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The Later Middle Ages, 1300-1500

Chapter10:TheLaterMiddleAges,13001500 ChapterSummary

ChapterSummary
I. WebsofStoneandBlood Bytheendofthefourteenthcentury,thecentralizedstatesofwesternEuropeweredisturbedbywar, dynasticconfusion,andeconomicdepression.Greataristocraticfamiliesmadeuseofthecollapseofthe centralizedstatestocreatenewpoliticalandeconomicallegiances.Similarly,newarchitecturalforms,such asthatofthecathedralofSaintVitusinPrague,brokewithFrenchGothic,thepreviouslydominantstyle. II. PoliticsasaFamilyAffair A. Introduction Fragmentedandregionallydiffuselandholdingstypifiedthearistocraticfamiliesofthefourteenth andfifteenthcenturies.Aristocraticpowerthreatenedthecentralizedpoliticalauthoritiesofthelater MiddleAges. B. TheStruggleforCentralEurope FivearistocraticfamiliesstruggledforcontroloftheGermanicempirethehousesofLuxembourg, Wittelsbach,Habsburg,Premysl,andAnjou.Eachfamilyshifteditsseatofpowerfromwestern EuropetotheeasternfrontiersoftheGermanicempire.Joiningthegreatfamiliesinthesubjection ofeasternEuropeweretheTeutonicKnights,acrusadingorderthattransferreditsactivitiestothe SlavicregionsalongtheBalticSea.TheeconomyoftheneweasternEuropewasvaried.Peasants weretransportedfromGermanyintotheformerlySlavicregionstosupportthedevelopmentofan agriculturalsystemdedicatedtothecommercialexportofgrain.Inthesouthernregionsofthe frontier,discoveriesofmetalsledtothecreationofaflourishingminingindustry.Dynasties establishedintheeasternkingdomsofBohemia,Hungary,Poland,andtheduchyofAustriaexisted asaresultofallianceswiththeregionalaristocracy.TypicaloftheeasterndynastswasCharlesIV, kingofBohemiaandemperor.CharlesassiduouslyaddedtohispowerbaseaskingofBohemia,but decreedhisdisinterestincentralizinghisauthorityasemperor.IntheGoldenBullof1356,Charles recognizedtheautonomyofthemajorprincesandkingswithintheGermanicempire.Whilemajor statescontinuedtodevelopontheeasternfrontieroftheempire,thewesternportionsfragmented intoliterallythousandsoftinyjurisdictionsunderbishops,imperialtowns,andimperialknights.The HolyRomanEmpirewasnotunitedasastateuntilthenineteenthcentury. C. AHundredYearsofWar CompetingaristocraticfamiliesalsodisturbedthepoliticalequanimityofwesternEurope.InSpain, theprocessofrecoveringthepeninsulaforChristianityleftthreesquabblingkingdoms.Unitywas onlyachievedafterthemarriageofFerdinandofAragonandIsabellaofCastilein1469.Innorthern Europe,thecentralizedmonarchiesofFranceandEnglandengagedintheHundredYearsWar. CausesoftheconflictweretheEnglishkingsstatusasvassaloftheFrenchkingforhisterritoriesin Gascony,EnglishsupportfortheurbanrebellionsinFlandersagainstthekingofFrance,andthe EnglishkingsclaimtothethroneofFranceaftertheendoftheCapetiandynastyin1314.While dynasticdisputeswerethestatedreasonfortheonsetofwar,thecodeofchivalryrequiredthe elitesofEnglandandFrancetoengageinviolentconduct.ThegreatersizeandwealthofFrance gavethatnationacompetitiveadvantageinwarfare,butEnglandsgreateradministrativeefficiency offsetthenaturalFrenchadvantages.Armieswerenolongerfeudallevies,butpaidmercenariesand militaryspecialists.TheEnglisharmyhadmorerecentexperienceinnewerformsofwarfareand wasbettercommanded.Notsurprisingly,Englisharmies,evenwhenoutnumbered,wonthemajor engagementsofthewar.Raidingandpillagingbetweencampaignsalsodestroyedmuchofthe Frenchcountryside.BecausetheFrenchkingscouldneitherdefeattheEnglisharmiesnorprotect thecountrysidefrompillage,aristocraticfamiliesbegantocarveoutindependentprincipalities.The mostimportantwithdrawalwastheduchyofBurgundy,whichactuallyallieditselfwithEngland againsttheFrenchking.JustasitappearedatotalEnglishvictorymightoccur,amysticalpeasant girl,JoanofArc,galvanizedtheFrencharmytovictorybeforehercaptureandexecutionin1431. Exhaustedbytheyearsofwarfare,theEnglishwerepressedbacktothecoastsofFrance.The conflictendedin1453withtheEnglishincommandofthesolitaryFrenchportofCalais.Asin France,continuouswarfarebenefitedthegrowingpowerandautonomyofthearistocracyin England.Increasingaristocraticfactionalismresultedincivilwarfrom1455to1485.TheWarsof theRoses,thedynasticstrugglebetweencadetbranchesoftheEnglishroyalfamilyandtheirallies,

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culminatedinthearrivalofanewroyalfamily.TheTudordynastycametothethroneofEnglandin 1485. III. LifeandDeathintheLaterMiddleAges A. Introduction ThemilitaryviolencetypicalofthelaterMiddleAgeswasmirroredinthesocialupheavalofthe times.Populationgrowthhadstretchedtheagriculturalsystembeyonditsabilitytoproduce.Shortly after1300,famineandplaguestrucktheEuropeanpopulation.Thegreatestdisastertoeverstrike Europe,theeffectsoftheBlackDeathwerefeltmorestronglyinwesternEurope. B. DancingWithDeath Shortlyafterthebeginningofthefourteenthcentury,thesupplyoffoodfailedtomeettheneedsof theEuropeanpopulation.Faminewasfollowedbyepidemicdisease.In1347theplaguereached EuropefromcentralAsia.Infiveyearstheplaguekilledbetweenonehalfandonethirdofthe population.Medicalknowledgewasrudimentaryandpeopleattributedtheonsetofthediseaseto divinewrath,Jewishplots,orastrologicalconjunctions.Nothing,ofcourse,haltedtheprogressof theepidemic.Afterthefirstfiveyearoutbreakoftheplague,thediseaserevisitedEurope continuallyuntiltheeighteenthcentury.TheBlackDeathimposedmanychangesonEuropean society.Psychologically,theartisticoutlookturnedtowardafascinationwiththeimageryofdeath. TheEuropeaneconomydriftedintodepression.Thetraditionalsocialstructuresthathadboundlord andlaborerwereshattered. C. ThePlagueofInsurrection Theplaguedramaticallyreducedthesupplyoflaborand,thus,increaseditsmarketvalue.Peasants anticipatedmorefavorablecontractualtermsforlandandlabor.Lordsrespondedbydemanding legislationtofixpricesandwages.Similarly,craftmastersattemptedtogaingreaterrestrictionson thewagesofurbanlaborers.Whenkingsseekingnewsourcesofrevenueforwarfareincreased taxation,theresultwasrevolutioninbothtownsandcountryside.InFrancethepeasantsrevolt againsttheauthorityofboththearistocracyandtheChurchwascalledtheJacquerie.Atthesame time,Parisianmerchantsalsodemandedreformsoftheroyalgovernment.Afterabrieftime,the militaryaristocracymadeshortworkofboththepeasantrevolutionariesandtheParisian merchants.SimilarpeasantrebellionsbrokeoutinEnglandin1381,inSpainin1395,andin Germanythroughoutthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.Urbanrevoltsofguildsmenand laborerswerealsocommonplace.PopularrevoltsbecameapermanentfeatureofEuropeanpolitical relationships. D. LivingandDyinginMedievalTowns TheBlackDeathdrasticallyaffectedtheurbaneconomyofthemedievalWest.DemandforItalian manufacturedgoodsandcommercialactivityfell.AsEnglishandFrenchkingsunderwartime pressurerepeatedlyrenegedonloans,thegreatbankinghousesofItalyexperiencedbankruptcy.As Italianslosttheircommercialdominance,Germantownsmovedtofillthevoid.TheHanseatic League,acoalitionofnorthernGermantowns,cooperatedintheestablishmentofmarkets throughoutEurope.Englishtownsbasedonanativewoolenclothindustryalsorevivedasthe Flemishtownswaned. Conditionsaftertheplaguewidenedthegapbetweenurbanpoorandwealthymerchants.Fearof potentialrevolutioncreatedtwoseeminglycontradictoryresponses:developmentofpublic assistanceandrepression.Townsbegantotakeoverhospitalsandpoorhousesformerlyrunby charitableandecclesiasticalorganizations.Sometownscreatedcentralizedreliefservicescharged withallpublicassistance.Atthesametime,limitswereplacedonbeggingandlegalpunishments becamemoredraconian.Publicexecutionsforallsortsofoffensesbecamecommonplace. IV. TheSpiritoftheLaterMiddleAges A. Introduction PoliticaldisarraywasreflectedindivisionswithintheChurchduringthelaterMiddleAges. B. TheCrisisofthePapacy ThefirstcrisiswithintheChurchwasthesocalledBabyloniancaptivity.In1305,ClementV,a

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Frenchmen,establishedthepapalcourtatAvignonratherthaninRome.AlthoughintheGermanic empire,AvignonplacedthepopeunderthetutelageofthekingofFrance.Forseventyyears, FrenchmendominatedtheChurch.Whilethepoliticalinfluenceofthepapacydeclined,thepopesat Avignondistinguishedthemselvesbythecreationofanenormouslyefficientsystemofecclesiastical taxation.Oneofthemostimportantsourcesofincomewasthesaleofindulgences,paymentof moneytoassistdepartedsoulsintheirpenance.Theotherimportantsourceofrevenuewasthe saleofChurchoffices.ThesecondcrisisoftheChurchwastheSchism,createdwhenmorethanone popeheldofficeatthesametime.In1377PopeGregoryXIreturnedtoRome,butdied immediately.TheRomanmobsdemandedtheelectionofanItalianpopeandthreatenedviolence. Cowedbytheovertthreat,thecardinalspresentinRomechoseUrbanVI,anItalianbishop.Once theFrenchCardinalsreturnedtoFrancetheyclaimedtheelectionwasinvalidandheldasecond electionthatresultedintheelectionofaFrenchcandidate,ClementVII.TheSchismdividedthe obedienceoftheChurchintotwowarringcamps.FranceandScotlandrecognizedClementin Avignon.GermanyandEnglandchoseUrbaninRome.UniversityofParisscholarsandChurch lawyerssuggestedthatonlyageneralcouncilofallChristendomcouldendthedispute.Thefirst attempt,theCouncilofPisaof1408,wasunsuccessful.Neitherpoperecognizedthecouncils authority,andtheresultwastheadditionofathirdpopetotheSchism.Asecondcouncil,the CouncilofConstance,finallyresolvedthesplit.TheperiodoftheSchism(13771415)badly damagedtheprestigeanduniversalauthorityofthepapacy. C. DiscerningtheSpiritofGod ThedeclineoftheinstitutionalChurchgavegreateremphasistolessorthodoxreligiousviews. WitchcraftwasnotasocialfixationoftheMiddleAges,butbecameamajorconcernofecclesiastical authoritiesafterthefifteenthcentury.AsrespectfortheestablishedChurchdiminished,Christians soughtmoredirectrelationshipswiththedivinethroughmysticismandcharismaticsocieties.Male groupstendedtofocusonthedoctrineofapostolicpovertystillemphasizedbytheradicalbranchof theFranciscans.FemalemysticsconcentratedonEucharistictheologyandonmysticalvisionsof spiritualunionwithGod. D. HeresyandRevolt Mysticismalwaysborderedonheresy,particularlyintheeyesoftheestablishedChurch.John WycliffeandJanHuswerethemostprominenthereticsofthelaterMiddleAges.Wycliffewasan EnglishmanwhoattackedthewealthandpropertyoftheChurchaviewsupportedbytheEnglish crownaswellastheauthorityofpriests,theefficacyofindulgences,andthesanctityoftheclergy. HisteachingswerecarriedtothekingdomofBohemiawherepriestsattheUniversityofPrague pickedthemup.TheleaderoftheBohemianmovementwasJanHus.AdoptedbytheCzech nationalistmovement,Husbecamenotonlyavoiceforreligiousreformbutalsoarallyingpoint againsttheGermanelite.AttheCouncilofConstance,Huswasconvictedofheresy,condemned, andburnedatthestake.HisdeathsetoffaCzechrebellioninBohemia.Althoughtherevolt fragmentedandfinallyfailed,BohemiaremainedaHussitestrongholduntilthesixteenthcentury ProtestantReformation. E. ReligiousPersecutioninSpain TheChristiankingdomsoftheIberianPeninsulawerethehometoChristians,MuslimsandJews. TheJewishcommunitywasavitalpartoftheeconomiclifeofthePeninsulaandthusenjoyed specialprivilegeswhichcausedgreatresentmentamongtheChristianpeoples.TheMuslimswere viewedwithmuchsuspiciousbecauseoftheysharedthesamereligionwiththeindependentMuslim stateofGranada.Bothgroupswereresented,discriminatedagainstandperiodicallyvictimsof violence.ConversiontoChristianitydidnotbringanendtodiscriminationastheIberianChristians remainedsuspiciousthattheconvertsweresecretlypracticingtheiroldreligionandusedpurityof bloodstatutestobarthemfromadvancement. F. WilliamofOckhamandtheSpiritofTruth InthelaterMiddleAges,theunionofphilosophyandtheologywassplitasunder.Thecreatorofthe newageofphilosophicaldoubtwasWilliamofOckham,anEnglishFranciscan.Williamwasa memberoftheradicalbranchoftheFranciscans,whobecameapamphleteerfortheemperorin oppositiontotheauthorityofthepopes.Philosophically,Ockhamarguedthatnogeneralconclusions concerningtheologycouldbedemonstratedbyrationalargument.Hisschoolofthoughtwascalled radicalnominalismhebelievedthatgeneralconclusions,oruniversals,couldnotbededucedfrom specificcases.Therefore,nothingcouldbeknownasaresultofphilosophicalortheological

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speculation.Ockhamsradicalnominalismdominatedtheuniversitiesafterhisdeathduringthe BlackDeath.Studentsbegantopaygreaterattentiontoinvestigationofspecificobservationsrather thanengageinphilosophicalgeneralizations. G. VernacularLiteratureandtheIndividual AsregionalismbecamemorepronouncedinthelaterMiddleAges,varietiesofvernacularliterature rivaledthedominanceofLatinproseandpoetry.Mostnotableamongthevernacularauthorswere theItalians,DanteAlighieri,Petrarch,andBoccaccio.DantesDivineComedy,anaccountofthe authorsheroicquestthroughhell,purgatory,andparadise,remainsatimelessclassic.Thework wasapersonalizedevaluationofmedievalsocietyin1300.Englandalsoenjoyedaliterary revitalization.WilliamLanglandandGeoffreyChaucer,likeDante,usedliterarymeanstocritique theircontemporarysocieties.ChaucersCanterburyTalescoveredthegamutofEnglishsocietyfrom theverypoortotheelite.InmanywaysFrenchliteratureprovidedthemodelsforvernacularworks inalllanguages.UniqueamonglatermedievalauthorswasaFrenchwoman,ChristinedePisan, whosupportedherselfandherfamilyasawriter.Sheisvirtuallythesolevoicepresentingafeminist viewoftheMiddleAges.Frenchrealistpoetryalsomarkedadeparturefrompreviousmedieval literarygenres.

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