 7.32 20.56 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.01 1.05 2.65 0.55 0.93 0.05 0.21 0.32 0.24 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.05 100.23 99.92 100.45 100.27 100.18 100.60 100.06 99.74 99.85 100.20 99.64 100.22
Sma Glen
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Inclusions py ga ars ars ga tet Au 100.49 96.41 96.41 93.27 93.09 95.23 Ag 0.12 4.33 4.21 6.92 6.64 5.32 Cu nd nd nd nd nd nd Hg 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 Total 100.82 100.96 100.82 100.40 100.05 100.75
Keltie Burn A.3. Microchemical data for grains from localities in the Dalradian Calliacher Burn
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Inclusions Au 65.50 78.90 65.30 69.30 62.50 54.60 62.40 74.60 70.00 70.40 76.50 61.90 71.40 67.10 61.50 70.20 65.00 61.70 72.60 53.40 73.60 64.60 84.20 68.30 69.90 65.20 74.70 88.70 71.90 88.30 69.20 63.30 82.80 70.60 87.30 58.00 68.80 Ag 34.10 19.20 30.70 31.10 33.30 43.20 32.90 22.70 26.20 24.10 23.30 38.10 27.30 31.50 33.00 29.90 33.70 33.80 27.70 40.50 26.60 35.50 14.90 31.10 28.20 34.40 24.40 11.70 27.40 12.00 29.40 36.40 17.10 29.30 12.60 39.70 31.30 Cu nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd Hg nd 2.20 2.60 nd 3.70 2.20 5.20 3.00 3.60 5.30 1.70 nd 1.30 1.40 5.20 nd 1.70 4.50 nd 6.20 nd nd 0.50 0.21 1.70 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.50 0.00 1.40 0.00 0.30 0.20 0.00 2.80 0.00 Total 99.60 100.30 98.60 100.40 99.50 100.00 100.50 100.30 99.80 99.80 101.50 100.00 100.00 100.00 99.70 100.10 100.40 100.00 100.30 100.10 100.20 100.10 99.60 99.61 99.80 99.60 99.20 100.40 99.80 100.30 100.00 99.70 100.20 100.10 99.90 100.50 100.10 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Inclusions Au 91.08 91.27 94.61 96.74 96.30 83.02 85.61 83.07 93.89 100.55 90.42 89.81 88.73 92.15 67.02 97.39 Ag 9.88 9.93 6.49 3.86 4.02 19.07 16.15 18.36 0.97 0.10 10.84 10.71 11.07 8.44 34.47 4.09 Cu 0.18 0.15 0.18 0.23 0.20 0.12 0.12 0.08 0.13 0.19 0.12 0.10 0.16 0.13 0.08 0.18 Hg 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 101.14 101.34 101.28 100.83 100.51 102.21 101.88 101.51 94.99 100.84 101.38 100.62 99.96 100.71 101.56 101.65
ars
py, ars
ga ga
Native Bi
Glen Quaich
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Inclusions Au 80.19 85.82 91.53 86.96 66.17 82.14 86.10 58.66 71.23 80.33 83.90 70.17 Ag 18.87 14.13 8.37 12.62 33.36 17.79 13.82 40.26 29.26 19.93 15.91 29.90 Cu 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.05 Hg 0.94 0.00 0.09 0.39 0.46 0.00 0.00 1.72 0.23 0.04 0.15 0.33 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 99.96 99.92 100.65 100.75 100.34 99.97 100.46
ars
py
c ars, c
py, gers
ars, r cobaltite ars, py
ci
All alloy compositions in Mass %. Key to symbols: ar = argentite, ars = arsenopyrite, b = barites, bt = bismuth telluride (unspecified), c = carbonate, ca = calaverite, ci = cinnabar, ce = cervelleite, ch = chalcopyrite, cha = chalcocite, co = coloradoite, g = calcium sulphate (unspecified), ga = galena, gers = gersdorffite, hs = hessite, m = monazite, nd = not determined, py = pyrite, pl = plumbogummite, r = rutile, sph = sphalerite, tet = tetrahedrite, tr = trace, wi = wittichenite.
25
Unspecified phases in proximal Discovery Bench gold: Bismuthiron telluride (2), copper sulphide, copperlead sulphide (2), copper sulphotelluride, lead bismuthsilver sulphide, lead-bismuth sulphide, bismuthcopper sulphotelluride, bismuth sulphotelluride. Unspecified phases in distal Discovery Bench gold: goldcobaltnickel telluride. References
Affifi, A.M., Kelly, W.C., Essine, E.J., 1988a. Phase relations in the tellurides, sulphides and oxides: I. Thermochemical data and calculated equilibria. Economic Geology 83, 377394. Affifi, A.M., Kelly, W.C., Essine, E.J., 1988b. Phase relations in the tellurides, sulphides and oxides: applications to telluride-bearing ore deposits. Economic Geology 83, 395404. Anderson, I.K., 1994. Mines Royal License 64.58.01, Glen Devon, Scotland, report for the period 1 August 199231 July 1994. Baker, T., Pollard, P.J., Mustard, R., Mark, G., Graham, J.L., 2005. A comparison of granite-related tin, tungsten and goldbismuth deposits: implications for exploration. Society of Economic Geologists Newsletter 61, 517. Barton, P.B., Skinner, B.J., 1967. Sulfide mineral stabilities. In: Barnes, H.L. (Ed.), Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits, New York, Holt, Reinhart and Winston, pp. 236333. Bobis, R.E., Jaireth, S., Morrison, G.W., 1995. The anatomy of a Carboniferous Epithermal ore Shoot at Pajingo, Queensland: setting, zoning, alteration and fluid conditions. Economic Geology 90, 17761798. Bowell, R.J., 1992. Supergene gold mineralogy at Ashanti, Ghana: implications for the supergene behaviour of gold. Mineralogical Magazine 56, 545560. Bowell, R.J., Foster, R.P., Gize, P., 1993. The mobility of gold in tropical rain forest soils. Economic Geology 98, 9991016. Cabri, L.J., Laflamme, J.H.G., 1976. The mineralogy of Platinum group elements from some coppernickel deposits of the Sudbury area, Ontario. Economic Geology 71, 11591195. Chapman, R.J., Leake, R.C., Moles, N.R, Earls, G., Cooper, C., Harrington, K., Berzins, R., 2000a. The application of microchemical analysis of gold grains to the understanding of complex local and regional gold mineralization: a case study in Ireland and Scotland. Economic Geology 95 (8), 17531773. Chapman, R.J., Leake, R.C., Floyd, J., 2000b. Gold mineralization in the vicinity of Glengaber Burn, Scottish Borders. Scottish Journal of Geology 36 (2), 165176. Chapman, R.J., Leake, R.C., Moles, N.R., 2000c. The use of microchemical analysis of alluvial gold grains in mineral exploration: experiences in Britain and Ireland. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 71 (3), 241268. Chapman, R.J., Leake, R.C., Styles, M., 2002. Microchemical characterization of alluvial gold grains as an exploration tool. Gold Bulletin 35 (2), 5366. Chapman, R.J., Shaw, M.H., Leake, R.C., Jackson, B., 2005. Gold in the Central Ochil Hills, Scotland. Transactions-Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. Section B. Applied Earth Science 114, B53B64. Coats, J.S., Shaw, M.H., Gallagher, M.J., Armstrong, M., Greenwood, P.C., Chacksfield, B.C., Williamson, J.P., Fortey, N.J., 1991. Gold
in the Ochil Hills. British Geological Survey. Mineral Reconnaissance Program Report, vol. 116. Cooke, D.R., Simmons, S.F., 2000. Characteristics and Genesis of epithermal Gold Deposits, in Gold in 2000. SEG Review 13, 221244. Czamanske, G.K., 1974. The FeS content of sphalerite along the chalcopyritepyritebornite sulfur fugacity buffer. Economic Geology 69, 13281334. Desborough, G.A., Raymond, W.H., Iagmin, P.J., 1970. Distribution of silver and copper in placer gold derived from the northeastern part of the Colorado Mineral Belt. Economic Geology 65, 937944. Dumula, M.R., Mortensen, J.K., 2002. Composition of placer and lode gold as an exploration tool in the Stewart River map area, western Yukon. In: Emond, D.S., Weston, L.H., Lewis, L.L. (Eds.), Exploration and Geological Services Division, Yukon, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 2000, Yukon Exploration and Geology 2001, pp. 116. Earls, G., Hutton, D.H.W., Wilkinson, J.J., Moles, N.R., Parnell, J., Fallick, A.E., Boyce, A.J. 1996. The gold metallogeny of northwest Northern Ireland. Geological Survey of Northern Ireland, Technical Report GSNI/96/6. Einaudi, M.T., Hedenquist, J.W., Inan, E.E., 2003. Sulphidation state of fluids in active and extinct hydrothermal systems: transitions from porphyry to epithermal environments. In: Simmons, S.F., Graham, I. (Eds.), Volcanic, Geothermal, and Ore-Forming Fluids: Rulers and Witnesses of Processes Within the Earth. Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication, vol. 10, pp. 285313. Groen, J.C., Craig, J.R., Rimstidt, J.D., 1990. Gold-rich rim formation on electrum grains in placers. Canadian Mineralogist 28, 207228. Hallbauer, D.K., Utter, T., 1977. Geochemical and morphological characteristics of gold particles from recent river deposits and the fossil placers of the Witwatersrand. Mineralium Deposita 12, 293306. Hart, C.J.R., McCoy, D.T., Goldfarb, R.J., Smith, M., Roberts, P., Hulstein, R., Bakke, A.A., Bundtzen, T.K., 2002. Geology, exploration and discovery in the Tintina Gold Province, Alaska and Yukon. Integrated Methods for Discovery: Global Exploration in the 21st Century. Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication, vol. 9, pp. 241274. Hedenquist, J.W., Arribas, R., Gonzalez-Urien, E., 2000. Exploration for epithermal gold deposits in Gold in 2000. SEG Review 13, 245277. Henney, P.J., Styles, M.T., Bland, D.J., Wetton, P.D., 1994. Characterization of gold from the Lubuk Mandi area, Terengganu, Malaysia. British Geological Survey, Technical Report WC/94/21. Ixer, R.A.F, Pattrick, R.A.D., Stanley, C.J., 1997. Geology, mineralogy and genesis of gold mineralization at Calliacher-Urlar Burn, Scotland. Transactions-Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. Section B. Applied Earth Science 106, B99B109. James, L.P., Fuchs, W.A., 1990. Exploration of the Exciban gold coppertellurium vein system, Camarines Worts, Philippines. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 35, 363385. Knight, J.B., Mortensen, J.K., Morison, S.R., 1999a. Lode and placer gold composition in the Klondike district Yukon Territory, Canada, implications for the nature and genesis of Klondike placer and lode gold. Economic Geology 94, 649664. Knight, J.B., Mortensen, J.K., Morison, S.R., 1999b. The relationship between placer gold particle shape, rimming and distance of fluvial transport as exemplified by gold from the Klondike, Yukon Territory, Canada. Economic Geology 94, 635648.
26
R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126 Potter, M., Styles, M.T., 2003. Gold characterisation as a guide to bedrock sources for the Estero Hondo alluvial gold mine, western Ecuador. Applied Earth Sciences 112 (3), 297304. Rushton, R.W, Nesbitt, B.E., Muelenbachs, K., Mortensen, J.K., 1998. Auquartz veins in the Klondike District Yukon territory, Canada: a section through a mesothermal vein system. Economic Geology 88, 647678. Shikazono, N., Shimizu, M., 1988. Electrum: chemical composition, mode of occurrence and depositional environment. BulletinUniversity Museum, The University of Tokyo 32. Sillitoe, R.H., 1999. Styles of high-sulphidation gold, silver and copper mineralization in the porphyry and epithermal environments. PacRim '99, Bali, Indonesia 1013 October, Proceedings, pp. 2944. Sillitoe, R.H., Hedenquist, J.W., 2003. Linkages between volcanotectonic settings, ore-fluid compositions, and epithermal precious metal deposits. In: Simmons, S.F., Graham, I. (Eds.), Volcanic, Geothermal, and Ore-Forming Fluids: Rulers and Witnesses of Processes Within the Earth. Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication, vol. 10, pp. 315343. Styles, M.T., Wetton, P.D., Bland, D.J., 1995. Characterization of gold from Zimbabwe: Part 2. Alluvial and soil gold. BGS Technical Report WC/95/5. Townley, B.K., Herail, G., Maksaev, V., Palacios, C., de Parseval, P., Sepuldeva, F., Orellana, R., Rivas, P., Ulloa, C., 2003. Gold grain morphology and composition as an exploration tool: application to gold exploration in covered areas. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 3, 2938. White, N.C, Hedenquist, J.W., 1990. Epithermal environments and styles of mineralization: variations and their causes and guidelines for their exploration. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 36, 445474. White, N.C., Leake, M.J., McCaughey, S.N., Parris, B.W., 1995. Epithermal deposits of the southwest Pacific. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 54, 87136. Youngson, J.H., Craw, D., 1993. Gold nugget growth during tectonically induced sedimentary recycling, Otago, New Zealand. Sedimentary Geology 84, 7188. Youngson, J.H., Craw, D., 1995. Evolution of placer gold deposits during regional uplift, central Otago, New Zealand. Economic Geology 90, 731745.
Lange, I.M., Gignoux, T., 1999. Distribution, characteristics, and genesis of high fineness gold placers, Ninemile Valley, CentralWestern Montana. Economic Geology 94, 375386. Lawrance, L.M., Griffin, B.J., 1994. Crystal features of supergene gold at Hannan South, Western Australia. Mineralium Deposita 29, 391398. Leake, R.C., Bland, D.J., 1992. Internal compositional variation and mineral inclusions within gold as a means of source characterization. British Geological Survey Technical Report No. WG/92/47. Leake, R.C., Bland, D.J., Cooper, C., 1992. Source characterization of alluvial gold from mineral inclusions and internal compositional variation. Transactions-Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. Section B. Applied Earth Science 102, B65B82. Leake, R.C., Chapman, R.J., Bland, D.J., Condliffe, E., Styles, M.T., 1997. Microchemical characterization of gold from Scotland. Transactions-Institution of Mining and Metallurgy. Section B. Applied Earth Science 106, B85B98. Leake, R.C., Chapman, R.J., Bland, D.J., Stone, P., Cameron, D.G., Styles, M.T., 1998. The origin of alluvial gold in the Leadhills area of Scotland: evidence from internal chemical characteristics. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 63, 736. Loen, J.S., 1993. Implications of changes in placer gold morphology, Pioneer District, Montana. Northwest Geology 22, 2941. Morrison, G.W., Rose, W.J., Jaireth, S., 1991. Geological and geochemical controls on the silver content (fineness) of gold in goldsilver deposits. Ore Geology Reviews 6 (4), 333364. Mortensen, J.K., Nesbitt, B.E., Rushton, R., 1992. Preliminary observations on the geology and geochemistry of quartz veins in the Klondike District, west central Yukon. Yukon Geology, v.3: Exploration and Geological Services Division, Indian and Northern Affairs, Canada, pp. 250270. Mortensen, J.K., Chapman, R.J., LeBarge, W., Jackson, L., 2004. Application of placer and lode gold geochemistry to gold exploration in the western Yukon. In: Edmond, D.S., Lewis, L. L., Bradshaw, G.D (Eds.), Yukon Exploration and Geology. Yukon Geological Survey, pp. 205212. Naden, J., Henney, P.J., 1995. Characterisation of gold from Fiji. BGS Technical Report WC/95/41. Naden, J., Styles, M.T., Henney, P.J., 1994. Characterization of gold from Zimbabwe: Part 1. Bedrock gold. BGS Technical Report WG/94/51. Nichol, I., Hale, M., Fletcher, W.K., 1994. Drainage geochemistry in gold exploration. In: Govett, G.J.S., Hale, M., Plant, J.A. (Eds.), Handbook of Exploration Geochemistry, vol. 6. Elsevier.

Application of Microchemical Characterization of Placer Gold Grains To Exploration For Epithermal Gold Mineralization in Regions of Poor Exposure

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Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 1 26 www.elsevier.

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

NN 9930 0650 NN 9910 0820

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

Fig. 5. Compositional fields of gold from the Yukon.

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

Upper Dominion Creek

(continued on next page)

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

Lower Dominion Creek

Upper Eureka Creek

sph, (pl + Fe)

hs/ (hs + Au) hs/ch/ce

c ch hs, ch, tet ar sph

1. ar/(ar + tr Te) 2. hs/(ar + tr Te) 3. tet/ar/ (ar + tr Cu)

ar, (ce + tr Cu) ar, ce hs, ch, py, c ce

ce 1. b/hs sph, c, r hs ce, (ar + tr Cu), sph

0.23 100.40 0.30 101.29 0.33 99.91 0.46 100.91

Other inclusions: ar, ar + tr Cu (2), ars, Ch (3), hs, py (5), c, r.

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

Lower Eureka Creek

wi, hs bt wi, ga, ca

ga, PbBiS, hs, PbBiAgS wi hs, c

Other inclusions: hessite, argentite + tr Cu.

(continued on next page)

22 41 i ii iii i i i i ii i ii i ii i ii i i i i ii i ii i i i i ii i i ii i ii i i i i ii iii i ii iii i i i i i i i i i i i i i ii i i ii iii i hs, c

ch, g bt, BiFeTe r

hs, (hs + Au) c

ga, py, ca, (hs + Au) wi

118 119 120 121 123 124

c py, g wi, hs, bt + Au, ca

bt CuS, wi m bt wi CuPbS, ga, ce, CuTeS

125 126 127 128 129 130

23 99.40 100.05 99.54 99.72 99.31 100.17 99.40 99.05

Discovery Bench distal grains

hs ars CuS, ch, bt + tr Cu

(continued on next page)

(continued on next page)

ars, r cobaltite ars, py

R.J. Chapman, J.K. Mortensen / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 91 (2006) 126

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