01

CHAPTER ONE
Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Infrared Radiation Theory
1.0 INTRODUCTION The coming of age of Infrared (IR) technology has opened the door to a variety of applications to optoelectronic devices, photonic components, electrooptic devices, space surveillance and reconnaissance sensors, premises security systems, covert observation systems, communication systems, data transmission systems, missile warning systems, medical diagnostic equipment, pollution monitoring sensors, high-resolution image sensors, multispectral airborne/space sensors, and host of other commercial and military systems. Understanding of lR radiation theory is of paramount importance prior to application of IR technology to various devices and systems. Familiarity with symbols, dimensions, units, and definitions of important photometric quantities is absolutely necessary. This chapter will provide derivations of various relevant functions and expressions that have significant impact on critical performance parameters of the electrooptic and photonic devices. This book identifies applications of cutting-edge 1R technology in commercial and military fields. Various functions and expressions are identified that are relevant in summarizing the performance capabilities of IR and electrooptic devices. Symbols and units of various radiometric quantities are identified. Relevant performance parameters such as flux, source intensity, irradiance, radiant emittance, and energy for photometric, radiometric and photonic systems or devices are smnmarized. 1.1 FUNCTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND UNITS
1.1.1 Radiometry
Radiometric quantities and their symbols and units commonly used in the IR device or system design analysis are summarized in Tables I. 1-1.3.
Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons
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INFRARED RADIATION THEORY
TABLE 1.1
Name
Flux-related quantities, symbols, and definitions [ll

Symbol ~* OM M E I Definition Time rate (dO~dO Time rate per unit normal to flux flow Flux density emitted from source Flux density received Flux per unit solid angle

*~ indicates flux quantity.
Flux Flux Density Exeitanee or radiant exeitanee Incidence Radiation Intensity
TABLE 1.2
Compatible systems of IR Radiation units
IR Systems system dealing with Photometric
Parameters
Radiometrie
Photonie
Flux Source Intensity lrradianee (or illumination) Emittanee Radiance (or luminance) Energy
Watt Watt/sr Watt/m2 Watt/m 2 Watt/sr/m2 Watt.see (joule)
Lumen Lumen/sr Lumen/m2 Lumen/m2 Lumen/sr/m2 Lumen-see
Photon/see Photon/see/sr Photon/see/m' Photon/sec/m2 Photon/see/m2 Photon
TABLE 1.3
Quantity
Radiometric quantities, symbols, and units

Symbol
Unit
Energy Energy density Flux power Flux density Radiant exeitance lrradianee Radiance
Q, I4", (be ~/A Me E~ L,
J J/m 3 W W/m2 W/m 2 W/m 2 W/m z
1.2
VARIOUS FUNCTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND UNITS
Blackbody functions are of paramount importance in dealing with design analysis and performance prediction of IR sensors and sources. A blackbody is defined as a perfect radiation source, i.e., one that radiates the maximum number of photons per unit time from a unit area in a specified spectral interval into a hemispherical region that any body can radiate at the same temperature and under thermodynamic equilibrium. The blackbody function is represented by the Plank function, which is defined as the number of photons per unit k-interval per unit volume. This ~an be expressed as
1.2 VARIOUS FUNCTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND UNITS

k 2 1

Cl'l
where, k = (27r/A), A is the wavelength (cm), and x = (1.4388/AT), a dimensionless quantity when temperature T is expressed in Kelvin and wavelength Aim cm. The number of photons per unit area per trait time radiated into a hemisphere by a blackbody can be written as
M+ = T
(1.2)
where, c is the velocity of light (c = 3 10 t cm/sec) and n is the photon volume density per cm 3. If parameter c is expressed in m/sec, then n must also be expressed in meters. The number of photons per unit area per unit time per unit solid angle radiated from a blackbody can be expressed as
cn
(1.3)
Lq
47r
Note: flux-related radiometric parameters and symbols are shown in Table 1.1 [ 1]. Radiometric, photometric and photonic parameters and their units are summarized in Table 1.2. Specific radiometric quantities and their symbols and units are shown in Table 1.3. Various physical constants, optical parameters, symbols, and units frequently used in photometric and radiometric system analysis and design are summarized in Tables 1.4-1.8 [2]. Metric unit prefixes and symbols are shown in Table
TABLE 1.4 and units
Physical constants commonly used for electrooptic analysis 121 and their values
Symbol N k e Value
Physical constant
Unit
Avogadro's number Boltzmann's constant Electron charge Electron charge to mass ratio
e/m
eV Ct
6.022169 1023 1.380622 10-23 1.6021917 x 10-~9 1.7588028 10 t~
mol -) J K -~ C C kg t
Energy o f I electron volt V o l t a g e - w a v e l e n g t h conversion factor First radiation constant (87rhc)
hc/e
1.6021917 x 10-~9 1.2398541 x 10~ 4.992579 x 10-z4 0.0259 673 9.109558 x 10TM 8.86 I0 ~2 6.626196 X l 0 -34 0.01438833 2.9979250 108 5.66961 x 10-8
j Vm Jm
kT value at room temperature
Luminous efficacy at 555 nm Mass o f electron in free space
-K(;t)m+~ m eo h
eV lm W I kg F m -~ Js
Permittivity o f free space Planck's constant
Second radiation constant (hc/k) Speed o f light in v a c u u m Stefan-Boltzmann constant
C2
c tr
m K m s-~ W m -2 K -4
INFRAREDRADIATION THEORY
TABLE 1.5 Units commonly used in radlometric and photometric applications 12] Unit bit per second calorie (International Table calorie) Symbol b/s caljr 1 caliT = 4.1868J. The 9th Conf&ence G6n6rale des Poids et Mesures adopted the joule as the unit of heat. Use of the joule is preferred. Notes

calorie (thermochemical calorie) candela cal cd 1 cal = 4.1840 J (See note for International Table calorie above.) SI unit of luminous intensity candela per square meter candle cd/m2 cd SI unit of luminance. The name nit is sometimes used for this unit. The unit of luminous intensity has been given the name candela; use of the name candle for this unit is deprecated. 1 cmil= (7r/4) l0 ~ in2 circular mil coulomb emil C SI unit of electronic charge curie Ci I Ci = 3.7 l0 t disintegrations per second. Unit of activity in the field of radiation dosimetry. cycle per second decibel Hz The name hertz is internationally accepted for this unit; the symbol Hz is preferred to c/s. dB C F One tenth ofa bel degree (temperature) degree Celsius degree Fahrenheit The use of the word centigrade for the Celsius temperature scale was abandoned by the Conf6rence G6n6mle des Poids et Mesures in 1948. Note there is no space between the symbol and the letter. degree Kelvin degree Rankine K R dyne dyn eV The CGS unit of force electronvolt The energy received by an electron in falling through a potential difference of one volt 1.9. It is i m p o r t a n t to m e n t i o n that the s y m b o l s for p h o t o m e t r i c q u a n t i t i e s are t h e s a m e as t h o s e for c o r r e s p o n d i n g r a d i o m e t r i c q u a n t i t i e s , as e v i d e n t f r o m t h e v a r i o u s q u a n t i t i e s s h o w n in v a r i o u s tables.
1.2.1 Generalized Plank Function
Several f u n c t i o n s , s u c h as the P l a n k d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n , b l a c k b o d y f u n c t i o n , W i e n d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n , zeta f u n c t i o n , a n d total i s o t h e r m a l P l a n k d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n
1.2 VARIOUS FUNCTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND UNITS
TABLE 1.6 Unit
Units commonly used in photometric and radiomctric applications 121 Symbol kgf kn L Notes In some countries the name kilopond (kp) has been adopted for this unit. kn = nmi hr i
kilogram-force knot

lambert I L(l/rr) cd cm 2. A CGS unit of luminance. Use of the SI unit of luminance, the candela per square meter, is preferred. 11 = 10-3 m 3 liter I lumen Im SI unit of luminous flux lumen per square foot Im/ft2 A unit of illuminance and also a unit of luminous excitance. Use of the SI unit, lumen per square meter, is preferred. SI unit of luminous excitance SI unit of luminous efficacy lumen per square meter lumen per watt Im/m 2 Im/W lumen second lux Im s Ix SI unit of quantity of light, also known as the talbot Ix = Irn m 2. SI unit ofilluminance maxwell Mx The maxwell is the electromagnetic CGS unit of magnetic flux. Use of the SI unit, the weber, is preferred. SI unit of length meter mho m mho CIPM (Commission Internationale Photometric Measurements) has accepted the name siemens (S) for this unit and will submit it to the 14th Conf6rence G6n6rale des Poids el Mesures (CGPM) for approval. micrometer micron I.Lm gm See micrometer. The name micron was abrogated by the CGPM in 1967. are u s e d in s o l u t i o n o f I R - r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s . H o w e v e r , t h e P l a n k d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c tion p l a y s a k e y role in c o m p u t a t i o n o f r a d i a n t e x i t a n c e f r o m a s o u r c e as a f u n c t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e . R a d i a n t e x c i t a n c e is e x p r e s s e d as
M(x)=27"l'hc2(~h 14(]\e-~'1 ~l
(1.4)
I n s e r t i n g t h e v a l u e s o f v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s a n d c o n s t a n t s g i v e n in v a r i o u s t a b l e s , t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n is r e d u c e d to
(1.5)
INFRARED RADIATIONTHEORY
T A B L E 1.7 Units commonly used in photometric and radiometric applications[2]
Unit ounce (avoirdupois) pascal phot
Symbol oz Pa ph P
Notes

ph =lm cm-2. CGS unit ofilluminance. Use of the SI unit, the lux (lumen per square meter), is preferred. P = dyn s cm-2. Unit of coefficient of viscosity. poise rad rd Unit of absorbed dose in the field of radiation dosimetry SI unit of plane angle radian rem rad rem R s Unit of dose equivalent in the field of radiation dosimetry roentgen Unit of exposure in the field of radiation dosimetry SI unit of time second (time) siemens S S = ~-~. SI unit of conductance. This name and symbol were accepted by the CIPM in 1969 for submission to the 14th CGPM. The name mho is also used for this unit in the United States. SI unit of solid angle steradian stilb sr sb St sb = cd cm-L A CGS unit of luminance. Use of the SI unit, the candela per square meter, is preferred. Unit of viscosity stokes where the d i m e n s i o n l e s s variable x has a value o f (1.4388/AT) w h e n the w a v e l e n g t h is given in c m and the temperature in K. N o t e that the general radiometric function (R) is a function o f temperature (T) and a spectral variable that is proportional to either optical f r e q u e n c y or e m i s s i o n wavelength. Spectral radiance excitance is the most important p a r a m e t e r in designing an I R system to m e e t p e r f o r m a n c e requirements. T h i s p a r a m e t e r as a function o f wavelength and temperature can be expressed as
Pa = N m-2. SI unit of pressure or stress. This name accepted by the CIPM in 1969 for submission to the 14th CGPM.
cl(,~) -5
e ~- I
M(A)-
watt/cm2/cm
(1.6)
where c~ = 3.74 x 10 -12 W . c m 2 and x is a d i m e n s i o n l e s s p a r a m e t e r d e f i n e d earlier.
1.3
ILLUMINANCE, LUMINOUS EXITANCE, AND LUMINANCE
T h e s e quantities can be best explained by the schematic representation depicting the relationships o f c o m m o n photometric units as s h o w n in Figure 1.1 The s y m b o l " X "
1.3 ILLUMINANCE, LUMINOUS EXITANCE, AND LUMINANCE D

(a)
RI2 R21 (b)
FIGURE 1.1
(A) Schematic representation of units. "X" represents point source having a linear intensity of one candela. Solid angle shown represents one steradian. Point "X" to and point "B" is 1 cm; the surface represented by "BBBB" is 1 cmL Point "X" to any point "C" is I ft; the surface represented by "CCCC" is 1 t~ 2. Point "X" to any point "D" is 1 m; the surface represented by "DDDD" is 1 mL (B) Surface radiance levels from two IR sources is separated by a distance r u.
represents a point source with a linear intensity o f one candela over a solid angle o f one steradian (sr). The l l l u m i n a n c e parameter (E) is defined as the flux received per unit area from a source, and is also known as illumination. A luminous exitance is d e f i n e d as the flux emitted by a unit area and can be expressed in either l u m e n per square m e t e r or l u m e n per square centimeter. The lux is the (SI unit) unit o f i l l u m i nance shown in Table 1.6 resulting from the flux o f 1 lumen falling on the surface
TABLE 1.8
Unit tesla tonne var
Units and symbols for various quantities used in radiometry and photometry 121
Symbol T Notes T = N A -I m -l = Wb m -2. SI unit of magnetic flux density (magnetic induction) I t = 1000 kg

var V IEC name and symbol for the SI unit of reactive power SI unit of voltage volt volt per meter voltampere watt V/m VA W SI unit of electric field strength IEC name and symbol for the SI unit of apparent power SI unit of power watt per meter kelvin watt per steradian W/(m.K) W/sr SI unit of thermal conductivity Sl unit of radiant intensity SI unit of radiance watt per steradian and square meter watthour weber W/(sr-m-2) Wh Wb Wb = Vs. SI unit of magnetic flux
"DDDD" as shown in Figure 1.1. Parameter luminance (L) is known as brightness, which is defined as the luminous intensity (/) per projected unit area normal to the line of observation (Figure 1.1). This means one can write the expression for the luminance as Zd/ (1.7)
dA
where, dI is the incremental luminous intensity on the projected area dA.
1.4
TRANSPARENCY, OPACITY, AND OPTICAL DENSITY PARAMETERS
These parameters are of critical importance, particularly, when an IR radiated signal passes through a layer of a material. Transparency of a layer in the material is defined as the ratio of the intensity of the transmitted light to that of the incident light. Opacity is the reciprocal of the transparency. Optical density is the common logarithm of the opacity. This means that Transparency = ~ (l.8a)
1.4 TRANSPARENCY, OPACITY, AND OPTICAL DENSITY PARAMETERS
TABLE 1.9 Metric unit prefixes and symbols commonly used in photometric and radiometric applications Prefix (multiple) tera (1012) giga ( 109) mega ( 106) kilo (103) hecto ( 102) deka (10) deci (10 i) centi (10 -2) milli (10 -3) micro (104 ) nano ( 10-9) pico (10-I:) femto (10 -~5) atto (10 -~s) Symbol T G M k h da d c m Ix n p f a

Opacity : I-~1I
(1.8b)
Optical density = I o g ( ~ )
(1.8c)
where subscripts t and I stand for transmission and incident, respectively.

1.4.1 Conversion of One Parameter into Another
Converted values of the parameters summarized in Table 1.10 will be found most useful in the design and development of optical systems.
TABLE 1.10 Conversion between transparency, opacity, and optical density Transparency 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Opacity 10 5 3.333 2.500 2.000 1.667 1.429 1.250 I. I I 1 1.000
Optical density 1.000 0.699 0.523 0.398 0.301 0.222 0.155 0.0.097 0.046 0.000
10
INFRAREDRADIATION THEORY
1.5
RADIATION GEOMETRY

A(I) ((I)21 (I)12) f f ,5~Rcos (00 cos (02) dA, dA2
= --
The geometrical transfer function of radiation is independent of spectral characteristics and is strictly based on the transfer equation for a medium free from absorption and scattering properties [ 1]. Consider a radiation interaction between two radiation signals Rl2 and R2~ shown in Figure 1.1. Body surface A l with radiance of Ri2 and A2 with radiance R21 are joined by a ray of length rl2. The net radiative change between the two sources can be given as
(1.9)
where AR = (RI2 - R21) 01 = angle for radiance level RI2 02 -- angle for radiance level R21 dA ~= smallest surface area of A dA 2 = smallest surface area ofA 2
Note that the integral in this equation is most useful for many radiative interaction problems and has been known by number of different names, such as radiation interaction factor, solid angle projection, and radiation configuration factor.
1.5.1
Flux Density and Radiance Distribution from a Lambertian Surface
A surface whose radiance is independent of angle is called a Lambertian surface. For a Lambertian surface with a differential area, the flux density or the flux per unit area radiated into a hemisphere can be expressed as M = 7rR (1.10)
where M is the flux density (W/cm 2) and R is radiance (W/cm2/sr). The flux density radiated into a solid angle designated by a cone with half-angle of 0 is given by
M(O) = 7r sin2(0)
(1.11)
1.5.2
Radiating Surfaces with Cosine Radiance Distribution Functions [1]
Radiating surfaces with cosine distribution or variable angular distributions of emission or reflection can be characterized as the power of cos 0. Assuming a surface with radiance of R(0) = R(O) cosn(0), one gets the expression for the flux density
1.5
RADIATIONGEOMETRY
11
M(O) = ) R n--~2 (0)(
cos2(0)
(1.12)

The surface irradiance (E) of a Lambertian disc of radius (r) at given distance (d) away from a radiating surface can be easily computed using appropriate expression. Note that a Lambertian surface is perfectly diffused surface that has a constant radiance level (R) independent of the viewing angle. The surface irradiance follows approximately the inverse square law and that applies only when the distance (d) is less than the radius (r). This means that the distance away from the source must be much greater than the dimension of the IR radiating source. 1.5.4 Optical Temperature and Radiation Temperature Several methods are available [3] to determine the thermodynamic temperature of a body radiometricallly. These methods include precise measurements of the total radiation level, the radiation at a specific wavelength, the wavelength distribution of the radiation, and the apparent color of the radiation. The temperature measured at a particular wavelength is known as the optical temperature. The radiation temperature (T) is defined as the temperature of a blackbody that yields the same total radiance level (R) or radiant exitance (M). The radiant exitance for a blackbody is given as M = o-(T~) (I.13) TB= (l.13a)
T c = el/4"T8
1.5.3
Irradianceof Lambertian Disc
(l.13b)
(1.13c)
where subscript B stands for blackbody, C stands for colored body, G stands for gray body, symbol e indicates emissivity of the surface, dimensionless variable x has been defined previously (1.4388/AT) and parameter or has a value of (5.67 10-~2) W/cm2/K4. Note that symbol T is generally used for blackbody temperature instead of 7'8. Note the above equations (l.13a, 1.13b, and 1.13c) give the color temperature value for a blackbody, gray body, and colored body, respectively. Relative error (RE) in radiation temperature calculations can be determined from the following expressions:
12
For a blackbody, (RE)Ba = 1 - TB/T B= 0 For a gray body, (RE)ca = 1 - (e) TM For a colored body, (RE)cB = [1 -
c2(AT IOge e + c2T)-I]

M(A) =
Note that when e is equal to one, it is no longer a gray body but a blackbody. The radiation temperature for black and gray bodies can be easily calculated using equations (1.13a) and (1.13b). However, radiation temperature calculations for a colored body involve more variables and new parameters, including the spectral radiant exitance M(A). Calculated values of colored body radiation temperatures as a function of various parameters are summarized in Table 1.11. Spectral radiant exitance is given as
f( C~A-Sdx ) e x- 1
(1.14)
Where C I = 3.74 x l0 -12 (W.cm2), x = 1.4388/AT, when wavelength is given in cm and temperature in K.
1.6 EMISSIVITYAS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE AND WAVELENGTH FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
Emissivity (6) is a function of wavelength, temperature, body material, and surface conditions of the radiating body. Estimated values of the emissivity parameter for various materials as a function of temperature and wavelength are summarized in Tables 1.12-1.13. It is important to mention that the reliable emissivity data on most materials as a function of surface conditions are not readily available. Spectral emissivity of a material is a function of both the temperature and the operating wavelength and is generally expressed by a complex function e(h, 7). The spectral emissivity parameter truly indicates the emissivity of the material, excluding the effects due to surface conditions. Estimated values of spectral emissivity for tungsten as a function of temperature and wavelength [4] are summarized in Table 1.14. These spectral emissivity values indicate that spectral emission decreases with the increase in both temperature and wavelength. Spectral emissivity e(h, 7) and total emissivity er of tungsten are given in Table 1.15.
TABLE l . l l Radiation temperature for colored body emissivity, and surface temperature T(K) Band (p.m) 1.5-1.0 3.0-2.0 6.0-4.0 M(A)(W/cm2) 18.74 1.17 0.073
(Tc) as a function of wavelength,

[M(A)]I/4(W/cm 2) 2.081 1.012 0.520
Tc(K) 963 379 162
2000 1000 500
0.260 0.114 0.053
1.6 EMISSIVITY AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE AND WAVELENGTH
13
TABLE 1.12 Material Beryllium Carbon Chromium Copper Iron Nickel Platinum Titanium Tungsten Zirconium
Total emissivity of various materials at 0.65 p,m 141 Melting point (K) 2151 3895 2163 1356 1808 1726 2042 1948 3683 2125 Emissivity (e) 0.61 0.80/0.93 0.34 0. I 0 0.35 0.36 0.30 0.63 0.43 0.32

T A B L E 1.13 I00 C 141 Material Low-temperature emissivity of various materials at Emissivity (e) Carbon Chromium (unoxidized) Copper (unoxidized) Iron (unoxidized) Iron (oxidized) Nickel (oxidized) Steel (unoxidized) Tungsten (unoxidized) 0.8 I 0.08 0.02 0.05 0.74 0.32 0.08 0.032 0.071 0.150 0.230 0.281 at at at at at 100 C (373 K) 500 C (773 K) 1000 C ( 1273 K) 1500 C (1773 K) 2000 C (2273) TABLE 1.14 Spectral emissivity of tungsten as a function of temperature and wavelength Wavelength (tzm) 1.0 Temperature (K) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0.6 0.8 1.5 2.0 0.458 0.448 0.438 0.428 0.418 0.450 0.434 0.419 0.406 0.396 0.403 0.392 0.381 0.371 0.365 0.267 0.278 0.288 0.297 0.304 0.186 0.206 0.227 0.248 0.263
14
TABLE 1.15 Spectralemissivity and total emissivity of tungsten [ll Temperature(K) 500 1000 1500 2000 Spectralemissivity at 0.65 Izm 0.463 0.458 0.448 0.438 Total emissivity 0.053 0.114 0.191 0.260

These data indicate that the spectral emissivity decreases with the increase in surface temperature, while the total emissivity increases with the increase in temperature. Note that for colored bodies, the total emissivity value must be used to achieve reliable results. 1.7 BRIGHTNESS TEMPERATURE Brightness temperature is defined as the temperature of a blackbody that gives the same radiance level (R = M/zr) in the same narrow spectral band. This means that
e A/T- 1
e(A/rB) - 1
(1.15)
where A = 1.4388/A (cm.K), TB is the brightness temperature (K), Tis the body temperature (K), and 6 is the emissivity of the material. The equation for the brightness temperature can be rewritten after rearranging the terms and taking the natural logarithm of both sides:
( ~ ) [
Ts =
(e(l'4388/aT--1)]-I log~ ~ + 1
(1.16)
Computed values of brightness temperature as a function of emissivity, surface temperature, and wavelength are shown in Table 1.16. These calculated values assume the total emissivity and the emission wavelength at the specified blackbody temperature (T). The brightness temperature varies between 65 to 75% of the blackbody temperature under the assumed values of emission wavelength and total emissivity.
1.8 DISTRIBUTION TEMPERATURE [1]
The distribution temperature (To) is defined as the temperature of the blackbody source that best matches the spectral distribution (M~) of the body under consideration. A minimum of two narrow spectral bands at wavelengths A1 and A2 is required to determine the magnitude of this temperature. Under two wavelength assumption
1.9 COLOR TEMPERATURE

TABLE 1.16 Brightness temperature as a function of wavelength, emissivity, and surface temperature
15
Assumed parameters Temperature (K) 1000 1500 2000 a (p.m) 3.0 2.0 1.5 e 0.114 0.191 0.260 T8 (K) 689 1116 1563

and employing the equations previously used for the spectral distributions under radiation temperature expression derivation, the equation for the distribution temperature now can be written as
TD-
M(A,) (
M(A2----) -
e2(A2/AO5 :k
e,
I( ~T-1 I eAr- 1 ]
(1.17)
where A 2 = 1.4388/AzT, At = 1.4388/A~ T, and the wavelength and temperature are specified in cm and Kelvin units. Assuming T = 2000 K, A~ = 1.5 Ixm, A2 = 1.0 Ixm, e~ = 0.288, e2 = 0.381, and constant 1.4388 (crn.K), the computed value o f distribution temperature comes to 1.104. However, its value comes to 1.138 at a blackbody temperature o f 1000 K, at wavelengths o f 3 and 2 I~m with corresponding emissivities of0.114 and 0.145, respectively.
1.9
COLOR TEMPERATURE [1]
The color temperature (Tc) is defined as the temperature of a blackbody that has the same normalized chromaticity coordinates (x, y) as the body under consideration. The relative radiance levels or spectral distributions can be expressed in the normalized chromaticity coordinates x and y, which can be written as
(1.18)
where coefficients A l and A 2 are same as defined in equation (1.17). Using the equation (1.14) for relative radiance after integrated over two wavelength bands and corresponding emissivities as a function o f two wavelengths, the color temperature expression can be rewritten as,
where the coefficients A i and A 2 are defined in previous equations.
16
INFRARED RADIATIONTHEORY
Example to Compute a Color Temperature for Given Parameters Assumed parameters are: T = 2000 K, C2 = 1.4388 (cm.K), Ai = 1.5 I~m, A2 = 1.0 I~m, eL = 0.288, e2 = 0.381. The color temperature equation is written as
e 14388/TC-

e9593/rc - 1 k-~T /~ e~796--1 J 8.38
Solving this equation yields a color temperature value of 2270 K based on the above assumed values of various parameters and constants. 1.10 NORMALIZED CHROMATICITY COORDINATES AS A FUNCTION BLACKBODY TEMPERATURE Estimated values of normalized chromaticity [ 1] coordinates as a function of blackbody temperature are summarized in Table 1.17. 1.11 COMPUTATIONS OF VARIOUS IR QUANTITIES This section deals with derivation of expressions for various IR quantities and functions that play key roles in the design and development of photonic circuits, electrooptic devices, and IR sensors. Calculated values and plots of various IR quantities and parameters such as photon flux density, radiant exitance, spectral band radiance contrast, photons per unit interval per unit volume, spectral radiant exitance, and radiance contrast for specific IR bands are provided, allowing readers to visualize the effects of operating temperature and emission wavelength on their magnitudes.
1 = ( 0.288 ]( e v''95- 1 ] =
1.11.1
Radiant Exitance Based on the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The radiant exitance (M) is the IR radiation level expected from a source operating at a specified temperature. The radiant exitance expression is given as
TABLE 1.17 Normalized chromaticity coordinates values [1, Table 1.30]
Temperature(K) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
0.652 0.585 0.526 0.476 0.436 0.405 0.380
0.344 0.393 0.413 0.412 0.404 0.390 0.376
1.1 1 COMPUTATIONS OF VARIOUS IR QUANTITIES
17
= o ' T 4,
W/cm 2
( 1.20)

1.11.2 Relative Radiant Exitance
Relative radiant exitance M(A) is a most important parameter that indicates the relative radiant exitance level as a function o f temperature and emission wavelength. Its expression can be written as
where o" = 5.67 10 -t2 W/cm2/K 4 and T is the absolute temperature o f the source (K). Calculated values o f radiant exitance as a function o f source temperature are plotted in Figure 1.2. One can estimate the radiant exitance from this curve for various sources operating at specified temperature. One can expect a radiant exitance o f about 300 W/cm 2 for a military jet engine operating under afterburner condition with an assumed temperature o f 2500 K.
M(A)=j \ ,,v~ /
(a[ M adA )
(1.21)
where MA = [CiA-S/(e x - 1)], Ci = 3.742 x 10 -12 W/cm 2, x = !.4388/AT(l/cm K), and the constant o" has been defined previously. Calculated values o f relative radiant exitance as a function o f temperature and wavelength are shown in Figure 1.3.
1500
1312.5
"E
1125
937.5
750 -
562.5 375 -
187.5 -
t 500
I 1000
1500 2000 2500 Temperature (K)
3000
3500
t 4000
FIGURE 1.2 Computed values of radiant exitance as a function of source temperature.
18 1
INFRARED R A D I A T I O N THEORY
0.9
0.8

~"
0.7
x 0.6
f!/
0.5
~. 0.4
I/i I'I
1000 K ~ w u
0.3
800 K . . . . . . . . . 600 K . . . . . 400 K 200 K
0.2
0.1
0 I o
4.5"10-4
9"1o-4 0.00135 0.0018
0.00225 0.0027 Wavelength
0.00315 0.0036 0.00405 0.0045 (cm) I (micrn) 40
I 2o
FIGURE 1.3
Relative radiant exitanee as a function of wavelength and temperature.
1.11.3
Spectral Radiant Exitance [2]
Spectral radiant exitance indicates the radiant exitance from a blackbody as a function of its temperature and emission wavelength. The expression for the spectral radiant exitance can be written as Ma = (3.472 x 10-12) A-5 ex - 1 , W/cm2/l~m (1.22)
where A is the emission wavelength and constant x = 1.4388/AT. Computed values of spectral radiant exitance as a function of temperature and wavelength are plotted in Figure 1.4. It is important to mention that the wavelength parameter up to the fourth power is expressed in centimeters, whereas the fifth power is expressed in microns to meet the units requirement as specified after equation (I.22).
1.1 1 COMPUTATIONS OF VARIOUS IR QUANTITIES 10
19
0.1
0.0t

' ~ 1.10-3 f ~E
i
11o-4 ~ VlO-~
110-6 1.10_7 110-9
q q
1000 K ~ -- m 750K .........

500 K ..... 250 K
1.10-9
1"10-1~.10_ 4
4'10-.4 6"10 -4
8'10-4
0.001
0.0012 0.0014 0.0016 0.0018 Wavelength
0.002 0.0022 (cm) (micron)
10
20
FIGURE 1.4 Spectral radiant exitance for a blackbody as a function of wavelength and temperature.
1.11.4 Number of Photons per Unit Time per Unit Area per Steradian per Micron [1]
In certain applications such as photon detectors, photon count per unit time per unit area is of critical importance. Computer-based calculations have been performed as a function of temperature and emission wavelength to determine the number of photons per second per unit area per steradian per micron. Calculated values of number of photons as a function of temperature and wavelength using equation (1.23) are shown in Figure 1.1.
2c
Np(A)
/~4(er - 1)
(1.23)
where, c is the velocity of light (3 x 108m/sec) and parameters h and x and their units are the same as specified in previous examples. Note that a rapid drop in number of photons per unit time per unit area per steradian per micron occurs at wavelengths ranging from 2-10 I~m, when the temperature varies from 1000-4000 K (Figure 1.5). However, a rapid drop in photon count occurs over the spectral region
20
1-10-25
~,~
I i I [
I I I3
1"10-24
""-.."x
~. "",'~,~
"'~. " ~ " " " -,'~'
lOOOK
2000 K 3000K 4000 K ......... ..... "=

._.
E
= 0
~.
O.
1.10-23
~-
"',,
.',,,
1 "10-~2
-%--..,
1"10-2~
1.10-20
1.10-19 1"11 -4 I
I t I]
I I
1.10-4
0"01 (cm)
Wavelength (Z) I
i (micrn)
10
100
FIGURE 1.5
Number
of photons
as a function
of wavelength
and temperature.
from 1-5 Ixm, when the temperature varies from 250-1000 K. One can see a flat photon response at wavelengths exceeding 10 I~m at lower temperatures, as evident from the curves shown in Figure 1.6. An extremely fast drop in the number of photons per unit time per unit area per steradian per micron at 1000 K can be seen in Figure 1.7 over spectral region from 1-3 Ixm.
1.1 1.5 Relative Photon Flux Density
The performance of some IR sensors depends on relative photon flux density, which can be calculated from the modified expression shown below. ('~( (l.24)(X)-4dX Mp(A) = j T ~ - ] ) ) (1.24)
where A, T, and x parameters defined previously remain the same. Plots showing the
1.11 COMPUTATIONS OF VARIOUS IR QUANTITIES 1.1023 1.1022 z 1-1021 1.1020 ~EE 1"1019 1.1018
21
,,~

"~
0
1000 K
1"1017
2000 K
..........
"6
1'1016 1.1015
3000 K 4000 K
1"1014 1"1013
5.104
0.001
0.0015 0.002 0.0025 0.003 0.0035 0.004 0.0045 Wavelength
0.005 (cm)
10
20
30
40
I (micron) 50
FIGURE 1.6
Number of photons as a function of wavelength and temperature.
computed values o f relative photon flux density as a function o f temperature and emission wavelength are shown in Figure 1.8.
1.11.6
Photons per U n i t k-Interval per U n i t V o l u m e
In some applications, IR sensor performance is measured in terms of photons per unit interval per unit volume. The magnitude of this parameter Nk(A), based on Plank function can be computed using the following modified equation: 4/A 2 N~.(,~) (1.25)
ev- I
where, x = 1.4388/AT, when the wavelength is expressed in centimeters and the temperature in Kelvin (K). Calculated values of photons per unit k-interval per unit volume as a function o f temperature and wavelength are shown in Figure 1.9. Sharp increase in the magnitude o f this parameters occurs between 1-4 Ixm at a temperature of 250 K. Its response remains practically flat beyond 5 txm regardless of the temperature exceeding 500 K.
1.11.7 Percentage of Total Radiance Emittance over a Specified Band at Various T e m p e r a t u r e s
A certain amount o f l R energy over a specified spectral band is required to meet the performance requirements o f IR surveillance sensor or IR countermeasure equip-
22
Number of photons per sec.per m2 per sr.per micron, Np(h.)

1"1023

1"1022
A
1.1021
1-102
2.5"10-4
5"10-4 5
7.5"10-4
0.001 0.00125 0.0015 0.00175 0.002 0.00225 0.0025 10 15 20
(cm)
25 (micron)
Infrared radiation wavelength (h)
F I G U R E 1. 7 Number of photons as a function of IR wavelength at 1000 K temperature.
ment. This parameter is expressed in terms of percentage of total radiant exitance given by the Stefan-Boltzmann equation. In brief, this parameter can be characterized as (Rp) and is mathematically defined as
M(A) Rp= orT4
(1.26)
where, M(A) = f [(0.6608) A-51T4]dA,with desired values ofA 2 and AI. Note that parameters or and T have been defined previously. Inserting the relevant constants and parameters in equation (1.26), several values of this parameter as a function of temperature and specified spectral bandwidth are calculated; they are summarized in Table 1.18.
1.11.8 Spectral Band Radiance Contrast
Spectral band radiance contrast [ 1] is of paramount importance to IR imaging sensors and has potential applications where high resolution images with high contrast
Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
1.11 C O M P U T A T I O N S
OF V A R I O U S IR QUANTITIES
23
0.9 f ~ I 0.8
s~s .s
~ .~..~,.o,~.
"'~"" ~
" ~

"" " " " " ~ 0.7 0.6
i I ,,,'"
/,"
I .,"
/"
0.5
/' ///
._>=
rr-
0.4 0.3
///
0.2
0.!
I: / / 1.' /' I:/ 1 .;11//

/
I: /
lOOOK
-----
7soK
. . . . . . . . .
500K-
0.0
0 4.5"10-4
9.5"10 .-4 0.00135 0.0018 0.00225 0.0027 0.00315 0.0036 0.00405 Wavelength
0.0045 (cm)
I (micron)
18
27
36
45
FIGURE 1.8 Relative photon flux density as a function of wavelength and temperature.
are required. Spectral band radiance contrast is defined by a complex function L(A, B) as described below, where each parameter A and B are functions of three independent variables as specified below. The expression for the spectral band radiance contrast is given as
L(A, B) = A(T, m, u) + B(T, m, u)
(1.27)
where, m = 1, 2, 3; T = temperature (K); u(x) = m.x(T); x = 1.4388/AT; A = wavelength (cm); Xl = 1.4388/AIT; Xz = 1.4388/A2T; and so on. For the spectral band (A2 AI), parameters A(T, m, u) and B(T, m, u) are defined by
3 A(T, m, u) = ( 2 . 7 8 x 10-13 T 3) ~](e-U(X2 ) m ~ )
m = 1
x [u(x2) 4 + 4u(x2)3 + 12u(x2)2 + 24u(x2 ) + 24]
(1.28)
3 B(T, m, u) = (2.78 x 10-13 T 3) ~-~(e-,,(xl)m -4) m=t
x [U(Xl)4 + 4U(Xl)3 + 12U(Xl)2 + 24U(Xl) + 24]

(1.29)
24
1.107 1.106 I-v = 1.104[ -
I jo..../o
....,..I. ....
1.103 [__~J , -
lOOr-.."
0.1 -- /
10 7" 1-
,.."
.~-""

~ 1.10-5 1"10-6 1.10-7 / IO00K -----. .
1"10-91 1"10-10
,.,o-,,
.
I1
500K . . . . .
;oK _ _
0
.
CL
1"10-13 [ 1"10-14 ~ 1 " 1.10-16

1 "10 -17
1-10-4 2"10 -4 3"10 -4
4.10-4 5.10 -4
6.10-4 7.10-4 8.10-4 9.10 -4 (crn) Wavelength
0.001 0.0011 (cm)
(micron)
I 1
I 5 Micron scale
I 10
FIGURE 1.9
Photons per unit interval per unit volume as a function of temperature and wavelength.
T A B L E 1.18 P e r c e n t a g e of total radiant e x c i t a n c e o v e r a specified spectral b a n d w i d t h at v a r i o u s s o u r c e t e m p e r a t u r e s
Temperature (K)/(A,~x), micron 3000/(0.966)
Bandwidth (A2 - A~), micron 1.00--0.88 i .00-0.75 1.00-0.50
R(~)
8.13 0.16 0.26
2000/(1.45)
1.50-1.20 1.50-1.25
1.50-1.00
1.32 11.24 20.63
1000/(2.90)
3.00-2.25 3.00-2.50 3.00-2.00
16.36 I 1.24 20.63
500/(5.80)
6.00-4.00 6.00-5.00 6.00-5.50
20.63 11.36 5.64
Note: the product of (A,~,)(T) = 2898, micron-K, where A,~ represents the wavelength of maximum radiation in mi-
crons at temperature T (K).
1.12 SUMMARY
25
1.12
SUMMARY

Numerical Example to Compute the Function L(A, B)
Compute spectral band radiance contrast (w/cm2"sr-K!)00~)er8-12 Ixm band assuming the following parameters and using equations (1.27) through (1.29): T = 200, 400,
Infrared theory has been presented in the simplest format for better comprehension by students and readers with minimum exposure to IR technology. Quantities, functions, symbols and units commonly used for describing the performance of photometric, radiometric, and photonic devices and IR sources were provided. Blackbody functions along with their symbols and units commonly used to specify the capabilities of IR sensors were defined. Plots of computed values of radiance exitance, relative radiance exitance, relative photon density, spectral radiant exitance from blackbodies, photons per unit per unit area per steradian per micron, and spectral band radiance contrast as a function of temperature and emission wavelength were provided for clear understanding the performance capabilities and limitations of various IR sources and systems. Derivation of important functions commonly used in IR radiation theory are provided. A citation of numerical examples using Mathcad software is provided for readers with limited knowledge of IR theory and its applications in electrooptic and photonic devices. Computed values of radiance contrast parameters at various temperatures ranging from 200-1000 K over spectral bands of 8-10 Ixm, 8-11 txm, 8-12 txm, 8-13 Ixm, and 8-14 Ixm are shown in Figures 1.10 and 1.11. Smooth curves are made possible by taking higher values of variable m up to about 5 or 6, which will require higher computational times. With higher values of variable m, one can obtain smooth contrast curves as shown in Figure 1.I1 [4].
AI = 0.0008
A2 = 0.0012 &(T) = 1.439/(A:T) x2(T) = 1.439/(a:.T) m=1,2,3
u(xl) = m'xr(T) u(x2) = re'x2(1) L(A, B) = A(T, m, u) - B(T, m, u)
x,(T)
x2(T)
u(x,)
.(x2)
8.994 4.497 2.998 2.248 1.799
5.996 2.998 1.999 1.499 1.t99
8.994 4.497 2.998 2.248 1.799 17.988 8.994
5.996 2.998 1.999 1.499 1.199 11.992 5.996
1"10-3
1-10-4
__--@
3

1.10--5 "E
(1) v
L(A, B)
1 "10-s 1.10-3
200
360 I
520 I
680 I
840 I
1000
Q.
1.10"-4
Q.
L(A, B)
1.1o~
~Z3
B=
o 8
1.10-~ 200
I "10"3
I 360
I 520
I 680
) 840
1000
Q.. CD
L(A, B)
1.10-4
1.10 ~
200
360
520 680 Temperature
840
1000
FIGURE 1.10
26
Radiance contrast as a function of wavelength band and temperature (K).
1.12 SUMMARY
,5
27
A(T, m, u) = (2.78 x 10-'3 T 3) ~, (e-"(~2} m m)

m=
X [//(X2) 4 + 4 U ( X 2 ) 3 +
3
12U(X2)2 + 24u(x2) + 24]

m= ] X [U(XI) 4 +
B(T, m, u)
(2.78 x 10-13 T 3) ~, (e-U(Xt) m ~ )
4U(XI) 3 + 12u(xj) 2 + 24u(x,) + 24]
10-3
8 - 10 microns 8 - 11 microns \ 8 - 1 2 microns \ \
8 - 1 4 microns
(/3
10-4_
<-
2-
10-~--
cO
2--
I O-SO
I 200
I I 400 600 Temperature (K)
I 800
1000
FIGURE 1.11 Spectral band radiance contrast at various temperatures [4].
28
A(T, m, u)
1.639 x 10-5 4.386 x 10-7 4.877 x 10- 9 3.743 x 10-4 1.311 x 10-4 x x x x 2.532 1.468 9.749 4.424 10-5 10-3 10 -4 10-4
B(T, m, u)
3.165 x 104 4.877 x 10-9 2.829 x 10-12 2.445 10-4 2.532 x 10-5 x x x x 1.203 1.263 4.424 8.547 104 10-3 10-4 10-5
L(A, B)
1.322 x 10-5 4.337 x 10-7 4874 x 10-9 1.298 tO-4 1.058 x 10-4 x x x x 2.412 2.043 5.325 3.57 10- 5 10-4 10~ 10 -4
T
200 400 600 800 I000
L(A, B)
1.322 10-5 1.298 x 10-4 2.403 x 10-4 2.178 x 10-4 2.050 10-4

3.604 x 10-3 2.995 x 10-3 3.386 x 10-3 1.956 x 10-3 2.178 x 10-4 2.178 x 10-4 1.956 x 10- 3 7.116 x 10- 3 7.252 x 10-4 6.911 x 10-3 1.231 x 10- 3 2.05 x 10-4 6.485 x 10- 3 5.07 x 10-3 5.07 x 10-3 2.681 x 10-3 1.416 x 10- 3 2.388 x 10- 3 Plot of radiant contrast b a n d is s h o w n function
L(A, B)
as a function
of temperature
over a 8-12
micron
in Figure
1.12.
1"10-3
F(A,B)
1"10 4
1.10-s
200
360
520 680 Temperature (K)
840
1000
FIGURE 1.12
Radiance contrast as a function o f temperature over a 8-12 w m band.
REFERENCES
29
REFERENCES
1. W. L. Wolfe and G. J. Zissis, The Infrared Handbook, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1978. 2. Electro-optics Handbook, (EOH-I I), RCA, Commercial Engineering Division, Harrison, N J, 1974. 3. M.A. Bramson, Infrared: A Handbookfor Applications, Plenum Press, New York, 1966. 4. R. C. Weast (Ed.), Handbook of Physics and ChemistD,, 51 st ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1970.


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CHAPTER ONE

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

INFRARED RADIATION THEORY

Flux-related quantities, symbols, and definitions [ll

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Flux Flux Density Exeitanee or radiant exeitanee Incidence Radiation Intensity

Compatible systems of IR Radiation units

IR Systems system dealing with Photometric

Watt Watt/sr Watt/m2 Watt/m 2 Watt/sr/m2 Watt.see (joule)

Lumen Lumen/sr Lumen/m2 Lumen/m2 Lumen/sr/m2 Lumen-see

Photon/see Photon/see/sr Photon/see/m' Photon/sec/m2 Photon/see/m2 Photon

Radiometric quantities, symbols, and units

Q, I4", (be ~/A Me E~ L,

J J/m 3 W W/m2 W/m 2 W/m 2 W/m z

VARIOUS FUNCTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND UNITS

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

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1.2 VARIOUS FUNCTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND UNITS

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

TABLE 1.4 and units

6.022169 1023 1.380622 10-23 1.6021917 x 10-~9 1.7588028 10 t~

Energy o f I electron volt V o l t a g e - w a v e l e n g t h conversion factor First radiation constant (87rhc)

kT value at room temperature

Luminous efficacy at 555 nm Mass o f electron in free space

Permittivity o f free space Planck's constant

Second radiation constant (hc/k) Speed o f light in v a c u u m Stefan-Boltzmann constant

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

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Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

1.2.1 Generalized Plank Function

Several f u n c t i o n s , s u c h as the P l a n k d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n , b l a c k b o d y f u n c t i o n , W i e n d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n , zeta f u n c t i o n , a n d total i s o t h e r m a l P l a n k d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

1.2 VARIOUS FUNCTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND UNITS

TABLE 1.6 Unit

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

T A B L E 1.7 Units commonly used in photometric and radiometric applications[2]

Unit ounce (avoirdupois) pascal phot

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

where c~ = 3.74 x 10 -12 W . c m 2 and x is a d i m e n s i o n l e s s p a r a m e t e r d e f i n e d earlier.

ILLUMINANCE, LUMINOUS EXITANCE, AND LUMINANCE

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

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1.3 ILLUMINANCE, LUMINOUS EXITANCE, AND LUMINANCE D

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

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INFRARED RADIATION THEORY

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

where, dI is the incremental luminous intensity on the projected area dA.

TRANSPARENCY, OPACITY, AND OPTICAL DENSITY PARAMETERS

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

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1.4 TRANSPARENCY, OPACITY, AND OPTICAL DENSITY PARAMETERS

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

where subscripts t and I stand for transmission and incident, respectively.

Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons

Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l