Republic of the Philippines

Supreme Court
Manila EN BANC
ISABELITA C. VINUYA, VICTORIA C. DELA E!A, "ER#INI"ILDA #ANI#BO, LEONOR ". SU#A$ANG, CANDELARIA L. SOLI#AN, #ARIA L. %UILANTANG, #ARIA L. #AGISA, NATALIA #. ALON&O, LOURDES #. NAVARO, 'RANCISCA #. ATENCIO, ERLINDA #ANALASTAS, TARCILA #. SA# ANG, ESTER #. ALACIO, #A(I#A R. DELA CRU&, BELEN A. SAGU#, 'ELICIDAD TURLA, 'LORENCIA #. DELA E!A, EUGENIA #. LALU, )ULIANA G. #AGAT, CECILIA SANGUYO, ANA ALON&O, RU'INA . #ALLARI, ROSARIO #. ALARCON, RU'INA C. GULA A, &OILA B. #ANALUS, CORA&ON C. CAL#A, #ARTA A. PUNO, C. J., CARPIO, CORONA, CARPIO MORALES, VELASCO, R!, Present: G.R. No. 162230

GULA A, TEODORA #. "ERNANDE&, 'ER#IN B. DELA E!A, #ARIA DELA A& B. CULALA, ES ERAN&A #ANA OL, )UANITA #. BRIONES, VERGINIA #. GUEVARRA, #A(I#A ANGULO, E#ILIA SANGIL, TEO'ILA R. UN&ALAN, )ANUARIA G. GARCIA, ERLA B. BALINGIT, BELEN A. CULALA, ILAR %. GALANG, ROSARIO C. BUCO, GAUDENCIA C. DELA E!A, RU'INA %. CATACUTAN, 'RANCIA A. BUCO, ASTORA C. GUEVARRA, VICTORIA #. DELA CRU&, ETRONILA O. DELA CRU&, &ENAIDA . DELA CRU&, CORA&ON #. SUBA, E#ERINCIANA A. VINUYA, LYDIA A. SANC"E&, ROSALINA #. BUCO, ATRICIA A. BERNARDO, LUCILA ". AYA$AL, #AGDALENA LI$AG, ESTER C. BALINGIT, )OVITA A. DAVID, E#ILIA C. #ANGILIT,

NAC"URA, LEONAR#O$#E CAS%RO, &RION, PERAL%A, &ERSAMIN, #EL CAS%ILLO, A&A#, VILLARAMA, R!, PERE', an( MEN#O'A, JJ.

VERGINIA #. BANGIT, GUILLER#A S. BALINGIT, TERECITA ANGILINAN, #A#ERTA C. UNO, CRISENCIANA C. GULA A, SE'ERINA S. TURLA, #A(I#A B. TURLA, LEONICIA G. GUEVARRA, ROSALINA #. CULALA, CATALINA Y. #ANIO, #A#ERTA T. SAGU#, CARIDAD L. TURLA, et *+. I, t-e.r /*p*/.t0 *,1 *2 mem3er2 o4 t-e
/#*+*0* Lo+*2 Or5*,.6*t.o,7,

Pro)ul*ate(: April +,, +-.-

Petitioners,

- 0ersus -

T"E "ONORABLE E(ECUTIVE SECRETARY ALBERTO G. RO#ULO, T"E "ONORABLE SECRETARY O' 'OREIGN A''AIRS DELIA DO#INGO8 ALBERT, T"E "ONORABLE SECRETARY O' )USTICE #ERCEDITAS N. GUTIERRE&, *,1 T"E "ONORABLE SOLICITOR

GENERAL AL'REDO L. BENI AYO, Respondents! 1$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$1

DECISION
DEL CASTILLO, J.:
%he %reat2 of Peace 3ith apan, insofar as it barre( future clai)s such as those asserte( b2 plaintiffs in these actions, e1chan*e( full co)pensation of plaintiffs for a future peace! "istor2 has 0in(icate( the 3is(o) of that bar*ain! An( 3hile full co)pensation for plaintiffs4 har(ships, in the purel2 econo)ic sense, has been (enie( these for)er prisoners an( countless other sur0i0ors of the 3ar, the i))easurable bount2 of life for the)sel0es an( their posterit2 in a free societ2 an( in a )ore peaceful 3orl( ser0ices the (ebt!5.6

%here is a broa( ran*e of 0itall2 i)portant areas that )ust be re*ularl2 (eci(e( b2 the E1ecuti0e #epart)ent 3ithout either challen*e or interference b2 the u(iciar2! One such area in0ol0es the (elicate arena of forei*n relations! It 3oul( be stran*e in(ee( if the courts an( the e1ecuti0e spo7e 3ith (ifferent 0oices in the real) of forei*n polic2! Precisel2 because of the nature of the 8uestions presente(, an( the lapse of )ore than 92ears since the con(uct co)plaine( of, 3e )a7e no atte)pt to la2 (o3n *eneral *ui(elines co0erin* other situations not in0ol0e( here, an( confine the opinion onl2 to the 0er2 8uestions necessar2 to reach a (ecision on this )atter!

Factual Antecedents

%his is an ori*inal Petition for Certiorari un(er Rule 9: of the Rules of Court 3ith an application for the issuance of a 3rit of preli)inar2 )an(ator2 in;unction a*ainst the

Office of the E1ecuti0e Secretar2, the Secretar2 of the #epart)ent of <orei*n Affairs =#<A>, the Secretar2 of the #epart)ent of ustice =#O >, an( the Office of the Solicitor ?eneral =OS?>!

Petitioners are all )e)bers of the MALA@A LOLAS, a non$stoc7, non$profit or*aniAation re*istere( 3ith the Securities an( E1chan*e Co))ission, establishe( for the purpose of pro0i(in* ai( to the 0icti)s of rape b2 apanese )ilitar2 forces in the Philippines (urin* the Secon( Borl( Bar!

Petitioners narrate that (urin* the Secon( Borl( Bar, the apanese ar)2 attac7e( 0illa*es an( s2ste)aticall2 rape( the 3o)en as part of the (estruction of the 0illa*e! %heir co))unities 3ere bo)be(, houses 3ere loote( an( burne(, an( ci0ilians 3ere publicl2 torture(, )utilate(, an( slau*htere(! apanese sol(iers forcibl2 seiAe( the 3o)en an( hel( the) in houses or cells, 3here the2 3ere repeate(l2 rape(, beaten, an( abuse( b2 apanese sol(iers! As a result of the actions of their apanese tor)entors, the petitioners ha0e spent their li0es in )iser2, ha0in* en(ure( ph2sical in;uries, pain an( (isabilit2, an( )ental an( e)otional sufferin*!5+6 Petitioners clai) that since .CC,, the2 ha0e approache( the E1ecuti0e #epart)ent throu*h the #O , #<A, an( OS?, re8uestin* assistance in filin* a clai) a*ainst the apanese officials an( )ilitar2 officers 3ho or(ere( the establish)ent of the /co)fort 3o)enD stations in the Philippines! "o3e0er, officials of the E1ecuti0e #epart)ent (ecline( to assist the petitioners, an( too7 the position that the in(i0i(ual clai)s of the co)fort 3o)en for co)pensation ha( alrea(2 been full2 satisfie( b2 co)pliance 3ith the Peace %reat2 bet3een the Philippines an( apan! apanEs

I22ue2

"ence, this petition 3here petitioners pra2 for this court to =a> (eclare that respon(ents co))itte( *ra0e abuse of (iscretion a)ountin* to lac7 or e1cess of (iscretion in refusin* to espouse their clai)s for the cri)es a*ainst hu)anit2 an( 3ar cri)es co))itte( a*ainst the)F an( =b> co)pel the respon(ents to espouse their clai)s for official apolo*2 an( other for)s of reparations a*ainst apan before the International Court of ustice =IC > an( other international tribunals!

Petitioners arguments

Petitioners ar*ue that the *eneral 3ai0er of clai)s )a(e b2 the Philippine *o0ern)ent in the %reat2 of Peace 3ith apan is 0oi(! %he2 clai) that the co)fort 3o)en s2ste) establishe( b2 apan, an( the brutal rape an( ensla0e)ent of petitioners constitute( a cri)e a*ainst hu)anit2,5G6 se1ual sla0er2,5H6 an( torture!5:6 %he2 alle*e that the prohibition a*ainst these international cri)es is jus cogens nor)s fro) 3hich no (ero*ation is possibleF as such, in 3ai0in* the clai)s of <ilipina co)fort 3o)en an( failin* to espouse their co)plaints a*ainst apan, the Philippine *o0ern)ent is in breach of its le*al obli*ation not to affor( i)punit2 for cri)es a*ainst hu)anit2! <inall2, petitioners assert that the Philippine *o0ern)entEs acceptance of the /apolo*iesD )a(e b2 apan as 3ell as fun(s fro) the Asian Bo)enEs <un( =AB<> 3ere contrar2 to international la3!

Respondents Arguments

Respon(ents )aintain that all clai)s of the Philippines an( its nationals relati0e to the 3ar 3ere (ealt 3ith in the San <rancisco Peace %reat2 of .C:. an( the bilateral

Reparations A*ree)ent of .C:9!596

Article .H of the %reat2 of Peace5I6 pro0i(es:

Article .H! Clai)s an( Propert2 a> It is reco*niAe( that apan shoul( pa2 reparations to the Allie( Po3ers for the (a)a*e an( sufferin* cause( b2 it (urin* the 3ar! Ne0ertheless it is also reco*niAe( that the resources of apan are not presentl2 sufficient, if it is to )aintain a 0iable econo)2, to )a7e co)plete reparation for all such (a)a*e an( sufferin* an( at the present ti)e )eet its other obli*ations! b> E1cept as other3ise pro0i(e( in the present %reat2, the Allie( Po3ers 3ai0e all reparations clai)s of the Allie( Po3ers, other clai)s of the Allie( Po3ers an( their nationals arisin* out of an2 actions ta7en b2 apan an( its nationals in the course of the prosecution of the 3ar, an( clai)s of the Allie( Po3ers for (irect )ilitar2 costs of occupation!

In a((ition, respon(ents ar*ue that the apolo*ies )a(e b2 the atone)ent )one2 pai( b2 the Asian Bo)enEs <un(!

apan5,6 ha0e been

satisfactor2, an( that apan ha( a((resse( the in(i0i(ual clai)s of the 3o)en throu*h

Historical Background

%he co)fort 3o)en s2ste) 3as the tra*ic le*ac2 of the Rape of Nan7in*! In #ece)ber .CGI, apanese )ilitar2 forces capture( the cit2 of Nan7in* in China an( be*an a /barbaric ca)pai*n of terrorD 7no3n as the Rape of Nan7in*, 3hich inclu(e( the rapes an( )ur(ers of an esti)ate( +-,--- to ,-,--- Chinese 3o)en, inclu(in* 2oun* *irls, pre*nant )others, an( el(erl2 3o)en!5C6

In reaction to international outcr2 o0er the inci(ent, the apanese *o0ern)ent sou*ht

3a2s to en( international con(e)nation5.-6 b2 establishin* the /co)fort 3o)enD s2ste)! Un(er this s2ste), the )ilitar2 coul( si)ultaneousl2 appease sol(iers4 se1ual appetites an( contain sol(iers4 acti0ities 3ithin a re*ulate( en0iron)ent!5..6 Co)fort stations 3oul( also pre0ent the sprea( of 0enereal (isease a)on* sol(iers an( (iscoura*e sol(iers fro) rapin* inhabitants of occupie( territories!5.+6

#ail2 life as a co)fort 3o)an 3as /un)iti*ate( )iser2!D5.G6 %he )ilitar2 force( 0icti)s into barrac7s$st2le stations (i0i(e( into tin2 cubicles 3here the2 3ere force( to li0e, sleep, an( ha0e se1 3ith as )an2 G- sol(iers per (a2!5.H6 %he G- )inutes allotte( for se1ual relations 3ith each sol(ier 3ere G-$)inute incre)ents of uni)a*inable horror for the 3o)en!5.:6 #isease 3as ra)pant!5.96 Militar2 (octors re*ularl2 e1a)ine( the 3o)en, but these chec7s 3ere carrie( out to pre0ent the sprea( of 0enereal (iseasesF little notice 3as ta7en of the fre8uent ci*arette burns, bruises, ba2onet stabs an( e0en bro7en bones inflicte( on the 3o)en b2 sol(iers!

<e3er than G-J of the 3o)en sur0i0e( the 3ar!5.I6 %heir a*on2 continue( in ha0in* to suffer 3ith the resi(ual ph2sical, ps2cholo*ical, an( e)otional scars fro) their for)er li0es! So)e returne( ho)e an( 3ere ostraciAe( b2 their fa)ilies! So)e co))itte( suici(e! Others, out of sha)e, ne0er returne( ho)e!5.,6

Efforts to Secure Reparation

%he )ost pro)inent atte)pts to co)pel the apanese *o0ern)ent to accept le*al responsibilit2 an( pa2 co)pensator2 (a)a*es for the co)fort 3o)en s2ste) 3ere throu*h a series of la3suits, (iscussion at the Unite( Nations =UN>, resolutions b2 0arious nations, an( the Bo)enEs International Cri)inal %ribunal! %he apanese *o0ern)ent, in turn, respon(e( throu*h a series of public apolo*ies an( the creation of

the AB<!5.C6

La suits

In #ece)ber .CC., Ki) "a7$Sun an( t3o other sur0i0ors file( the first la3suit in apan b2 for)er co)fort 3o)en a*ainst the apanese *o0ern)ent! %he %o72o #istrict Court ho3e0er (is)isse( their case!5+-6 Other suits follo3e(,5+.6 but the *o0ern)ent has, thus far, successfull2 cause( the (is)issal of e0er2 case!5++6 apanese

Un(oubte(l2 frustrate( b2 the failure of liti*ation before apanese courts, 0icti)s of the co)fort 3o)en s2ste) brou*ht their clai)s before the Unite( States =US>! On Septe)ber .,, +---, .: co)fort 3o)en file( a class action la3suit in the US #istrict Court for the #istrict of Colu)bia5+G6 Lsee7in* )one2 (a)a*es for 5alle*e(l26 ha0in* been sub;ecte( to se1ual sla0er2 an( torture before an( (urin* Borl( Bar II,L in 0iolation of Lboth positi0e an( custo)ar2 international la3!L %he case 3as file( pursuant to the Alien %ort Clai)s Act =/A%CAD>,5+H6 3hich allo3e( the plaintiffs to sue the apanese *o0ern)ent in a US fe(eral (istrict court!5+:6 On October H, +--., the (istrict court (is)isse( the la3suit (ue to lac7 of ;uris(iction o0er apan, statin* that /5t6here is no 8uestion that this court is not the appropriate foru) in 3hich plaintiffs )a2 see7 to reopen 1 1 1 (iscussions nearl2 half a centur2 later 1 1 1 5E60en if apan (i( not en;o2 so0erei*n i))unit2, plaintiffs4 clai)s are non$;usticiable an( )ust be (is)isse(!D

%he #istrict of Colu)bia Court of Appeals affir)e( the lo3er court4s (is)issal of the case!5+96 On appeal, the US Supre)e Court *rante( the 3o)enEs petition for 3rit of certiorari, 0acate( the ;u(*)ent of the #istrict of Colu)bia Court of Appeals, an( re)an(e( the case!5+I6 On re)an(, the Court of Appeals affir)e( its prior (ecision,

notin* that /)uch as 3e )a2 feel for the pli*ht of the appellants, the courts of the US si)pl2 are not authoriAe( to hear their case!D5+,6 %he 3o)en a*ain brou*ht their case to the US Supre)e Court 3hich (enie( their petition for 3rit of certiorari on <ebruar2 +., +--9!

Efforts at t!e "nited #ations

In .CC+, the Korean Council for the Bo)en #rafte( for Militar2 Se1ual Sla0er2 b2 apan =KCBS>, sub)itte( a petition to the UN "u)an Ri*hts Co))ission =UN"RC>, as7in* for assistance in in0esti*atin* cri)es co))itte( b2 apan a*ainst Korean 3o)en an( see7in* reparations for for)er co)fort 3o)en!5+C6 %he UN"RC place( the issue on its a*en(a an( appointe( Ra(hi7a Coo)aras3a)2 as the issue4s special in0esti*ator! In .CC9, Coo)aras3a)2 issue( a Report reaffir)in* apan4s responsibilit2 in forcin* Korean 3o)en to act as se1 sla0es for the i)perial ar)2, an( )a(e the follo3in* recommendations:

A! .GI!

At the national le0el %he ?o0ern)ent of apan shoul(:

=a> Ac7no3le(*e that the s2ste) of co)fort stations set up b2 the apanese I)perial Ar)2 (urin* the Secon( Borl( Bar 3as a 0iolation of its obli*ations un(er international la3 an( accept le*al responsibilit2 for that 0iolationF =b> Pa2 co)pensation to in(i0i(ual 0icti)s of apanese )ilitar2 se1ual sla0er2 accor(in* to principles outline( b2 the Special Rapporteur of the Sub$Co))ission on Pre0ention of #iscri)ination an( Protection of Minorities on the ri*ht to restitution, co)pensation an( rehabilitation for 0icti)s of *ra0e 0iolations of hu)an ri*hts an( fun(a)ental free(o)s! A special a()inistrati0e tribunal for this purpose shoul( be set up 3ith a li)ite( ti)e$fra)e since )an2 of the 0icti)s are of a 0er2 a(0ance( a*eF

=c> Ma7e a full (isclosure of (ocu)ents an( )aterials in its possession 3ith re*ar( to co)fort stations an( other relate( acti0ities of the apanese I)perial Ar)2 (urin* the Secon( Borl( BarF =(> Ma7e a public apolo*2 in 3ritin* to in(i0i(ual 3o)en 3ho ha0e co)e for3ar( an( can be substantiate( as 3o)en 0icti)s of apanese )ilitar2 se1ual sla0er2F =e> Raise a3areness of these issues b2 a)en(in* e(ucational curricula to reflect historical realitiesF =f> I(entif2 an( punish, as far as possible, perpetrators in0ol0e( in the recruit)ent an( institutionaliAation of co)fort stations (urin* the Secon( Borl( Bar!

?a2 ! Mc#ou*al, the Special Rapporteur for the UN Sub$Co))ission on Pre0ention of #iscri)ination an( Protection of Minorities, also presente( a report to the Sub$Co))ittee on une ++, .CC, entitle( Contemporary Forms of Slavery: Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-li e Practices !uring "rmed Conflict. %he report inclu(e( an appen(i1 entitled "n "nalysis of t#e $egal $ia%ility of t#e &overnment of Japan for 'Comfort (omen Stations' esta%lis#ed during t#e Second (orld (ar,5G-6 3hich containe( the follo3in* fin(in*s:

9,! %he present report conclu(es that the apanese ?o0ern)ent re)ains liable for *ra0e 0iolations of hu)an ri*hts an( hu)anitarian la3, 0iolations that a)ount in their totalit2 to cri)es a*ainst hu)anit2! %he apanese ?o0ern)entEs ar*u)ents to the contrar2, inclu(in* ar*u)ents that see7 to attac7 the un(erl2in* hu)anitarian la3 prohibition of ensla0e)ent an( rape, re)ain as unpersuasi0e to(a2 as the2 3ere 3hen the2 3ere first raise( before the Nure)ber* 3ar cri)es tribunal )ore than :- 2ears a*o! In a((ition, the apanese ?o0ern)entEs ar*u)ent that apan has alrea(2 settle( all clai)s fro) the Secon( Borl( Bar throu*h peace treaties an( reparations a*ree)ents follo3in* the 3ar re)ains e8uall2 unpersuasi0e! %his is (ue, in lar*e part, to the failure until 0er2 recentl2 of the apanese ?o0ern)ent to a()it the e1tent of the apanese )ilitar2Es (irect in0ol0e)ent in the establish)ent an( )aintenance of these rape centres! %he apanese ?o0ern)entEs silence on this point (urin* the perio( in 3hich peace an( reparations a*ree)ents bet3een apan an( other Asian ?o0ern)ents 3ere bein* ne*otiate( follo3in* the en( of the 3ar )ust, as a )atter of la3 an( ;ustice, preclu(e apan fro) rel2in* to(a2 on these peace treaties to e1tin*uish liabilit2 in these cases! 9C! %he failure to settle these clai)s )ore than half a centur2 after the cessation of hostilities is a testa)ent to the (e*ree to 3hich the li0es of 3o)en continue to be un(er0alue(! Sa(l2, this failure to

a((ress cri)es of a se1ual nature co))itte( on a )assi0e scale (urin* the Secon( Borl( Bar has a((e( to the le0el of i)punit2 3ith 3hich si)ilar cri)es are co))itte( to(a2! %he ?o0ern)ent of apan has ta7en so)e steps to apolo*iAe an( atone for the rape an( ensla0e)ent of o0er +--,--3o)en an( *irls 3ho 3ere brutaliAe( in /co)fort stationsD (urin* the Secon( Borl( Bar! "o3e0er, an2thin* less than full an( un8ualifie( acceptance b2 the ?o0ern)ent of apan of le*al liabilit2 an( the conse8uences that flo3 fro) such liabilit2 is 3holl2 ina(e8uate! It )ust no3 fall to the ?o0ern)ent of apan to ta7e the necessar2 final steps to pro0i(e a(e8uate re(ress!

%he UN, since then, has not ta7en an2 official action (irectin* apan to pro0i(e the reparations sou*ht!

$omen%s &nternational $ar 'rimes

(ri)unal

%he Bo)en4s International Bar Cri)es %ribunal =BIBC%> 3as a /people4s tribunalD establishe( b2 a nu)ber of Asian 3o)en an( hu)an ri*hts or*aniAations, supporte( b2 an international coalition of non$*o0ern)ental or*aniAations!5G.6 <irst propose( in .CC,, the BIBC% con0ene( in %o72o in +--- in or(er to /a(;u(icate apan4s )ilitar2 se1ual 0iolence, in particular the ensla0e)ent of co)fort 3o)en, to brin* those responsible for it to ;ustice, an( to en( the on*oin* c2cle of i)punit2 for 3arti)e se1ual 0iolence a*ainst 3o)en!D

After e1a)inin* the e0i(ence for )ore than a 2ear, the /tribunalD issue( its 0er(ict on #ece)ber H, +--., fin(in* the for)er E)peror "irohito an( the State of apan *uilt2 of cri)es a*ainst hu)anit2 for the rape an( se1ual sla0er2 of 3o)en!5G+6 It bears stressin*, ho3e0er, that althou*h the tribunal inclu(e( prosecutors, 3itnesses, an( ;u(*es, its ;u(*)ent 3as not le*all2 bin(in* since the tribunal itself 3as or*aniAe( b2

pri0ate citiAens!

Action )* &ndi+idual ,o+ernments

On anuar2 G., +--I, US Representati0e Michael "on(a of California, alon* 3ith si1 co$sponsor representati0es, intro(uce( "ouse Resolution .+. 3hich calle( for apanese action in li*ht of the on*oin* stru**le for closure b2 for)er co)fort 3o)en! %he Resolution 3as for)all2 passe( on ul2 G-, +--I,5GG6 an( )a(e four (istinct (e)an(s:

5I6t is the sense of the "ouse of Representati0es that the ?o0ern)ent of apan =.> shoul( for)all2 ac7no3le(*e, apolo*iAe, an( accept historical responsibilit2 in a clear an( une8ui0ocal )anner for its I)perial Ar)e( <orces4 coercion of 2oun* 3o)en into se1ual sla0er2, 7no3n to the 3orl( as /co)fort 3o)enD, (urin* its colonial an( 3arti)e occupation of Asia an( the Pacific Islan(s fro) the .CG-s throu*h the (uration of Borl( Bar IIF =+> 3oul( help to resol0e recurrin* 8uestions about the sincerit2 an( status of prior state)ents if the Pri)e Minister of apan 3ere to )a7e such an apolo*2 as a public state)ent in his official capacit2F =G> shoul( clearl2 an( publicl2 refute an2 clai)s that the se1ual ensla0e)ent an( traffic7in* of the /co)fort 3o)enD for the apanese I)perial Ar)2 ne0er occurre(F an( =H> shoul( e(ucate current an( future *enerations about this horrible cri)e 3hile follo3in* the reco))en(ations of the international co))unit2 3ith respect to the /co)fort 3o)en!D5GH6

In #ece)ber +--I, the European Parlia)ent, the *o0ernin* bo(2 of the European Union, (rafte( a resolution si)ilar to "ouse Resolution .+.!5G:6 Entitle(, /Justice for Comfort (omen,D the resolution (e)an(e(: =.> a for)al ac7no3le(*)ent of responsibilit2 b2 the apanese *o0ern)entF =+> a re)o0al of the le*al obstacles pre0entin* co)pensationF an( =G> unabri(*e( e(ucation of the past! %he resolution also stresse( the ur*enc2 3ith 3hich apan shoul( act on these issues, statin*: /the ri*ht of in(i0i(uals to clai) reparations a*ainst the *o0ern)ent shoul( be e1pressl2 reco*niAe( in national la3, an( cases for reparations for the sur0i0ors of se1ual sla0er2, as a cri)e un(er international la3, shoul( be prioritiAe(, ta7in* into account the a*e of the

sur0i0ors!D

%he Cana(ian an( #utch parlia)ents ha0e each follo3e( suit in (raftin* resolutions a*ainst apan! Cana(a4s resolution (e)an(s the apanese *o0ern)ent to issue a for)al apolo*2, to a()it that its I)perial Militar2 coerce( or force( hun(re(s of thousan(s of 3o)en into se1ual sla0er2, an( to restore references in apanese te1tboo7s to its 3ar cri)es!5G96 %he #utch parlia)ent4s resolution calls for the apanese *o0ern)ent to uphol( the .CCG (eclaration of re)orse )a(e b2 Chief Cabinet Secretar2 @ohei Kono!

%he <orei*n Affairs Co))ittee of the Unite( Kin*(o)Es Parlia)ent also pro(uce( a report in No0e)ber, +--, entitle(, L&lo%al Security: Japan and )oreaL 3hich conclu(e( that apan shoul( ac7no3le(*e the pain cause( b2 the issue of co)fort 3o)en in or(er to ensure cooperation bet3een apan an( Korea!

Statements of Remorse made )* representati+es of t!e Japanese go+ernment

Various officials of the ?o0ern)ent of state)ents concernin* the co)fort s2ste):

apan ha0e issue( the follo3in* public

a> State)ent b2 the Chief Cabinet Secretar2 @ohei Kono in .CCG:

%he ?o0ern)ent of apan has been con(uctin* a stu(2 on the issue of 3arti)e Lco)fort 3o)enL since #ece)ber .CC.! I 3ish to announce the fin(in*s as a result of that stu(2! As a result of the stu(2 3hich in(icates that co)fort stations 3ere operate( in e1tensi0e areas for lon* perio(s, it is apparent that there e1iste( a *reat nu)ber of co)fort 3o)en! Co)fort stations

3ere operate( in response to the re8uest of the )ilitar2 authorities of the (a2! %he then apanese )ilitar2 3as, (irectl2 or in(irectl2, in0ol0e( in the establish)ent an( )ana*e)ent of the co)fort stations an( the transfer of co)fort 3o)en! %he recruit)ent of the co)fort 3o)en 3as con(ucte( )ainl2 b2 pri0ate recruiters 3ho acte( in response to the re8uest of the )ilitar2! %he ?o0ern)ent stu(2 has re0eale( that in )an2 cases the2 3ere recruite( a*ainst their o3n 3ill, throu*h coa1in* coercion, etc!, an( that, at ti)es, a()inistrati0eM)ilitar2 personnel (irectl2 too7 part in the recruit)ents! %he2 li0e( in )iser2 at co)fort stations un(er a coerci0e at)osphere! As to the ori*in of those co)fort 3o)en 3ho 3ere transferre( to the 3ar areas, e1clu(in* those fro) apan, those fro) the Korean Peninsula accounte( for a lar*e part! %he Korean Peninsula 3as un(er apanese rule in those (a2s, an( their recruit)ent, transfer, control, etc!, 3ere con(ucte( *enerall2 a*ainst their 3ill, throu*h coa1in*, coercion, etc! Un(eniabl2, this 3as an act, 3ith the in0ol0e)ent of the )ilitar2 authorities of the (a2, that se0erel2 in;ure( the honor an( (i*nit2 of )an2 3o)en! %he ?o0ern)ent of apan 3oul( li7e to ta7e this opportunit2 once a*ain to e1ten( its sincere apolo*ies an( re)orse to all those, irrespecti0e of place of ori*in, 3ho suffere( i))easurable pain an( incurable ph2sical an( ps2cholo*ical 3oun(s as co)fort 3o)en! It is incu)bent upon us, the ?o0ern)ent of apan, to continue to consi(er seriousl2, 3hile listenin* to the 0ie3s of learne( circles, ho3 best 3e can e1press this senti)ent! Be shall face s8uarel2 the historical facts as (escribe( abo0e instea( of e0a(in* the), an( ta7e the) to heart as lessons of histor2! Be hereb2 reiterate( our fir) (eter)ination ne0er to repeat the sa)e )ista7e b2 fore0er en*ra0in* such issues in our )e)ories throu*h the stu(2 an( teachin* of histor2! As actions ha0e been brou*ht to court in apan an( interests ha0e been sho3n in this issue outsi(e apan, the ?o0ern)ent of apan shall continue to pa2 full attention to this )atter, inclu(in* pri0ate researche( relate( thereto!

b>

Pri)e Minister %o)iichi Mura2a)aEs State)ent in .CCH

On the issue of 3arti)e /co)fort 3o)enD, 3hich seriousl2 staine( the honor an( (i*nit2 of )an2 3o)en, I 3oul( li7e to ta7e this opportunit2 once a*ain to e1press )2 profoun( an( sincere re)orse an( apolo*iesD

c> Letters fro) the Pri)e Minister of apan to In(i0i(ual Co)fort Bo)en
%he issue of co)fort 3o)en, 3ith the in0ol0e)ent of the apanese )ilitar2 authorities at that ti)e, 3as a *ra0e affront to the honor an( (i*nit2 of a lar*e nu)ber of 3o)en! As Pri)e Minister of apan, I thus e1ten( ane3 )2 )ost sincere apolo*ies an( re)orse to all the 3o)en 3ho en(ure( i))easurable an( painful e1periences an( suffere( incurable ph2sical an( ps2cholo*ical 3oun(s as co)fort 3o)en! I belie0e that our countr2, painfull2 a3are of its )oral responsibilities, 3ith feelin*s of apolo*2 an( re)orse, shoul( face up s8uarel2 to its past histor2 an( accuratel2 con0e2 it to future *enerations!

(> %he #iet = apanese Parlia)ent> passe( resolutions in .CC: an( +--:

Sole)nl2 reflectin* upon the )an2 instances of colonial rule an( acts of a**ression that occurre( in )o(ern 3orl( histor2, an( reco*niAin* that apan carrie( out such acts in the past an( inflicte( sufferin* on the people of other countries, especiall2 in Asia, the Me)bers of this "ouse hereb2 e1press (eep re)orse! =Resolution of the "ouse of Representati0es a(opte( on une C, .CC:>

e> Various Public State)ents b2 apanese Pri)e Minister ShinAo Abe

I ha0e tal7e( about this )atter in the #iet sessions last 2ear, an( recentl2 as 3ell, an( to the press! I ha0e been consistent! I 3ill stan( b2 the Kono State)ent! %his is our consistent position! <urther, 3e ha0e been apolo*iAin* sincerel2 to those 3ho suffere( i))easurable pain an( incurable ps2cholo*ical 3oun(s as co)fort 3o)en! <or)er Pri)e Ministers, inclu(in* Pri)e Ministers KoiAu)i an( "ashi)oto, ha0e issue( letters to the co)fort 3o)en! I 3oul( li7e to be clear that I carr2 the sa)e feelin*! %his has not chan*e( e0en sli*htl2! =E1cerpt fro) Re)ar7s b2 Pri)e Minister Abe at an Inter0ie3 b2 N"K, March .., +--I>! I a) apolo*iAin* here an( no3! I a) apolo*iAin* as the Pri)e Minister an( it is as state( in the state)ent b2 the Chief Cabinet Secretar2 Kono! =E1cerpt fro) Re)ar7s b2 Pri)e Minister Abe at the &u(*et Co))ittee, the "ouse of Councilors, the #iet of apan, March +9, +--I>! I a) (eepl2 s2)pathetic to the for)er co)fort 3o)en 3ho suffere( har(ships, an( I ha0e e1presse( )2 apolo*ies for the e1tre)el2 a*oniAin* circu)stances into 3hich the2 3ere place(! =E1cerpt fro) %elephone Conference b2 Pri)e Minister Abe to Presi(ent ?eor*e B! &ush, April G, +--I>!

I ha0e to e1press s2)path2 fro) the botto) of )2 heart to those people 3ho 3ere ta7en as 3arti)e co)fort 3o)en! As a hu)an bein*, I 3oul( li7e to e1press )2 s2)pathies, an( also as pri)e )inister of apan I nee( to apolo*iAe to the)! M2 a()inistration has been sa2in* all alon* that 3e continue to stan( b2 the Kono State)ent! Be feel responsible for ha0in* force( these 3o)en to *o throu*h that har(ship an( pain as co)fort 3o)en un(er the circu)stances at the ti)e! =E1cerpt fro) an inter0ie3 article LA Con0ersation 3ith ShinAo AbeL b2 the Bashin*ton Post, April ++, +--I>! 1 1 1 both personall2 an( as Pri)e Minister of apan, )2 heart *oes out in s2)path2 to all those 3ho suffere( e1tre)e har(ships as co)fort 3o)enF an( I e1presse( )2 apolo*ies for the fact that the2 3ere force( to en(ure such e1tre)e an( harsh con(itions! "u)an ri*hts are 0iolate( in )an2 parts of the 3orl( (urin* the +-th Centur2F therefore 3e )ust 3or7 to )a7e the +.st Centur2 a 3on(erful centur2 in 3hich no hu)an ri*hts are 0iolate(! An( the ?o0ern)ent of apan an( I 3ish to )a7e si*nificant contributions to that en(! =E1cerpt fro) Pri)e Minister Abe4s re)ar7s at the oint Press A0ailabilit2 after the su))it )eetin* at Ca)p #a0i( bet3een Pri)e Minister Abe an( Presi(ent &ush, April +I, +--I>!

(!e Asian $omen%s Fund

Establishe( b2 the apanese *o0ern)ent in .CC:, the AB< represente( the *o0ern)ent4s concrete atte)pt to a((ress its )oral responsibilit2 b2 offerin* )onetar2 co)pensation to 0icti)s of the co)fort 3o)en s2ste)!5GI6 %he purpose of the AB< 3as to sho3 atone)ent of the apanese people throu*h e1pressions of apolo*2 an( re)orse to the for)er 3arti)e co)fort 3o)en, to restore their honor, an( to (e)onstrate apanEs stron* respect for 3o)en!5G,6

%he AB< announce( three pro*ra)s for for)er co)fort 3o)en 3ho applie( for assistance: =.> an atone)ent fun( pa2in* N+ )illion =appro1i)atel2 O+-,---> to each 3o)anF =+> )e(ical an( 3elfare support pro*ra)s, pa2in* N+!:$G )illion =O+:,---$ OG-,---> for each 3o)anF an( =G> a letter of apolo*2 fro) the apanese Pri)e Minister to each 3o)an! <un(in* for the pro*ra) ca)e fro) the apanese *o0ern)ent an( pri0ate (onations fro) the apanese people! As of March +--9, the AB< pro0i(e( NI--

)illion =appro1i)atel2 OI )illion> for these pro*ra)s in South Korea, %ai3an, an( the PhilippinesF NG,- )illion =appro1i)atel2 OG!, )illion> in In(onesiaF an( N+H+ )illion =appro1i)atel2 O+!H )illion> in the Netherlan(s!

On

anuar2 .:, .CCI, the AB< an( the Philippine *o0ern)ent si*ne( a

Me)oran(u) of Un(erstan(in* for )e(ical an( 3elfare support pro*ra)s for for)er co)fort 3o)en! O0er the ne1t fi0e 2ears, these 3ere i)ple)ente( b2 the #epart)ent of Social Belfare an( #e0elop)ent!

Our Ru+.,5

Strippe( (o3n to its essentials, the issue in this case is 3hether the E1ecuti0e #epart)ent co))itte( *ra0e abuse of (iscretion in not espousin* petitionersE clai)s for official apolo*2 an( other for)s of reparations a*ainst apan!

%he petition lac7s )erit!

From a -omestic La Perspecti+e. t!e E/ecuti+e -epartment !as t!e e/clusi+e prerogati+e to determine !et!er to espouse petitioners claims against Japan.

*a er v. Carr5GC6 re)ains the startin* point for anal2sis un(er the political 8uestion (octrine! %here the US Supre)e Court e1plaine( that:

1 1 1 Pro)inent on the surface of an2 case hel( to in0ol0e a political 8uestion is foun( a te1tuall2 (e)onstrable constitutional co))it)ent of the issue to a coor(inate political (epart)ent or a

lac7 of ;u(iciall2 (isco0erable an( )ana*eable stan(ar(s for resol0in* it, or the i)possibilit2 of (eci(in* 3ithout an initial polic2 (eter)ination of a 7in( clearl2 for non$;u(icial (iscretionF or the i)possibilit2 of a court4s un(erta7in* in(epen(ent resolution 3ithout e1pressin* lac7 of the respect (ue coor(inate branches of *o0ern)entF or an unusual nee( for un8uestionin* a(herence to a political (ecision alrea(2 )a(eF or the potentialit2 of e)barrass)ent fro) )ultifarious pronounce)ents b2 0arious (epart)ents on 8uestion!

In +a,ada v. Cuenco,5H-6 3e hel( that political 8uestions refer Lto those 8uestions 3hich, un(er the Constitution, are to be (eci(e( b2 the people in their so0erei*n capacit2, or in re*ar( to 3hich full (iscretionar2 authorit2 has been (ele*ate( to the le*islati0e or e1ecuti0e branch of the *o0ern)ent! It is concerne( 3ith issues (epen(ent upon the 3is(o), not le*alit2 of a particular )easure!L

Certain t2pes of cases often ha0e been foun( to present political 8uestions!5H.6 One such cate*or2 in0ol0es 8uestions of forei*n relations! It is 3ell$establishe( that L5t6he con(uct of the forei*n relations of our *o0ern)ent is co))itte( b2 the Constitution to the e1ecuti0e an( le*islati0e$$4the political4$$(epart)ents of the *o0ern)ent, an( the propriet2 of 3hat )a2 be (one in the e1ercise of this political po3er is not sub;ect to ;u(icial in8uir2 or (ecision!L5H+6 %he US Supre)e Court has further cautione( that (ecisions relatin* to forei*n polic2

are (elicate, co)ple1, an( in0ol0e lar*e ele)ents of prophec2! %he2 are an( shoul( be un(erta7en onl2 b2 those (irectl2 responsible to the people 3hose 3elfare the2 a(0ance or i)peril! %he2 are (ecisions of a 7in( for 3hich the u(iciar2 has neither aptitu(e, facilities nor responsibilit2!5HG6

%o be sure, not all cases i)plicatin* forei*n relations present political 8uestions, an( courts certainl2 possess the authorit2 to construe or in0ali(ate treaties an( e1ecuti0e a*ree)ents!5HH6 "o3e0er, the 8uestion 3hether the Philippine *o0ern)ent shoul( espouse clai)s of its nationals a*ainst a forei*n *o0ern)ent is a forei*n relations )atter,

the authorit2 for 3hich is (e)onstrabl2 co))itte( b2 our Constitution not to the courts but to the political branches! In this case, the E1ecuti0e #epart)ent has alrea(2 (eci(e( that it is to the best interest of the countr2 to 3ai0e all clai)s of its nationals for reparations a*ainst apan in the %reat2 of Peace of .C:.! %he 3is(o) of such (ecision is not for the courts to 8uestion! Neither coul( petitioners herein assail the sai( (eter)ination b2 the E1ecuti0e #epart)ent via the instant petition for certiorari!

In the se)inal case of -S v. Curtiss-(rig#t .xport Corp!,5H:6 the US Supre)e Court hel( that /5t6he Presi(ent is the sole or*an of the nation in its e1ternal relations, an( its sole representati0e 3ith forei*n relations!D

It is 8uite apparent that if, in the )aintenance of our international relations, e)barrass)ent $$ perhaps serious e)barrass)ent $$ is to be a0oi(e( an( success for our ai)s achie0e(, con*ressional le*islation 3hich is to be )a(e effecti0e throu*h ne*otiation an( in8uir2 3ithin the international fiel( )ust often accor( to the Presi(ent a (e*ree of (iscretion an( free(o) fro) statutor2 restriction 3hich 3oul( not be a()issible 3here (o)estic affairs alone in0ol0e(! Moreo0er, he, not Con*ress, has the better opportunit2 of 7no3in* the con(itions 3hich pre0ail in forei*n countries, an( especiall2 is this true in ti)e of 3ar! "e has his confi(ential sources of infor)ation! "e has his a*ents in the for) of (iplo)atic, consular an( other officials! 1 1 1

%his rulin* has been incorporate( in our ;urispru(ence throu*h *ayan v. .xecutive Secretary5H96 an( Pimentel v. .xecutive SecretaryF5HI6 its o0erreachin* principle 3as, perhaps, best articulate( in =no3 Chief> ustice PunoEs (issent in Secretary of Justice v. $antion:5H,6

1 1 1 %he con(uct of forei*n relations is full of co)ple1ities an( conse8uences, so)eti)es 3ith life an( (eath si*nificance to the nation especiall2 in ti)es of 3ar! It can onl2 be entruste( to that (epart)ent of *o0ern)ent 3hich can act on the basis of the best a0ailable infor)ation an( can (eci(e 3ith (ecisi0eness! 1 1 1 It is also the Presi(ent 3ho possesses the )ost co)prehensi0e an( the )ost confi(ential infor)ation about forei*n countries for our (iplo)atic an( consular officials re*ularl2 brief hi) on )eanin*ful e0ents all o0er the 3orl(! "e has also unli)ite( access to ultra$sensiti0e )ilitar2 intelli*ence (ata! In fine, the presi(ential role in forei*n affairs is (o)inant an( the Presi(ent

is tra(itionall2 accor(e( a 3i(er (e*ree of (iscretion in the con(uct of forei*n affairs! %he re*ularit2, na2, 0ali(it2 of his actions are a(;u(*e( un(er less strin*ent stan(ar(s, lest their ;u(icial repu(iation lea( to breach of an international obli*ation, rupture of state relations, forfeiture of confi(ence, national e)barrass)ent an( a plethora of other proble)s 3ith e8uall2 un(esirable conse8uences!

%he E1ecuti0e #epart)ent has (eter)ine( that ta7in* up petitionersE cause 3oul( be ini)ical to our countr2Es forei*n polic2 interests, an( coul( (isrupt our relations 3ith apan, thereb2 creatin* serious i)plications for stabilit2 in this re*ion! <or us to o0erturn the E1ecuti0e #epart)entEs (eter)ination 3oul( )ean an assess)ent of the forei*n polic2 ;u(*)ents b2 a coor(inate political branch to 3hich authorit2 to )a7e that ;u(*)ent has been constitutionall2 co))itte(!

In an2 e0ent, it cannot reasonabl2 be )aintaine( that the Philippine *o0ern)ent 3as 3ithout authorit2 to ne*otiate the %reat2 of Peace 3ith apan! An( it is e8uall2 true that, since ti)e i))e)orial, 3hen ne*otiatin* peace accor(s an( settlin* international clai)s:

1 1 1 5*6o0ern)ents ha0e (ealt 3ith 1 1 1 pri0ate clai)s as their o3n, treatin* the) as national assets, an( as counters, Pchips4, in international bar*ainin*! Settle)ent a*ree)ents ha0e lu)pe(, or lin7e(, clai)s (eri0in* fro) pri0ate (ebts 3ith others that 3ere inter*o0ern)ental in ori*in, an( concessions in re*ar( to one cate*or2 of clai)s )i*ht be set off a*ainst concessions in the other, or a*ainst lar*er political consi(erations unrelate( to (ebts!5HC6

In(ee(, e1cept as an a*ree)ent )i*ht other3ise pro0i(e, international settle)ents *enerall2 3ipe out the un(erl2in* pri0ate clai)s, thereb2 ter)inatin* an2 recourse un(er (o)estic la3! In (are v. /ylton,5:-6 a case brou*ht b2 a &ritish sub;ect to reco0er a (ebt confiscate( b2 the Co))on3ealth of Vir*inia (urin* the 3ar, ustice Chase 3rote:

I apprehen( that the treat2 of peace abolishes the sub;ect of the 3ar, an( that after peace is

conclu(e(, neither the )atter in (ispute, nor the con(uct of either part2, (urin* the 3ar, can e0er be re0i0e(, or brou*ht into contest a*ain! All 0iolences, in;uries, or (a)a*es sustaine( b2 the *o0ern)ent, or people of either, (urin* the 3ar, are burie( in obli0ionF an( all those thin*s are i)plie( b2 the 0er2 treat2 of peaceF an( therefore not necessar2 to be e1presse(! "ence it follo3s, that the restitution of, or co)pensation for, &ritish propert2 confiscate(, or e1tin*uishe(, (urin* the 3ar, b2 an2 of the Unite( States, coul( onl2 be pro0i(e( for b2 the treat2 of peaceF an( if t#ere #ad %een no provision, respecting t#ese su%jects, in t#e treaty, the2 coul( not be a*itate( after the treat2, b2 the &ritish *o0ern)ent, )uch less b2 her sub;ects in courts of ;ustice! =E)phasis supplie(>!

%his practice of settlin* clai)s b2 )eans of a peace treat2 is certainl2 nothin* ne3! <or instance, in !ames 0 1oore v. Regan,5:.6 the US Supre)e Court hel(:

Not infre8uentl2 in affairs bet3een nations, outstan(in* clai)s b2 nationals of one countr2 a*ainst the *o0ern)ent of another countr2 are /sources of frictionD bet3een the t3o so0erei*ns! -nited States v. Pin , G.: U!S! +-G, ++:, 9+ S!Ct! ::+, :9G, ,9 L!E(! IC9 =.CH+>! %o resol0e these (ifficulties, nations ha0e often entere( into a*ree)ents settlin* the clai)s of their respecti0e nationals! As one treatise 3riter puts it, international a*ree)ents settlin* clai)s b2 nationals of one state a*ainst the *o0ern)ent of another /are establishe( international practice reflectin* tra(itional international theor2!D L! "en7in, <orei*n Affairs an( the Constitution +9+ =.CI+>! Consistent 3ith that principle, the Unite( States has repeate(l2 e1ercise( its so0erei*n authorit2 to settle the clai)s of its nationals a*ainst forei*n countries! 1 1 1 Un(er such a*ree)ents, the Presi(ent has a*ree( to renounce or e1tin*uish clai)s of Unite( States nationals a*ainst forei*n *o0ern)ents in return for lu)p$su) pa2)ents or the establish)ent of arbitration proce(ures! %o be sure, )an2 of these settle)ents 3ere encoura*e( b2 the Unite( States clai)ants the)sel0es, since a clai)ant4s onl2 hope of obtainin* an2 pa2)ent at all )i*ht lie in ha0in* his ?o0ern)ent ne*otiate a (iplo)atic settle)ent on his behalf! &ut it is also un(ispute( that the /Unite( States has so)eti)es (ispose( of the clai)s of its citiAens 3ithout their consent, or e0en 3ithout consultation 3ith the), usuall2 3ithout e1clusi0e re*ar( for their interests, as (istin*uishe( fro) those of the nation as a 3hole!D "en7in, supra, at +9+$+9G! Accor(, Restate)ent =Secon(> of <orei*n Relations La3 of the Unite( States Q +.G =.C9:> =Presi(ent /)a2 3ai0e or settle a clai) a*ainst a forei*n state 1 1 1 5e0en6 3ithout the consent of the 5in;ure(6 nationalD>! It is clear that the practice of settlin* clai)s continues to(a2!

Respon(ents e1plain that the Allie( Po3ers conclu(e( the Peace %reat2 3ith apan not necessaril2 for the co)plete atone)ent of the sufferin* cause( b2 apanese a**ression (urin* the 3ar, not for the pa2)ent of a(e8uate reparations, but for securit2 purposes! %he treat2 sou*ht to pre0ent the sprea( of co))unis) in apan, 3hich

occupie( a strate*ic position in the <ar East! %hus, the Peace %reat2 co)pro)ise( in(i0i(ual clai)s in the collecti0e interest of the free 3orl(!

%his 3as also the fin(in* in a si)ilar case in0ol0in* A)erican 0icti)s of apanese sla0e labor (urin* the 3ar!5:+6 In a consoli(ate( case in the Northern #istrict of California,5:G6 the court (is)isse( the la3suits file(, rel2in* on the .C:. peace treat2 3ith apan,5:H6 because of the follo3in* polic2 consi(erations:

%he official recor( of treat2 ne*otiations establishes that a fun(a)ental *oal of the a*ree)ent 3as to settle the reparations issue once an( for all! As the state)ent of the chief Unite( States ne*otiator, ohn <oster #ulles, )a7es clear, it 3as 3ell un(erstoo( that +e*9.,5 ope, t-e po22.3.+.t0 o4 4uture /+*.m2 :ou+1 3e *, u,*//ept*3+e .mpe1.me,t to * +*2t.,5 pe*/e: Reparation is usuall2 the )ost contro0ersial aspect of peace)a7in*! %he present peace is no e1ception! On the one han(, there are clai)s both 0ast an( ;ust! apan4s a**ression cause( tre)en(ous cost, losses an( sufferin*! On the other han(, to )eet these clai)s, there stan(s a apan presentl2 re(uce( to four ho)e islan(s 3hich are unable to pro(uce the foo( its people nee( to li0e, or the ra3 )aterials the2 nee( to 3or7! 1 1 1 %he polic2 of the Unite( States that apanese liabilit2 for reparations shoul( be sharpl2 li)ite( 3as infor)e( b2 the e1perience of si1 2ears of Unite( States$le( occupation of apan! #urin* the occupation the Supre)e Co))an(er of the Allie( Po3ers =SCAP> for the re*ion, ?eneral #ou*las MacArthur, confiscate( apanese assets in con;unction 3ith the tas7 of )ana*in* the econo)ic affairs of the 0an8uishe( nation an( 3ith a 0ie3 to reparations pa2)ents! It 2oo, 3e/*me /+e*r t-*t )*p*,;2 4.,*,/.*+ /o,1.t.o, :ou+1 re,1er *,0 *55re22.9e rep*r*t.o,2 p+*, *, e<er/.2e ., 4ut.+.t0. #e*,:-.+e, t-e .mport*,/e o4 * 2t*3+e, 1emo/r*t./ )*p*, *2 * 3u+:*r= to /ommu,.2m ., t-e re5.o, .,/re*2e1. At the en( of .CH,, MacArthur e1presse( the 0ie3 that /5t6he use of reparations as a 3eapon to retar( the reconstruction of a 0iable econo)2 in apan shoul( be co)bate( 3ith all possible )eansD an( /reco))en(e( that the reparations issue be settle( finall2 an( 3ithout (ela2!D %hat this polic2 3as e)bo(ie( in the treat2 is clear not onl2 fro) the ne*otiations histor2 but also fro) the Senate <orei*n Relations Co))ittee report reco))en(in* appro0al of the treat2 b2 the Senate! %he co))ittee note(, for e1a)ple:

Ob0iousl2 insistence upon the pa2)ent of reparations in an2 proportion co))ensurate 3ith the clai)s of the in;ure( countries an( their nationals 3oul( 3rec7 apan4s econo)2, (issipate an2 cre(it that it )a2 possess at present, (estro2 the initiati0e of its people, an( create )iser2 an( chaos in 3hich the see(s of (iscontent an( co))unis) 3oul( flourish! In short, 5it6 3oul( be contrar2 to the basic purposes an( polic2 of 1 1 1 the Unite( States 1 1 1!

Be thus hol( that, fro) a )unicipal la3 perspecti0e, that certiorari 3ill not lie! As a *eneral principle R an( particularl2 here, 3here such an e1traor(inar2 len*th of ti)e has lapse( bet3een the treat2Es conclusion an( our consi(eration R the E1ecuti0e )ust be *i0en a)ple (iscretion to assess the forei*n polic2 consi(erations of espousin* a clai) a*ainst apan, fro) the stan(point of both the interests of the petitioners an( those of the Republic, an( (eci(e on that basis if apolo*ies are sufficient, an( 3hether further steps are appropriate or necessar2!

(!e P!ilippines is not under an* international o)ligation to espouse petitioners claims.

In the international sphere, tra(itionall2, the onl2 )eans a0ailable for in(i0i(uals to brin* a clai) 3ithin the international le*al s2ste) has been 3hen the in(i0i(ual is able to persua(e a *o0ern)ent to brin* a clai) on the in(i0i(ualEs behalf!5::6 E0en then, it is not the in(i0i(ualEs ri*hts that are bein* asserte(, but rather, the stateEs o3n ri*hts! No3here is this position )ore clearl2 reflecte( than in the (ictu) of the Per)anent Court of International ustice =PCI > in the .C+H 1avrommatis Palestine Concessions Case:

&2 ta7in* up the case of one of its sub;ects an( b2 resortin* to (iplo)atic action or international ;u(icial procee(in*s on his behalf, a State is in realit2 assertin* its o2n rig#t to ensure, in the person of its sub;ects, respect for the rules of international la3! %he 8uestion, therefore, 3hether the present (ispute ori*inates in an in;ur2 to a pri0ate interest, 3hich in point of fact is the case in )an2

international (isputes, is irrele0ant fro) this stan(point! Once a State has ta7en up a case on behalf of one of its sub;ects before an international tribunal, in the e2es of the latter the State is sole clai)ant! 5:96

Since the e1ercise of (iplo)atic protection is the ri*ht of the State, reliance on the ri*ht is 3ithin the absolute (iscretion of states, an( the (ecision 3hether to e1ercise the (iscretion )a2 in0ariabl2 be influence( b2 political consi(erations other than the le*al )erits of the particular clai)!5:I6 As clearl2 state( b2 the IC in *arcelona +raction:
%he Court 3oul( here obser0e that, 3ithin the li)its prescribe( b2 international la3, a State )a2 e1ercise (iplo)atic protection 30 :-*te9er me*,2 *,1 to :-*te9er e<te,t .t t-.,=2 4.t, 4or .t .2 .t2 o:, r.5-t t-*t t-e St*te .2 *22ert.,5. S-ou+1 t-e ,*tur*+ or +e5*+ per2o, o, :-o2e 3e-*+4 .t .2 */t.,5 /o,2.1er t-*t t-e.r r.5-t2 *re ,ot *1e>u*te+0 prote/te1, t-e0 -*9e ,o reme10 ., .,ter,*t.o,*+ +*:. All the2 can (o is resort to national la3, if )eans are a0ailable, 3ith a 0ie3 to furtherin* their cause or obtainin* re(ress! %he )unicipal le*islator )a2 la2 upon the State an obli*ation to protect its citiAens abroa(, an( )a2 also confer upon the national a ri*ht to (e)an( the perfor)ance of that obli*ation, an( clothe the ri*ht 3ith correspon(in* sanctions! "o3e0er, all these 8uestions re)ain 3ithin the pro0ince of )unicipal la3 an( (o not affect the position internationall2! 5:,6 =E)phasis supplie(>

%he State, therefore, is the sole ;u(*e to (eci(e 3hether its protection 3ill be *rante(, to 3hat e1tent it is *rante(, an( 3hen 3ill it cease! It retains, in this respect, a (iscretionar2 po3er the e1ercise of 3hich )a2 be (eter)ine( b2 consi(erations of a political or other nature, unrelate( to the particular case! %he International La3 Co))issionEs =ILCEs> #raft Articles on #iplo)atic Protection full2 support this tra(itional 0ie3! %he2 =i> state that Lthe ri*ht of (iplo)atic protection belon*s to or 0ests in the State,D5:C6 =ii> affir) its (iscretionar2 nature b2 clarif2in* that (iplo)atic protection is a Lso0erei*n prero*ati0eL of the StateF59-6 an( =iii> stress that the state Lhas the ri*ht to e1ercise (iplo)atic protection on behalf of a national! It is un(er no (ut2 or obli*ation to (o so!L59.6

It has been ar*ue(, as petitioners ar*ue no3, that the State has a duty to protect its

nationals an( act on hisMher behalf 3hen ri*hts are in;ure(!59+6 "o3e0er, at present, there is no sufficient e0i(ence to establish a *eneral international obli*ation for States to e1ercise (iplo)atic protection of their o3n nationals abroa(!59G6 %hou*h, perhaps (esirable, neither state practice nor opinio juris has e0ol0e( in such a (irection! If it is a (ut2 internationall2, it is onl2 a )oral an( not a le*al (ut2, an( there is no )eans of enforcin* its fulfill)ent!59H6

Be full2 a*ree that rape, se1ual sla0er2, torture, an( se1ual 0iolence are )orall2 reprehensible as 3ell as le*all2 prohibite( un(er conte)porar2 international la3!59:6 "o3e0er, petitioners ta7e 8uite a theoretical leap in clai)in* that these proscriptions auto)aticall2 i)pl2 that that the Philippines is un(er a non$(ero*able obli*ation to prosecute international cri)es, particularl2 since petitioners (o not (e)an( the i)putation of in(i0i(ual cri)inal liabilit2, but see7 to reco0er )onetar2 reparations fro) the state of apan! Absent the consent of states, an applicable treat2 re*i)e, or a (irecti0e b2 the Securit2 Council, there is no non$(ero*able (ut2 to institute procee(in*s a*ainst apan! In(ee(, precisel2 because of statesE reluctance to (irectl2 prosecute clai)s a*ainst another state, recent (e0elop)ents support the )o(ern tren( to e)po3er in(i0i(uals to (irectl2 participate in suits a*ainst perpetrators of international cri)es! 5996 Nonetheless, not3ithstan(in* an arra2 of ?eneral Asse)bl2 resolutions callin* for the prosecution of cri)es a*ainst hu)anit2 an( the stron* polic2 ar*u)ents 3arrantin* such a rule, the practice of states (oes not 2et support the present e1istence of an obli*ation to prosecute international cri)es!59I6 Of course a custo)ar2 (ut2 of prosecution is i(eal, but 3e cannot fin( enou*h e0i(ence to reasonabl2 assert its e1istence! %o the e1tent that an2 state practice in this area is 3i(esprea(, it is in the practice of *rantin* a)nesties, i))unit2, selecti0e prosecution, or de facto i)punit2 to those 3ho co))it cri)es a*ainst hu)anit2!D59,6

E0en the in0ocation of jus cogens nor)s an( erga omnes obli*ations 3ill not alter this anal2sis! E0en if 3e si(estep the 8uestion of 3hether jus cogens nor)s e1iste( in .C:., petitioners ha0e not (ei*ne( to sho3 that the cri)es co))itte( b2 the apanese ar)2 0iolate( jus cogens prohibitions at the ti)e the %reat2 of Peace 3as si*ne(, or that the (ut2 to prosecute perpetrators of international cri)es is an erga omnes obli*ation or has attaine( the status of jus cogens.

%he ter) erga omnes =Latin: in relation to everyone> in international la3 has been use( as a le*al ter) (escribin* obli*ations o3e( b2 States to3ar(s the co))unit2 of states as a 3hole! %he concept 3as reco*niAe( b2 the IC in *arcelona +raction:

1 1 1 an essential (istinction shoul( be (ra3n bet3een the obli*ations of a State to3ar(s the international co))unit2 as a 3hole, an( those arisin* 0is$S$0is another State in the fiel( of (iplo)atic protection! &2 their 0er2 nature, the for)er are the concern of all States! In 0ie3 of the i)portance of the ri*hts in0ol0e(, all States can be hel( to ha0e a le*al interest in their protectionF the2 are obli*ations erga omnes. Such obli*ations (eri0e, for e1a)ple, in conte)porar2 international la3, fro) the outla3in* of acts of a**ression, an( of *enoci(e, as also fro) the principles an( rules concernin* the basic ri*hts of the hu)an person, inclu(in* protection fro) sla0er2 an( racial (iscri)ination! So)e of the correspon(in* ri*hts of protection ha0e entere( into the bo(2 of *eneral international la3 T others are conferre( b2 international instru)ents of a uni0ersal or 8uasi$uni0ersal character!

%he Latin phrase, Uerga omnes,E has since beco)e one of the rall2in* cries of those sharin* a belief in the e)er*ence of a 0alue$base( international public or(er! "o3e0er, as is so often the case, the realit2 is neither so clear nor so bri*ht! Bhate0er the rele0ance of obli*ations erga omnes as a le*al concept, its full potential re)ains to be realiAe( in practice!59C6 %he ter) is closel2 connecte( 3ith the international la3 concept of jus cogens! In international la3, the ter) /jus cogensD =literall2, /co)pellin* la3D> refers to nor)s that

co))an( pere)ptor2 authorit2, superse(in* conflictin* treaties an( custo)! Jus cogens nor)s are consi(ere( pere)ptor2 in the sense that the2 are )an(ator2, (o not a()it (ero*ation, an( can be )o(ifie( onl2 b2 *eneral international nor)s of e8ui0alent authorit2!5I-6 Earl2 strains of the jus cogens (octrine ha0e e1iste( since the .I--s,5I.6 but pere)ptor2 nor)s be*an to attract *reater scholarl2 attention 3ith the publication of Alfre( 0on Ver(ross4s influential .CGI article, <orbi((en %reaties in International La3! 5I+6 %he reco*nition of jus cogens *aine( e0en )ore force in the .C:-s an( .C9-s 3ith the ILCEs preparation of the Vienna Con0ention on the La3 of %reaties =VCL%>!5IG6 %hou*h there 3as a consensus that certain international nor)s ha( attaine( the status of jus cogens,5IH6 the ILC 3as unable to reach a consensus on the proper criteria for i(entif2in* pere)ptor2 nor)s! After an e1ten(e( (ebate o0er these an( other theories of jus cogens, the ILC conclu(e( ruefull2 in .C9G that /there is not as 2et an2 *enerall2 accepte( criterion b2 3hich to i(entif2 a *eneral rule of international la3 as ha0in* the character of jus cogens!D5I:6 In a co))entar2 acco)pan2in* the (raft con0ention, the ILC in(icate( that /the pru(ent course see)s to be to 1 1 1 lea0e the full content of this rule to be 3or7e( out in State practice an( in the ;urispru(ence of international tribunals!D5I96 %hus, 3hile the e1istence of jus cogens in international la3 is un(ispute(, no consensus e1ists on its substance,5II6 be2on( a tin2 core of principles an( rules!5I,6

Of course, 3e *reatl2 s2)pathiAe 3ith the cause of petitioners, an( 3e cannot be*in to co)prehen( the uni)a*inable horror the2 un(er3ent at the han(s of the apanese sol(iers! Be are also (eepl2 concerne( that, in apparent contra0ention of fun(a)ental principles of la3, the petitioners appear to be 3ithout a re)e(2 to challen*e those that ha0e offen(e( the) before appropriate fora! Nee(less to sa2, our *o0ern)ent shoul(

ta7e the lea( in protectin* its citiAens a*ainst 0iolation of their fun(a)ental hu)an ri*hts! Re*rettabl2, it is not 3ithin our po3er to order the E1ecuti0e #epart)ent to ta7e up the petitionersE cause! Ours is onl2 the po3er to urge an( e/!ort the E1ecuti0e #epart)ent to ta7e up petitionersE cause!

$"ERE'ORE, the Petition is hereb2 DIS#ISSED.

SO ORDERED!