INCREASE IN SCALABILITY OF DWDM TRANSMISSION USING FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION

By S.IMMANUEL (Reg.No:1026005)

A PROJECT REPORT Submitted to the

FACULTY OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the award of the degree

of

MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

A.C. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, KARAIKUDI-4.

ANNA UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI 600 025

MAY- 2012

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DECLARATION I hereby declare that the work entitled INCREASE IN SCALABILITY OF DWDM TRANSMISSION USING FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree in M.E., Anna University, Chennai- 600 025, is a record of the my own work carried out by me during the academic year 2011 2012 under the supervision and guidance of Dr.A.Sivanantha Raja, Associate Professor, Department of Electronics and

Communication Engineering, Alagappa Chettiar College of Engineering and Technology, Karaikudi. The extent and source of information are derived from the existing literature and have been indicated through the dissertation at the appropriate places. The matter embodied in this work is original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma, either in this or any other University.

S.Immanuel Reg. No.1026005

I certify that the declaration made above by the candidate is true

Dr.A.Sivanantha Raja, Associate Professor, Department of ECE

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BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE Certified that this project report titled INCREASE IN SCALABILITY OF DWDM TRANSMISSION USING FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION is the bonafide work of Mr. S.IMMANUEL, Reg.No.1026005 who carried out the research under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other project report or dissertation on the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

SIGNATURE Dr. A.Sivanantha Raja SUPERVISOR

Forwarded by

SIGNATURE Prof.I.Muthumani M.E., HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Examined on:

Internal Examiner

External Examiner

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ABSTRACT The scalability of spectrum sliced dense wavelength-division-multiplexing (DWDM) transmission systems primarily intended for metro access applications. A theoretical analysis elucidates the tradeoff between the loss budget and the sliced bandwidth (i.e., the number of channels with assuming light sources with a fixed bandwidth). Moreover, the use of forward error correction (FEC) to expand scalability is studied. Based on the analysis, two spectrum-sliced DWDM transmission schemes are introduced. One demonstrates 10-Gb/s, eight channel spectrum-sliced DWDM transmission with the channel spacing of 200 GHz without FEC, and the other confirms 10-Gb/s, eight channel spectrum-sliced DWDM transmission with the channel spacing of 200 GHz with FEC. We have also conducted 100 GHZ Grid 40 Channel, 50 GHZ Grid 80 Channel, 25 GHZ Grid 160 Channel DWDM Transmission without FEC. We have also conducted 100 GHZ Grid 40 Channel, 50 GHZ Grid 80 Channel, 25 GHZ Grid 160 Channel DWDM Transmission with FEC.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I thank god for having gracefully blessed us to come up till now and thereby giving strength and courage to complete the project successfully. I sincerely submit this project to the almighty lotus feet. With profound gratitude, respect and pride I express my sincere thanks to our principal Dr.P.N.NEELAKANTAN, for his encouragement and keen interest shown in my project. It gives me great pleasure to express my sincere gratitude to Head of Department Prof.I.MUTHUMANI, for her constant support and encouragement to me for completing this project work. I owe deep depth of gratitude to my beloved guide Dr.A.SIVANANTHA RAJA, for his inspiration and guidance and lending all assistants and support at each and every stage, which made me to complete this project in an efficient and successful manner. I wish to thank Prof.K.KALAISELVI.,M.E., and Prof.R.SAROJINI.,M.E., Department of ECE and Mr.A.Vetrivel SDE(BSNL) for their suggestions and help during this project period. I happily acknowledge my family members and friends for their support lend to me with which, I have completed this endeavor.

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CONTENTS CHAPTER NO. 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 MOTIVATION FOR THE PROJECT 1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW 1.3 OPTICAL FIBERS 1.4 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION 1.5 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION 1.6 INDEX OF REFRACTION 1.7 TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS 1.7.1 MULTI MODE FIBER 1.7.2 SINGLE MODE FIBER 1.8 MECHANISM OF ATTENUATION 1.9 TOTAL INTERNAL REFRACTION 1.10 2 TERMINATION AND SPLICING TITLE PAGE NO 1 . 1 1 3 4 5 5 5 5 7 8 9 9 12 12 14 15 17 17 17 19

WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 2.1 WDM SYSTEMS 2.2 COARSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 2.3 DENSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

FIBER USED IN DWDM 3.1 NONZERO DISPERSION SHIFTED FIBER (ITU-T G.655) 3.2 RECOMMENDATION G.655

DWDM SYSTEMS

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4.1 MANAGING THE DWDM NETWORK 4.1.1 WAVELENGTH CONVERTING TRANSPONDERS 4.1.2 MUXPONDER 4.1.3 RECONFIGURABLE ADD DROP MULTIPLEXER (ROADM) 4.1.4 OPTICAL CROSS CONNECTS (OXCS) 5 PRACTICAL DWDM SYSTEM 5.1 DWDM SETUP 5.1.1 COMPONENTS IN DWDM 5.1.2 PROCEDURE FOR SETUP 6 FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION 6.1 TYPES OF FEC 6.1.1 LIST OF FEW ERROR CORRECTING CODES 6.2 FEC IN OPTICAL NETWORK 7 SPECTRUM SCLICED DWDM TRANSMISSION 7.1 CONFIGURATION OF TARGET SYSTEMS 7.2 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS 7.2.1 SCALABILITY: TRADEOFF BETWEEN LOSS BUDGET AND CHANNEL SPACING 7.2.2 USE OF FEC FOR EXPANDING THE SCALABILITY 8 DWDM EXPERIMENTS 8.1 10-G SPECTRUM SCLICED DWDM TRANSMISSION USING FEC 9 10 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

21 21 23 23 23 24 24 24 25 26 26 27 27 29 29 30 30

32 38 38

40 47

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10.1 CONCLUSION 10.2 FUTURE SCOPE REFERENCES PUBLICATIONS

47 47 48 50

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LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE NO. 1.1 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH A MULTI-MODE OPTICAL FIBER 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 3.1 4.1 5.1 7.1 7.2 STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL SINGLE MODE FIBER LIGHT ATTENUATION BY ZBLAN AND SILICA FIBER ST CONNECTORS ON MULTI MODE FIBER CWDM BANDWIDTH DWDM BANDWIDTH 1550 NM BAND PERFORMANCE DWDM TRANSMISSION DWDM SETUP MODEL FOR THEORETICAL ANALYSIS CALCULATED LOSS BUDGET TO ACHIEVE THE BER OF 1E-12 WITHOUT FEC (1.25 GB/S PER CHANNEL). 7.3 CALCULATED LOSS BUDGET TO ACHIEVE THE BER OF 1 1012 WITHOUT FEC (10 GB/S PER CHANNEL). 7.4 CALCULATED LOSS BUDGET TO ACHIEVE THE BER OF 1E12 WITH FEC (10 GB/S PER CHANNEL). 7.5 7.6 EXPANSION OF SCALABILITY PERMITTED BY USING FEC. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR CONFIRMING THE RESULTS OF THEORETICAL ANALYSIS. 7.7 BER CHARACTERISTICS WHEN SLICED BANDWIDTH IS 130/200 GHZ. 8.1(1) EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR 10 G EIGHT CH DWDM TRANSMISSION; 8.1(2) 9.1 MEASURED OPTICAL SPECTRUM AFTER MULTIPLEXING. BER CHARACTERISTICS OF 10 GB/S EIGHT CHANNEL DWDM 38 40 38 36 34 35 33 32 7 8 10 14 16 18 20 24 29 31 TITLE PAGE NO. 5

TRANSMISSION WITHOUT FEC. 9.2 BER CHARACTERISTICS OF 10 GB/S EIGHT CHANNEL DWDM TRANSMISSION WITH FEC. 9.3 BER CHARACTERISTICS OF 40 CHANNEL 100GHZ SPACING DWDM TRANSMISSION WITHOUT FEC. 9.4 BER CHARACTERISTICS OF 40 CHANNEL 100GHZ SPACING DWDM TRANSMISSION WITH FEC 9.5 BER CHARACTERISTICS OF 80 CHANNEL 50GHZ SPACING DWDM TRANSMISSION WITHOUT FEC 9.6 BER CHARACTERISTICS OF 80 CHANNEL 50GHZ SPACING DWDM TRANSMISSION WITH FEC 9.7 BER CHARACTERISTICS OF 160 CHANNEL 25GHZ SPACING DWDM TRANSMISSION WITHOUT FEC 9.8 BER CHARACTERISTICS OF 160 CHANNEL 25GHZ SPACING DWDM TRANSMISSION WITH FEC 45 44 44 43 42 42 41

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LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO. 1.1 9.1 SIZE OF DIFFERENT MEDIUM BER VALUES OF VARIOUS DWDM TRANSMISSION SYSTEM TITLE PAGE NO. 8 46

1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 MOTIVATION FOR THE PROJECT Network operators project a long term trend of traffic growth at a rate of over 75 per year, which in turn requires the capacity to be doubled approximately every 12-18 months. Given the current network traffic load and growth rate of the operators, there exists an urgent need to increase the network capacity through improvements in spectral efficiency. This can be accomplished by launching 100Gb/s per channel instead of 10Gb/s over 50GHz spaced channels. One of the most cost effective architectures is to deploy 100Gb/s systems utilizing existing 10Gb/s infrastructure. Long distance DWDM communication systems are typically limited by optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR). Unfortunately, a straight forward 10x increase in the data rate over an existing channel results in a 10x reduction in OSNR. Closing this significant performance gap between the two systems requires a 10x improvement in OSNR for 100Gb/s implementations. There are several techniques that can be used to reduce the OSNR deficit such as through DP-QPSK modulation in conjunction with a coherent receiver. However, even after taking advantage of all these techniques, a significant OSNR deficit remains. The OSNR gap must be closed in order to achieve the objective of transmitting 100Gb/s over existing 10Gb/s infrastructure. Among the available technologies to further improve the OSNR deficit, Forward Error Correction (FEC) is commonly considered as an attractive cost-effective candidate to recover the lost sensitivity due to the transition to higher data rates. 1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW Development of INCREASE IN SCALABILITY OF DWDM

TRANSMISSION USING FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION was carried out according to the Literature Survey Performed as given below Takashi Mitsui, Kazutaka Hara, Masamichi Fujiwara, Jun-ichi Kani Masashi Tadokoro,Naoto Yoshimoto, and Hisaya Hadama have showed that the sensitivity was improved by -31.5 dB m and the loss budget was obtained about 20 dB at a sliced

2 bandwidth of 400 GHz by using FEC even if assuming a light source of 0 dB m output power[1]. S. Kaneko et al have showed that FEC increases not only the loss budget to match those of normal WDM systems, but also the number of available channels, which is a feature not possible in normal WDM systems[2]. Spectral grids for WDM applications: DWDM frequency grid, ITU-T Recommendation G.694.1, K. Fukuchi, T. Kasamatsu, M. Morie, R. Ohhira, T. Ito, K. Sekiya, D. Ogasahara, and T. Ono, R. D. Feldman, E. E. Harstead, S. Jiang, T. H. Wood, and M. Zirngibl, K. Iwatsuki, J. Kani, H. Suzuki, and M. Fujiwara, have showed that Dense wavelength-division-multiplexing (DWDM) [3] is the key technology to increase the capacity of optical fiber transmission, and so has been widely deployed to core networks to cope with the increasing demand to transfer huge loads such as Internet traffic. As the next step, while further increases in capacity (e.g., over 10 Tb/s) have been pursued [4],several attempts have been made to apply DWDM to access networks [5], [6]. J. S. Lee, Y. C. Chung, and D. J. DiGiovanni, have proposed that The most important issue in DWDM access networks is to decrease the burden of operating/administrating wavelengths, which may be assigned differently to each user or each user group in the access networks [7]. J. S. Lee, Y. C. Chung, and D. J. DiGiovanni, K. Akimoto, J. Kani, M. Teshima, and K. Iwatsuki, J. H. Han, S. J. Kim, and J. S. Lee, S. J. Kim, J. H. Han, J. S. Lee, and C. S. Park, K. H. Han, E. S. Son, H. Y. Choi, K. W. Lim, and Y. C. Chung, have showed that The spectrum-sliced wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) scheme has
been proposed as one of the approaches to address this issue [7][11].

J.S. Lee, Y. C. Chung, and D. J. DiGiovanni, have showed that a particular noise factor in the spectrum-sliced scheme is the signal-signal beat noise; the signal-tonoise ratio (SNR) can be expressed as being proportional to the ratio of data rate to sliced bandwidth [7]. J. H. Han, S. J. Kim, and J. S. Lee, S. J. Kim, J. H. Han, J. S. Lee, and C. S. Park, have showed that 2.5-Gb/s spectrum-sliced transmission in which the bandwidth

3 was broadened through intra channel four-wave mixing in a nonlinear fiber at the receiver [9] or a gain saturated semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) at the transmitter [10]. K. H. Han, E. S. Son, H. Y. Choi, K. W. Lim, and Y. C. Chung, have showed that the increase in scalability offered by forward error correction (FEC) is detailed. An attempt to increase the loss budget by implementing FEC to spectrum-sliced WDM systems was reported in [11]. 1.3 OPTICAL FIBERS An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in Fiber Optic Communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bnadwidths (data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers. Optical fiber typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal refraction. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi mode fibers ,while those which can only support a single mode are called single mode fibers. Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,050 meters. Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with heat. Special optical fiber connectors are used to make removable connections.

4 1.4 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for longdistance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT, although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed systems. Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008). The current laboratory fiber optic data rate record, held by Bell Labs in Villarceaux, France, is multiplexing 155 channels, each carrying 100 Gbit/s over a 7000 km fiber. Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation have also managed 69.1 Tbit/s over a single 240 km fiber (multiplexing 432 channels, equating to 171 Gbit/s per channel). Bell Labs also broke a 100 Petabit per second kilometer barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over a single 7000 km fiber) For short distance applications, such as creating a network within an office building, fiber-optic cabling can be used to save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can often carry much more data than many electrical cables, such as 4 pair cat5 Ethernet cabling. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment located in high voltage environments such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof.

5 1.5 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non-conducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber. 1.6 INDEX OF REFRACTION The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as outer space. The speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000 kilometers (186 thousand miles) per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the cladding of an optical fiber is 1.46. The core value is typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a good rule of thumb is that signal using optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200 million meters per second. Or to put it another way, to travel 1000 kilometers in fiber, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to propagate. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York, a 12000 kilometer distance, means that there is an absolute minimum delay of 60 milliseconds (or around 1/16 of a second) between when one caller speaks to when the other hears. 1.7 TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS 1.7.1 Multimode Fiber

Fig 1.1 Propagation of light through a multi-mode optical fiber

6 Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber, from the electromagnetic analysis (see below). In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured relative to a line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber. In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases continuously between the axis and the cladding. This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting abruptly from the core-cladding boundary. The resulting curved paths reduce multi-path dispersion because high angle rays pass more through the lower-index periphery of the core, rather than the high-index center. This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting abruptly from the core-cladding boundary. The index profile is chosen to minimize the difference in axial propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. This ideal index profile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index and the distance from the axis.

7 1.7.2 Single Mode Fiber

Fig 1.2 Structure of Typical Single Mode Fiber Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multimode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of larger-core multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of propagation (hence the name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately agree with the predictions of geometric optics, if the fiber core is large enough to support more than a few modes. The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not completely confined in the core. Instead, especially in single-mode fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding as an evanescent wave. The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 810 micrometers and is designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually supports a small number of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is

8 manufactured with core diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometers. The normalized frequency V for this fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel functionJ0 (approximately 2.405). TABLE 1.1 Size of Different Medium S.No. 1 2 3 4 Medium Core Cladding Buffer Jacket Diameter 8 m 125 m 250 m 400 m

1.8 MECHANISM OF ATTENUATION

Fig 1.3 Light attenuation by ZBLAN and silica fibers Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance traveled through a transmission medium. Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics usually use units of dB/km

9 through the medium due to the relatively high quality of transparency of modern optical transmission media. The medium is usually a fiber of silica glass that confines the incident light beam to the inside. Attenuation is an important factor limiting the transmission of a digital signal across large distances. Thus, much research has gone into both limiting the attenuation and maximizing the amplification of the optical signal. Empirical research has shown that attenuation in optical fiber is caused primarily by both scattering and absorption. 1.9 TOTAL INTERNAL REFRACTION When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the "critical angle" for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA. 1.10 TERMINATION AND SPLICING Optical fibers are connected to terminal equipment by optical fiber connectors. These connectors are usually of a standard type such as FC, SC, ST, LC, or MTRJ.

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Fig 1.4 ST Connectors on Multi Mode Fiber Optical fibers may be connected to each other by connectors or by splicing, that is, joining two fibers together to form a continuous optical waveguide. The generally accepted splicing method is arc fusion splicing, which melts the fiber ends together with an electric arc. For quicker fastening jobs, a "mechanical splice" is used. Fibers are terminated in connectors so that the fiber end is held at the end face precisely and securely. A fiber-optic connector is basically a rigid cylindrical barrel surrounded by a sleeve that holds the barrel in its mating socket. The mating mechanism can be "push and click", "turn and latch" ("bayonet"), or screw-in (threaded). A typical connector is installed by preparing the fiber end and inserting it into the rear of the connector body. Quick-set adhesive is usually used so the fiber is held securely, and a strain relief is secured to the rear. Once the adhesive has set, the fiber's end is polished to a mirror finish. Various polish profiles are used, depending on the type of fiber and the application. For single-mode fiber, the fiber ends are typically polished with a slight curvature, such that when the connectors are mated the fibers touch only at their cores. This is known as a "physical contact" (PC) polish. The curved surface may be polished at an angle, to make an "angled physical contact" (APC) connection. Such connections have higher loss than PC connections, but greatly reduced back reflection, because light that

11 reflects from the angled surface leaks out of the fiber core; the resulting loss in signal strength is known as gap loss. APC fiber ends have low back reflection even when disconnected.

12 CHAPTER 2 WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing(WDM) is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths (colours) of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications over one strand of fiber, as well as multiplication of capacity. The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly applied to an optical carrier (which is typically described by its wavelength), whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier (which is more often described by frequency). Since wavelength and frequency are tied together through a simple directly inverse relationship, the two terms actually describe the same concept.

2.1 WDM SYSTEMS A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the signals together, and a de-multiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of fiber it is possible to have a device that does both simultaneously, and can function as an optical add-drop multiplexer. The optical filtering devices used have traditionally been etalons, stable solid-state single-frequency FabryProt interferometers in the form of thin-filmcoated optical glass. The concept was first published in 1970, and by 1978 WDM systems were being realized in the laboratory. The first WDM systems only combined two signals. Modern systems can handle up to 160 signals and can thus expand a basic 10 Gbit/s system over a single fiber pair to over 1.6 Tbit/s. WDM systems are popular with telecommunications companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying more fiber. By using WDM and optical amplifiers, they can accommodate several generations of technology development in their optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. Capacity of a given link can be expanded by simply upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end.

13 This is often done by using optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) translation at the very edge of the transport network, thus permitting interoperation with existing equipment with optical interfaces. Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables, which have a core diameter of 9 m. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables (also known as premises cables) which have core diameters of 50 or 62.5 m. Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run. However, recent standardization and better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM less expensive to deploy. Optical receivers, in contrast to laser sources, tend to be wideband devices. Therefore the de-multiplexer must provide the wavelength selectivity of the receiver in the WDM system. WDM systems are divided in different wavelength patterns, conventional or coarse and dense WDM. Conventional WDM systems provide up to 8 channels in the 3rd transmission window (C-Band) of silica fibers around 1550 nm. Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) uses the same transmission window but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing. Some technologies are capable of 25 GHz spacing (sometimes called ultra-dense WDM). New amplification options (Raman amplification) enable the extension of the usable wavelengths to the L-band, more or less doubling these numbers. Coarse wavelength division multiplexing (CWDM) in contrast to conventional WDM and DWDM uses increased channel spacing to allow less sophisticated and thus cheaper transceiver designs. To again provide 8 channels on a single fiber CWDM uses the entire frequency band between second and third transmission window (1310/1550 nm respectively) including both windows (minimum dispersion window and minimum attenuation window) but also the critical area where OH scattering may occur, recommending the use of OH-free silica fibers in case the wavelengths between second and third transmission window shall also be used. Avoiding this region, the channels 31, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61 remain and these are the most commonly used.

14 WDM, DWDM and CWDM are based on the same concept of using multiple wavelengths of light on a single fiber, but differ in the spacing of the wavelengths, number of channels, and the ability to amplify the multiplexed signals in the optical space. EDFA provide an efficient wideband amplification for the C-band, Raman amplification adds a mechanism for amplification in the L-band. For CWDM wideband optical amplification is not available, limiting the optical spans to several tens of kilometers. 2.2 COARSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTPLEXING Originally, the term "coarse wavelength division multiplexing" was fairly generic, and meant a number of different things. In general, these things shared the fact that the choice of channel spacings and frequency stability was such that erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) could not be utilized. Prior to the relatively recent ITU standardization of the term, one common meaning for coarse WDM meant two (or possibly more) signals multiplexed onto a single fiber, where one signal was in the 1550 nm band, and the other in the 1310 nm band .

Fig 2.1 CWDM Bandwidth In 2002 the ITU standardized a channel spacing grid for use with CWDM (ITU-T G.694.2), using the wavelengths from 1270 nm through 1610 nm with a channel spacing of 20 nm. (G.694.2 was revised in 2003 to shift the actual channel centers by 1, so that strictly speaking the center wavelengths are 1271 to 1611 nm.) Many CWDM wavelengths below

15 1470 nm are considered "unusable" on older G.652 specification fibers, due to the increased attenuation in the 12701470 nm bands. Newer fibers which conform to the G.652.C and G.652.D standards, such as Corning SMF-28e and Samsung Widepass nearly eliminate the "water peak" attenuation peak and allow for full operation of all 20 ITU CWDM channels in metropolitan networksTheEthernetLX-4 10 Gbit/s physical layer standard is an example of a CWDM system in which four wavelengths near 1310 nm, each carrying a 3.125 gigabit-per-second (Gbit/s) data stream, are used to carry 10 Gbit/s of aggregate data. The main characteristic of the recent ITU CWDM standard is that the signals are not spaced appropriately for amplification by EDFAs. This therefore limits the total CWDM optical span to somewhere near 60 km for a 2.5 Gbit/s signal, which is suitable for use in metropolitan applications. The relaxed optical frequency stabilization requirements allow the associated costs of CWDM to approach those of non-WDM optical components. CWDM is also being used in cable television networks, where different wavelengths are used for the downstream and upstream signals. In these systems, the wavelengths used are often widely separated, for example the downstream signal might be at 1310 nm while the upstream signal is at 1550 nm. 2.3 DENSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTPLEXING The EDFAs cost is thus leveraged across as many Dense wavelength division multiplexing, or DWDM for short, refers originally to optical signals multiplexed within the 1550 nm band so as to leverage the capabilities (and cost) of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are effective for wavelengths between approximately 1525 1565 nm (C band), or 15701610 nm (L band). EDFAs were originally developed to replace SONET/SDH optical-electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators, which they have made practically obsolete. EDFAs can amplify any optical signal in their operating range, regardless of the modulated bit rate.

16

Fig 2.2 DWDM Bandwidth

In terms of multi-wavelength signals, so long as the EDFA has enough pump energy available to it, it can amplify as many optical signals as can be multiplexed into its amplification band modulation format). EDFAs therefore allow a single-channel optical link to be upgraded in bit rate by replacing only equipment at the ends of the link, while retaining the existing EDFA or series of EDFAs through a long haul route. Furthermore, single-wavelength links using EDFAs can similarly be upgraded to WDM links channels as can be multiplexed into the 1550 nm band.

17 CHAPTER 3 FIBERS USED IN DWDM 3.1 NONZERO DISPERSION SHIFTED FIBER (ITU-T G.655) Using nonzero dispersion-shifted fiber (NZDSF) can mitigate nonlinear characteristics. NZDSF fiber overcomes these effects by moving the zero-dispersion wavelength outside the 1550-nm operating window. The practical effect of this is to have a small but finite amount of chromatic dispersion at 1550 nm, which minimizes nonlinear effects, such as FWM, SPM, and XPM, which are seen in the dense wavelength-division multiplexed (DWDM) systems without the need for costly dispersion compensation. There are two fiber families called nonzero dispersion (NZD+ and NZD), in which the zerodispersion value falls before and after the 1550-nm wavelength, respectively. The typical chromatic dispersion for G.655 fiber at 1550 nm is 4.5 ps/nm-km. The attenuation parameter for G.655 fiber is typically 0.2 dB/km at 1550 nm, and the PMD parameter is less than 0.1ps/km. The Corning LEAF fiber is an example of an enhanced G.655 fiber (shown in fig.) with a 32 percent larger effective area

3.2 RECOMMENDATION G.655 The correlation of the measured values of lc, lcc, and lcj depends on the specific fiber and cable design and the test conditions. While in general, lcc<lcj<lc, a general quantitative relationship cannot be easily established. The importance of ensuring singlemode transmission in the minimum cable length between joints at the minimum operating wavelength is paramount. This may be performed by recommending the maximum cable cut-off wavelength lcc of a cabled single-mode fiber to be 1480 nm, or for typical jumpers by recommending a maximum jumper cable cut-off to be 1480 nm, or for worst case length and bends by recommending a maximum fiber cut-off wavelength to be 1470 nm.

18

Fig 3.1.1550 nm Band Performance

The loss increase for 100 turns of fibre, loosely wound with 37.5 mm radius and measured at 1550 nm, shall not exceed 0.5 dB For SDH and WDM applications, the fibre may be used at wavelengths exceeding 1550 nm. The 0.5 dB maximum loss shall apply at the maximum wavelength of anticipated use (i.e. wavelengths 1580 nm). The loss at this wavelength may be projected from a loss measurement at 1550 nm, using either spectral loss modeling or a statistical database for that particular fibre design. Alternatively, a qualification test at the longer wavelength may be performed.

19 CHAPTER 4 DWDM SYSTEMS

At this stage, a basic DWDM system contains several main components:

1. A DWDM terminal multiplexer. The terminal multiplexer actually contains one wavelength converting transponder for each wavelength signal it will carry. The wavelength converting transponders receive the input optical signal (i.e., from a client-layer SONET/SDH or other signal), convert that signal into the electrical domain, and retransmit the signal using a 1550 nm band laser. (Early DWDM systems contained 4 or 8 wavelength converting transponders in the mid-1990s. By 2000 or so, commercial systems capable of carrying 128 signals were available.) The terminal mux also contains an optical multiplexer, which takes the various 1550 nm band signals and places them onto a single fiber (e.g. SMF-28 fiber). The terminal multiplexer may or may not also support a local EDFA for power amplification of the multi-wavelength optical signal. 2. An intermediate line repeater is placed approx. every 80 100 km for compensating the loss in optical power, while the signal travels along the fiber. The signal is amplified by an EDFA, which usually consists of several amplifier stages. 3. An intermediate optical terminal or optical add-drop multiplexer. This is a remote amplification site that amplifies the multi-wavelength signal that may have traversed up to 140 km or more before reaching the remote site. Optical diagnostics and telemetry are often extracted or inserted at such a site, to allow for localization of any fiber breaks or signal impairments. In more sophisticated systems (which are no longer point-to-point), several signals out of the multiwavelength signal may be removed and dropped locally. 4. A DWDM terminal de-multiplexer. The terminal de-multiplexer breaks the multiwavelength signal back into individual signals and outputs them on separate fibers for client-layer systems (such as SONET/SDH) to detect. However, in order to allow for transmission to remote client-layer systems (and to allow for digital domain signal integrity determination) such de-multiplexed signals are usually sent to O/E/O output transponders prior to being relayed to their client-layer systems.

20 Often, the functionality of output transponder has been integrated into that of input transponder, so that most commercial systems have transponders that support bidirectional interfaces on both their 1550-nm (i.e., internal) side, and external (i.e., client-facing) side. Transponders in some systems supporting 40 GHz nominal operation may also perform forward error correction (FEC) via 'digital wrapper' technology, as described in the ITU-TG.709 standard. 5. Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC). This is an additional wavelength usually outside the EDFA amplification band (at 1510 nm, 1620 nm, 1310 nm or another proprietary wavelength). The OSC carries information about the multi-wavelength optical signal as well as remote conditions at the optical terminal or EDFA site. It is also normally used for remote software upgrades and user (i.e., network operator) Network Management information. It is the multi-wavelength analogue to SONET's DCC (or supervisory channel). ITU standards suggest that the OSC should utilize an OC-3 signal structure, though some vendors have opted to use 100 megabit Ethernet or another signal format. Unlike the 1550 nm band client signalcarrying wavelengths, the OSC is always terminated at intermediate amplifier sites, where it receives local information before retransmission.

Fig 4.1 DWDM Transmission

21 The introduction of the ITU-T G.694.1 frequency grid in 2002 has made it easier to integrate WDM with older but more standard SONET/SDH systems. WDM wavelengths are positioned in a grid having exactly 100 GHz (about 0.8 nm) spacing in optical frequency, with a reference frequency fixed at 193.10 THz (1552.52 nm). The main grid is placed inside the optical fiber amplifier bandwidth, but can be extended to wider bandwidths. Today's DWDM systems use 50 GHz or even 25 GHz channel spacing for up to 160 channel operation. DWDM systems have to maintain more stable wavelength or frequency than those needed for CWDM because of the closer spacing of the wavelengths. Precision temperature control of laser transmitter is required in DWDM systems to prevent "drift" off a very narrow frequency window of the order of a few GHz. In addition, since DWDM provides greater maximum capacity it tends to be used at a higher level in the communications hierarchy than CWDM, for example on the Internet backbone and is therefore associated with higher modulation rates, thus creating a smaller market for DWDM devices with very high performance levels. These factors of smaller volume and higher performance result in DWDM systems typically being more expensive than CWDM. Recent innovations in DWDM transport systems include pluggable and softwaretunable transceiver modules capable of operating on 40 or 80 channels. This dramatically reduces the need for discrete spare pluggable modules, when a handful of pluggable devices can handle the full range of wavelengths. 4.1 MANAGING THE DWDM NETWORK 4.1.1 Wavelength Converting Transponders At this stage, some details concerning Wavelength Converting Transponders should be discussed, as this will clarify the role played by current DWDM technology as an additional optical transport layer. It will also serve to outline the evolution of such systems over the last 10 or so years. As stated above, wavelength converting transponders served originally to translate the transmit wavelength of a client-layer signal into one of the DWDM system's internal

22 wavelengths in the 1550 nm band (note that even external wavelengths in the 1550 nm will most likely need to be translated, as they will almost certainly not have the required frequency stability tolerances nor will it have the optical power necessary for the system's EDFA). In the mid-1990s, however, wavelength converting transponders rapidly took on the additional function of signal regeneration. Signal regeneration in transponders quickly evolved through 1R to 2R to 3R and into overhead-monitoring multi-bit rate 3R regenerators. These differences are outlined below: 1R: Retransmission: Basically, early transponders were "garbage in garbage out" in that their output was nearly an analogue 'copy' of the received optical signal, with little signal cleanup occurring. This limited the reach of early DWDM systems because the signal had to be handed off to a client-layer receiver (likely from a different vendor) before the signal deteriorated too far. Signal monitoring was basically confined to optical domain parameters such as received power.

2R: Re-time and re-transmit: Transponders of this type were not very common and utilized a quasi-digital Schmitt-triggering method for signal clean-up. Some rudimentary signal quality monitoring was done by such transmitters that basically looked at analogue parameters.

3R:
Re-time, re-transmit, re-shape. 3R Transponders were fully digital and normally able to view SONET/SDH section layer overhead bytes such as A1 and A2 to determine signal quality health. Many systems will offer 2.5 Gbit/s transponders, which will normally mean the transponder is able to perform 3R regeneration on OC-3/12/48 signals, and possibly gigabit Ethernet, and reporting on signal health by monitoring SONET/SDH section layer overhead bytes. Many transponders will be able to perform full multi-rate 3R in both directions. Some vendors offer 10 Gbit/s transponders, which will perform Section layer overhead monitoring to all rates up to and including OC-192.

23 4.1.2 Muxponder The muxponder (from multiplexed transponder) has different names depending on vendor. It essentially performs some relatively simple time division multiplexing of lower rate signals into a higher rate carrier within the system (a common example is the ability to accept 4 OC-48s and then output a single OC-192 in the 1550 nm band). More recent muxponder designs have absorbed more and more TDM functionality, in some cases obviating the need for traditional SONET/SDH transport equipment.

4.1.3 Reconfigurable Add Drop Multiplexer (ROADM) As mentioned above, intermediate optical amplification sites in DWDM systems may allow for the dropping and adding of certain wavelength channels. In most systems deployed as of August 2006 this is done infrequently, because adding or dropping wavelengths requires manually inserting or replacing wavelength-selective cards. This is costly, and in some systems requires that all active traffic be removed from the DWDM system, because inserting or removing the wavelength-specific cards interrupts the multiwavelength optical signal. With a ROADM, network operators can remotely reconfigure the multiplexer by sending soft commands. The architecture of the ROADM is such that dropping or adding wavelengths does not interrupt the 'pass-through' channels. Numerous technological approaches are utilized for various commercial ROADMs, the tradeoff being between cost, optical power, and flexibility. 4.1.4 Optical Cross Connects (OXCs) When the network topology is a mesh, where nodes are interconnected by fibers to form an arbitrary graph, an additional fiber interconnection device is needed to route the signals from an input port to the desired output port. These devices are called optical crossconnectors (OXCs).Various categories of OXCs include elctronic, optical,and wavelength selective devices.

24 CHAPTER 5 PRACTICAL DWDM SYSTEM

5.1 DWDM SETUP

Fig 5.1 DWDM Setup

5.1.1 Components in DWDM

DWDM setup mainly consists of the following blocks 1.Add/Drop Multiplexer (ADM) 2.Transponders (TRP) 3.Multiplexer 4.Optical Booster Amplifier (OBA) 5.Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC) 6.Optical Power Amplifier (OPA) 7.De-multiplexer

25 5.1.2 Procedure for Setup The optical input signal is given to the ADM whose input and output are black and white signals. From the TX of ADM, the signals are given to the TX IN of TRP. The wavelength will depend on whether the DWDM is a 2.5 or 10 Gbps system. The TX OUT of TRP will be coloured signals with different colour for different wavelength. From the TX OUT, connection is given to IN of MUX. It has different ports. It combines different signal inputs to form a single signal. The OUT of MUX will be common to all ports. This OUT is given to IN of OBA.

The OBA contains EDFA which provides high power amplification. Additional OSC signals are given to the OBA which is useful for supervising the signal and eliminating the unnecessary signals. From OUT of OBA, the signal is passed to the line fiber. From the other end of the line fiber, signals are given for amplification to OPA IN. Here the signal gets amplified and the OSC signals are dropped. Thus, from OPA OUT, only the information carrying signal will be given to DEMUX IN. In DEMUX single signals is converted to different signals. This is then fed to the RX IN of TRP. The out coming black and white signals from RX OUT of TRP the signals are given to ADM RX. Thus the complete transmission and reception of signals are shown within the DWDM.

26 CHAPTER 6 FORWARD ERROR CORRECTION Forward error correction (FEC) or channel coding is a technique used

for controlling errors in data transmission over unreliable or noisy communication channels. The central idea is the sender encodes their message in a redundant way by using an error-correcting code (ECC). The American mathematician Richard Hamming

pioneered this field in the 1940s and invented the first error-correcting code in 1950: the Hamming (7,4) code. FEC processing in a receiver may be applied to a digital bit stream or in the demodulation of a digitally modulated carrier. For the latter, FEC is an integral part of the initial analog-to-digital conversion in the receiver. The Viterbi decoder implements a softdecision algorithm to demodulate digital data from an analog signal corrupted by noise. Many FEC coders can also generate a bit-error rate (BER) signal which can be used as feedback to fine-tune the analog receiving electronics. FEC is accomplished by adding redundancy to the transmitted information using a predetermined algorithm. A redundant bit may be a complex function of many original information bits. The original information may or may not appear literally in the encoded output; codes that include the unmodified input in the output are systematic, while those that do not are non-systematic. Many FEC coders can also generate a bit-error rate (BER) signal which can be used as feedback to fine-tune the analog receiving electronics. 6.1 TYPES OF FEC Forward error correction (FEC) or channel coding is a technique used

for controlling errors in data transmission over unreliable or noisy communication channels. The central idea is the sender encodes their message in a redundant way by using an error-correcting code (ECC). The American mathematician Richard Hamming

pioneered this field in the 1940s and invented the first error-correcting code in 1950: the Hamming (7,4) code. FEC processing in a receiver may be applied to a digital bit stream or in the demodulation of a digitally modulated carrier. For the latter, FEC is an integral part of the initial analog-to-digital conversion in the receiver. The Viterbi decoder implements a softdecision algorithm to demodulate digital data from an analog signal corrupted by noise.

27 Many FEC coders can also generate a bit-error rate (BER) signal which can be used as feedback to fine-tune the analog receiving electronics. FEC is accomplished by adding redundancy to the transmitted information using a predetermined algorithm. A redundant bit may be a complex function of many original information bits. The original information may or may not appear literally in the encoded output; codes that include the unmodified input in the output are systematic, while those that do not are non-systematic. Many FEC coders can also generate a bit-error rate (BER) signal which can be used as feedback to fine-tune the analog receiving electronics. 6.1.1 List Of Few Error Correcting Codes

Convolutional Code Group Codes Hamming Code Lexicographic Code Long Code M of n Codes Reed-Solomon Error Correction Reed-Muller Code Turbo Code Trellis Coded Modulation

6.2 FEC IN OPTICAL NETWORK Light traveling over fiber optic connections must contend with natural impairments that degrade signal quality. The amount of degradation increases with both distance and data rate. One way to reduce the effects of the impairments is to utilize forward error correction (FEC). Now that FEC can be implemented readily in inexpensive silicon, it has become an essential component of optical transport networking (OTN) equipment, particularly at todays higher frequencies. Achieving higher gain by using FEC algorithms reduces carrier Capex since it allows optical devices to be spaced further apart in networks. Of course, the cost of implementing FEC does counter the gains. There are many ways to implement FEC. The ITU-T (Recommendation G.709) defined a standard method for OTN frames utilizing a Reed-Solomon technique. The approach, sometimes called Generic FEC (GFEC), is necessary for any standardscompliant OTN framer. However, the method is satisfactory only for lower-data rate and

28 shorter reach applications. Researchers have developed more advanced FEC techniques, optimized to achieve higher gain. Some of the algorithms are proprietary, while others have been standardized. Various Enhanced FEC (EFEC) techniques built for higher gain have been defined within ITU-T (Recommendation G.975.1). It outlines nine techniques (I.1 through I.9) which can be used in transponders, regenerators, muxponders, and switches at OTU-2 (10Gbps) and OTU-3 (40Gbps). However, equipment deployed at OTU-4 (100Gbps) must utilize proprietary FEC as well as soft-decision FEC (SDFEC) techniques. Optical equipment manufacturers that have deployed OTN technologies have used a variety of FEC technologies in OTU-2, OTU-3, and OTU-4 cards. The choice has often varied even within a single company with one division selecting an ASSP provider with a specific FEC algorithm for one OTN card, while another division has developed a card utilizing a different algorithm. As OEMs integrate multiple platforms, they prefer to develop cards supporting Universal FEC, allowing a direct interface to a variety of techniques, depending on which card is attached at the other end of the optical fiber. One way of supporting universal FEC is to integrate multiple techniques in silicon and select the appropriate one upon deployment. The disadvantage of this approach is that it wastes silicon since only one part of the device is actually used in practice. Another option is to use programmable logic and configure the silicon at deployment with the appropriate FEC technology. Field programmable gate array (FPGA) suppliers are investing more aggressively in OTN IP and offering the capabilities of delivering FEC, framer, and muxing solutions optimized for a specific application. Vendors developing their own FEC techniques for next-generation systems can offer configurable support for standards-based techniques without using additional silicon. As bandwidth grows and OTN deployments evolve to 100Gbps and beyond, the utilization of FEC techniques will become more widespread. Implementing the front-end FEC with programmable logic allows for a risk-proof approach that supports a variety of algorithms and allows for future needs, new standards, and further developments.

29 CHAPTER 7 SPECTRUM SCLICED DWDM TRANSMISSION 7.1 CONFIGURATION OF TARGET SYSTEMS Fig 7.1 illustrates the theoretical models used to clarify the scalability of 1.25/10-G spectrum-sliced DWDM transmission systems. In model 1, the signal is received by an avalanche photodiode (APD) receiver, while model 2 uses an optical preamplifier receiver. All transmitters (Tx.) have the same broadband incoherent light sources, such as the light-emitting diode (LED), SOA, SLD, and erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA). The output signals from each transmitter are spectrally sliced at different wavelengths and multiplexed through the MUX. The multiplexed signals are then transmitted to be demultiplexed in the de-multiplexer (DEMUX). The DEMUX uses the same filter as the MUX. For example, an arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) or a thin film WDM filter can be used as the MUX/DEMUX.

Fig 7.1 Model For Theoretical Analysis

30 In the case of model 2, the multiplexed signals are amplified simultaneously before passing through the DEMUX. The loss budget is defined as the allowable loss in the transmission line in both cases.

7.2 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS Designing a WDM transmission system involves both the loss budget and the number of channels. However, in WDM transmission systems that use a spectrum-slicing scheme, there is a tradeoff between these two requirements. To increase the number of channels, it is necessary to narrow the channel spacing due to the fixed bandwidth of the light sources. However, as the amount of signal-signal beat noise, which is the dominant noise factor, is inversely proportional to the sliced bandwidth, narrowing the channel spacing degrades the received sensitivity, and the loss budget becomes smaller. In this section, the scalability of 1.25/10-G spectrum-slice DWDM transmission is discussed taking the above two requirements into account. We first clarify the scalability of the models shown in Fig. 1 and then study the possibility of using FEC to enhance this scalability. The results of experiments conducted to prove the validity of the theoretical analysis are also presented.

7.2.1 Scalability: Tradeoff Between Loss Budget And Channel Spacing Line (1) and (2) in Fig 7.2 show the received sensitivity for the bit error rate (BER) of 1E-12 against the sliced bandwidth in 1.25-G spectrum-sliced systems. The sliced bandwidth represents the width of MUX/DEMUX with rectangular profile. The broadband light sources were assumed to be unpolarized. Line (1) corresponds to the case of an APD receiver, and line (2) is the one of an optical preamplifier receiver. Line (3) shows the effective output optical power against the sliced bandwidth when the power densities of broadband light sources were assumed to be 10 dBm/nm. The effective optical power was determined as the power per one channel after passing through the MUX. The loss budget can be derived from the difference between lines (1)(3). As filter losses are not considered in this discussion for simplicity, the loss budget can be said as the allowable loss in the transmission line.

31

Fig 7.2 Calculated loss budget to achieve the BER of 1E-12 without FEC (1.25 Gb/s per channel). Fig 7.3 shows the calculated loss budget of 10-G spectrum sliced systems. Lines (1)(3) represent the same ones as in Fig. 2, respectively. It is found that the required minimum sliced bandwidth is around 350 GHz. When the sliced bandwidth is set to 360 GHz, which is the typical value for systems of 600-GHz (4.8 nm) channel spacing, the maximum number of channel are no more than eight, assuming broadband light sources with the bandwidth of 40 nm. Moreover, the loss budget is only 7 dB in the case of the APD receiver, and it cannot be expanded to more than 13 dB, even with the optical preamplifier receiver.Thus, it is obvious that some additional attempts are needed to realize high data rate DWDM transmission systems using the spectrum-sliced scheme.

32

Fig 7.3 Calculated loss budget to achieve the BER of 1 1012 without FEC (10 Gb/s per channel).

7.2.2 Use of FEC for Expanding The Scalability As discussed above, the scalability of spectrum-sliced DWDM transmission systems for high data rate is limited severely. Therefore, it is difficult to design systems with large loss budget and a large enough number of channels. To expand the scalability, we study the use of FEC, which has been usually used to improve the received sensitivity in the long-haul transmission systems. We assumed a code that can improve the BER of 1.8E4 to the BER of 1E12,which is a feature that a wellknown ReedSolomon (255,239) code can achieve. In our study, as an example to reveal the general effect FEC offers, a ReedSolomon (255,239) code which redundancy ratio is 1/14 was chosen.

33

Fig 7.4 Calculated loss budget to achieve the BER of 1E12 with FEC (10 Gb/s per channel). Fig. 7.4 shows the calculated loss budget to achieve the BER of 1 1012 with FEC in 10-G spectrum-slice DWDM transmission systems. Line (1) is the case of an APD receiver, and line (2) is the one of an optical preamplifier receiver. In both cases, the number of polarization modes of broadband light sources was assumed to be 2. Line (3) shows the effective output optical power against the sliced bandwidth when the power densities of broadband light sources were assumed to be 10 dBm/nm. Comparing with Fig 7.3, one can see the received sensitivity is improved owing to the effect of FEC. For example, at the sliced bandwidth of 1000 GHz, the improvement is 4/6 dB when received with the APD receiver and the optical preamplifier receiver, respectively. In addition to this effect, FEC offers one more effect. As the required BER to the received data changes from 1E12 to 1.8E4, the allowable maximum amount of noise

34 increases, and when the signalsignal beat noise is the dominant noise factor, the increase of the amount of noise permits a narrower sliced bandwidth. The required minimum sliced bandwidth narrows from 350 to 95 GHz. From Fig 7.4, we can see that the loss budget of 22 dB with the sliced bandwidth of 120 GHz can be obtained when the optical preamplifier receiver is used. If we assume that the bandwidth of broadband light sources is 40 nm, we can design a 200-GHz channel spacing, 25-channel, 10-G spectrum-sliced DWDM transmission system with the loss budget of 22 dB by using FEC and the optical preamplifier.

Fig 7.5 Expansion of scalability permitted by using FEC.

Fig 7.5 concludes the scalability of spectrum-sliced DWDM transmission systems. Loss budgets against the data rate of 1.25, 2.5, and 10 Gb/s are shown. Lines (1) and (2) correspond to the case when an APD receiver is used and the time channel spacing is

35 200/600 GHz, respectively. Lines (3) and (4) are the cases when the FEC-coded signal whose channel spacing is 200 GHz is received with an APD receiver and an optical preamplifier receiver, respectively. The sliced bandwidth was assumed to be 0.6 times of channel spacing (the same as that used in the previous analysis). The values of 1.25 and 10 Gb/s are extracted from Figs. 24, and the ones of 2.5 Gb/s are newly calculated. As can be seen from Fig 7.5, when the APD receiver is used, the 10-Gb/s signal cannot be supported without broadening the channel spacing to 600 GHz (in other words, the sliced bandwidth to 360 GHz). It is found that by using FEC, the 10-Gb/s signal with 200-GHz channel spacing comes to be able to be supported by the APD receiver. The results indicate that the usage of FEC not only increases the loss budget but also increases the number of available channels. It can also be seen that the usage of the optical amplifier receiver in addition to FEC further increase the scalability so that the loss budget over 20 dB can be achievable for 10-Gb/s signals with 200-GHz channel spacing.

Fig 7.6 Experimental setup for confirming the results of theoretical analysis.

36

Fig

7.7 BER

characteristics when sliced bandwidth is 130/200 GHz.

We verified the validity of our theoretical analysis with the experiment, whose setup is shown in Fig 7.6. An unpolarized broadband incoherent signal was spectrally sliced with a filter, and the BER versus the received power was measured using an optical preamplifier receiver. The unpolarized signal was produced by externally modulating the ASE of a polarization-insensitive SOA with a pseudorandom signal (2^23 1) at the rate of 10.7 Gb/s that concerns the redundancy of ReedSolomon (255,239) code. A polarization-insensitive electro-absorption (EA) modulator was used as the external modulator. The slice filter corresponds to the MUX in the model 2 in Fig 7.1. The optical preamplifier receiver consisted of an optical amplifier, a filter, a photo-diode (PD), and a clock-data recovery (CDR) circuit. As the optical amplifier, an EDFA was used. The noise figure (NF) of the EDFA was 7 dB, which is the same value used in the theoretical analysis. The filter corresponds to the DEMUX in the model 2 in Fig 7.1. Two filters used in this experiment had the same bandwidth, and their spectral profiles were nearly rectangular. We measured the BER characteristics when the sliced bandwidths were 130 and 200 GHz.

37 Fig 7.7 shows the BER characteristics. The open squares/ circles plot the measured values when the sliced bandwidth is 130/200 GHz, respectively. The closed squares/circles represent the values gained when the received data are assumed to be decoded. The required received power for the BER of 1E12 was 32/ 34 dBm when the sliced bandwidth was 130/200 GHz. These measured values agree well with the result of the theoretical analysis shown in Fig 7.4. As the differences between measured and calculated results were less than 1 dB, we could verify the validity of our theoretical analysis in the range of the sliced bandwidth between 130 and 200 GHz.

38 CHAPTER 8 DWDM EXPERIMENTS In this section, we describe the results of two spectrum sliced DWDM transmission experiments. One confirms 10-Gb/s, eight channel DWDM transmission without FEC and the channel spacing of 200 GHz. The other assesses 10-Gb/s, eight channel DWDM transmission with FEC and the channel spacing of 200 GHz. We have also conducted 100 GHZ Grid 40 Channel, 50 GHZ Grid 80 Channel, 25 GHZ Grid 160 Channel DWDM Transmission without FEC. We have also conducted 100 GHZ Grid 40 Channel, 50 GHZ Grid 80 Channel, 25 GHZ Grid 160 Channel DWDM Transmission with FEC.

8.1 10-G SPECTRUM SCLICED DWDM TRANSMISSION USING FEC

Fig 8.1 (1) Experimental setup for 10 G eight ch DWDM transmission; (2) measured optical spectrum after multiplexing.

39 An eight channel 10-G spectrum-sliced WDM transmission was conducted with the setup shown in Fig 8.1(1). The signal for the measurement channel was launched from the same polarization-insensitive broadband light source used in the experiment shown in Fig 7.6. This signal was pseudorandom (2^23 1), and its data rate was 10.7 Gb/s to consider the effectiveness of FEC. An eye diagram is shown in the inset of Fig 8.1(1); a clear eye opening can be observed. Dummy signals were produced by externally modulating the ASE of an EDFA with a polarization-insensitive EA modulator and split by a 1 : 8 coupler after being amplified by an EDFA. The measurement signal and seven out of eight dummy signals were spectrally sliced, multiplexed through an 8-port thin-film WDM filter with a nearly rectangular profile and transmitted. Fig 8.1(2) shows a spectrum of the multiplexed signals. All signals have nearly the same peak power of 19 dBm and a 3-dB bandwidth of 130 GHz. The transmitted signals were received with an optical preamplifier receiver constructed around an EDFA whose NF was 5.5 dB, an 8-port thin-film WDM filter, a PD, and a CDR circuit. The thin-film WDM filter was the same one used for multiplexing, and it not only de-multiplexed the multiplexed signals but also eliminated the ASE of the preamplifier. We measured the BER characteristics when the transmission line was 20 km of dispersion shift fiber (DSF) or 2 km of SMF.

40 CHAPTER 9 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS

10 GB/s Eight Channel DWDM Transmission without FEC

9.00E-04 8.00E-04 7.00E-04 6.00E-04 5.00E-04 4.00E-04 3.00E-04 2.00E-04 1.00E-04 0.00E+00 -40 -30 -20 Recieved Power (dBm) -10 0 BER SMF 2KM without FEC BER DSF20KM without FEC

Fig 9.1 BER characteristics of 10 Gb/s Eight Channel DWDM Transmission without FEC.

BER

Fig 9.1 Shows BER Characteristics of 10 Gb/s Eight Channel DWDM Transmission without FEC. BER is measured to be 8E-4 when the received power is -34.5 dB m.

41

10 Gb/s Eight Channel DWDM Transmission with FEC

7.00E-12

6.00E-12

5.00E-12

4.00E-12 BER

BER SMF2Km(FEC) 3.00E-12 BER DSF 20Km(FEC)

2.00E-12

1.00E-12

-38

-37

-36

-35

-34

0.00E+00 -33 -32

Recieved Power(dBm)

Fig 9.2 BER characteristics of 10 Gb/s Eight Channel DWDM Transmission with FEC.

Fig 9.2 Shows BER Characteristics of 10 Gb/s Eight Channel DWDM Transmission with FEC. BER is measured to be 1E-12 when the received power is -34.5 dB m.

42

100 GHZ grid 40 Channel DWDM Transmission without FEC

9.00E-05 8.00E-05 7.00E-05 6.00E-05 5.00E-05 4.00E-05 3.00E-05 2.00E-05 1.00E-05 0.00E+00 -30 -20 -10 0 Recieved Optical Power(dBm)

BER

BER without FEC

-40

Fig. 9.3. BER characteristics of 40 Channel 100GHZ spacing DWDM Transmission without FEC.

Fig 9.3 Shows BER Characteristics of 40 Channel 100 GHZ Spacing DWDM Transmission without FEC. BER is measured to be 8E-5 when the received power is -35 dB m.

100 GHZ Grid 40 Channel DWDM Transmission With FEC

6.00E-13 5.00E-13 4.00E-13 BER 3.00E-13 2.00E-13 1.00E-13 0.00E+00 -33 -32 BER (FEC)

-38

-37

-36

-35

-34

Recieved Power(dBm)

Fig. 9.4. BER characteristics of 40 Channel 100GHZ spacing DWDM Transmission with FEC

43

Fig 9.4 Shows BER Characteristics of 40 Channel 100 GHZ Spacing DWDM Transmission with FEC. BER is measured to be 1E-13 when the received power is -35 dB m

50 GHz Grid DWDM Transmission without FEC

9.00E-07 8.00E-07 7.00E-07 6.00E-07 5.00E-07 BER 4.00E-07 3.00E-07 2.00E-07 1.00E-07 0.00E+00 -40 -30 -20 Recieved Power (dBm) -10 0 BER without FEC

Fig 9.5 BER characteristics of 80 Channel 50GHZ spacing DWDM Transmission without FEC Fig 9.5 Shows BER Characteristics of 80 Channel 50 GHZ Spacing DWDM Transmission without FEC. BER is measured to be 8E-7 when the received power is -35 dB m.

44

50 GHZ Grid 80 Channel DWDM Transmission with FEC

9.00E-14 8.00E-14 7.00E-14 6.00E-14 5.00E-14 BER 4.00E-14 3.00E-14 2.00E-14 1.00E-14 -38 -37 -36 -35 -34 0.00E+00 -33 -32 BER (FEC)

Recieved Power (dBm)

Fig 9.6 BER characteristics of 80 Channel 50GHZ spacing DWDM Transmission with FEC Fig 9.6 Shows BER Characteristics of 80 Channel 50 GHZ Spacing DWDM Transmission without FEC. BER is measured to be 4E-14 when the received power is -35 dB m.

25 GHZ Grid 160 Channel DWDM Transmission without FEC

9.00E-08 8.00E-08 7.00E-08 6.00E-08 BER 5.00E-08 4.00E-08 3.00E-08 2.00E-08 1.00E-08 0.00E+00 -40 -30 -20 Recieved Power(dBm) -10 0 BER without FEC

Fig 9.7 BER characteristics of 160 Channel 25GHZ spacing DWDM Transmission without FEC

45 Fig 9.7 Shows BER Characteristics of 160 Channel 25 GHZ Spacing DWDM Transmission without FEC. BER is measured to be 8E-8 when the received power is -35 dB m.

25 GHZ Grid 160 Channel DWDM 9.00E-14 Transmission with FEC

8.00E-14 7.00E-14 6.00E-14 5.00E-14 4.00E-14 3.00E-14 2.00E-14 1.00E-14 0.00E+00 -33 -32

BER (FEC)

-38

-37

-36

-35

-34

Fig 9.8 BER characteristics of 160 Channel 25GHZ spacing DWDM Transmission with FEC Fig 9.8 Shows BER Characteristics of 160 Channel 25 GHZ Spacing DWDM Transmission without FEC. BER is measured to be 1E-14 when the received power is -35 dB m.

46 TABLE 9.1 BER values of Various DWDM Transmission System DWDM System 10 Gb/s Eight Channel 100 GHZ Spacing 40 Channel 50 GHZ Spacing 80 Channel 25 GHZ Spacing 160 Channel BER without FEC 8E-4 8E-5 8E-7 8E-8 BER with FEC 1E-12 1E-13 4E-14 1E-14

Table 9.1 Shows the BER values of Various DWDM Transmission System Without FEC and BER Characteristics of Various DWDM Transmission System With FEC.

47 CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 10.1 CONCLUSION This paper clarified the scalability of 1.25/10-G spectrum sliced DWDM transmission systems through a theoretical analysis; the analysis results were confirmed by transmission experiments. First, the tradeoff between the loss budget and the sliced bandwidth (i.e., the number of channels assuming fixed bandwidth light sources) was elucidated by the theoretical analysis. Next, the expansion of the scalability made possible by using FEC was studied, and it was revealed that four times as many as channels can be accommodated with the use of a familiar FEC code. Finally, two WDM transmission experiments were performed and shown to verify the results of the theoretical analysis.

10.2 FUTURE SCOPE Super FEC Coding can be implemented in high data rate DWDM Systems with more number of channels.

48 REFERENCES

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50 PUBLICATIONS S.Immanuel, Dr.A.Sivanantha Raja, (2012) Increase in Scalability of DWDM Transmission using Forward Error Correction". National Conference on Microwave & Optical Communication, Alagappa Chettiar College of Engineering & Technology, Karaikudi.

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