07 - Chapter 1 Ila

CHAPTER
-I
THE UNTOUCHABLES AND UNTOUCHABILITY I N KERALA
The p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability p r e v a i l e d i n Kerala d u r i n g t h e modern period.

t h e Hindu
A t this time,
c l a s s e s , ' p o p u l a r l y known a s t h e *Savarnast ( t o u c h a b l e s ) o r high c a s t e Hindus and t h e 'Avarnas' c a s t e Hindus. (untouchables) o r - l o w
s o c i e t y i n Kerala had been d i v i d e d i n t o two
These e v i l p r a c t i c e s touched every a s p e c t of
t h e l i f e of t h e Hindus a t t h i s t i m e .
M A I N CAUSES O F T H E PRACTICE O F UNTOUCHAETLITY AND
UNAPDROACHABILITY
The main c a u s e s of t h e p r a c t i c e of Untouchability and Unapproachabllity might have been t h e d i s t o r t i o n of Vedic i d e a s a s t h e f i r s t cause and t h e f o r c i b l e conversion from Hinduism t o o t h e r r e l i g i o n s a s t h e second cause. The
r e l i g i o u s i d e a s and p r i n c i p l e s of u n i t y and oneness enshrined i n t h e Rigveda w e r e ignored a s a r e s u l t of t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f v e d i c ideas. Rigveda about t h e secret of There i s r e f e r e n c e i n t h e ional stab hich can be
a t t a i n e d through t h e u n i t y o f men i n a l l matters a t h e i r

life i n society.
The Rigvedic a d v i c e t o human beings is
t h a t f o r t h e enjoyment of good r e s u l t s of dharma and p r o s p e r i t y i n a uniform n a t u r e ? human u n i t y through organislrrions and s t r e n g t h of mental u n i t y through knowledge
Prepared by BeeHive Digital Concepts Cochin for Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam
are e s s e n t i a l f o r t h a t purpose.
Another Rigvedic
suggestion t o human beings i s t h a t f o r t h e achievement oncept of prosperous f u t u r e , t h a t
i s , t h e paramount aim, t h e u n i t y of Mantra, o r g a n i s a t i o n

and e q u a l i t y of thought a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e purpose. 2 Rigvedic b l e s s i n g t o human beings i s t h a t f o r t h e achievement of e s t a b l i s h i n g mutual f r i e n d s h i p f o r ever, t h e equality i n concept, h e a r t and mental u n i t y a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r t h a t purpose.3 The p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and
u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y and t h e concept of p o l l u t i o n a r e not
i n consonance w i t h t h e gbove mentioned r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d

from t h e !?igveda. The i d e a s i n t h e Rigveda have been
changed from period t o p e r i o d according t o t h e influence of each period.4 The changed v e d i c i d e a s i n each period
helped t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e c a s t e s t r u c t u r e and led t o make r e s t r i c t i o n s i n regard t o casteism. Another important cause of t h e e v i l customs of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability might have been t h e
,/
f o r c i b l e conversion from Hinduism t o o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . The
I. Ripedarn, Vo1.8 Malayalarr Trans.C.F.C Narayanan Nampoothiripad, (vadakkemadam, (3rahmaswom) Trichur-1, September 1986) Mandalam-10, Suktham-191, P.1096, V.Z.
2.
3. i b i d , P.1097-98,
4.
ibid, -
F.1097,
V.3
V.4
Vedabandu, Rigveda Pravesika, (Malayalarr.), (Kerala Sahitya Acaderni, T r i c h u r , (ITational Book S t a l l , Kottayam, 1988). FP. 144-91.
Resolutions passed a t t h e meeting of t h e Vaidikas held a t t h e E s t a t e o f f i c e of zamorin under t h e auspices of zamorin Manavikrama Raja and Malayam C o l l e c t o r R.H.
E l l i s on
20th August 1922 proves t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e occured conversions from Hinduism t o Islam a s a r e s u l t of Mappilla r e b e l l i o n of 19 2 1 .5 Because t h e f o r c i b l e ~ r o m ' t h e s i d e of Mappilas made customary v i o l
n t o t h e Hindus.
-----"
The defaulted persons a r e provided t o g e t a r e c e i p t f o r information of t h e i r p u r i f i c a t i o n through temple worship from t h e owner o r manager of t h e temple: and p r e s e n t it b e f o r e t h e zamorin f o r t h e i s s u e of a c e r t i f i c a t e from h i m by i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r r e - e n t r y i n t o t h e i r own c a s t e by removing p o l l u t i o n through t h e e x p i a t o r y f u n c t i o n s a t ten-ples.
6
we m y conclude here i n t h e l i a h t of t h e above s a i d Resolution t h a t t h e progranune of r e t u r n of t h e converted Hindus t o t h e Hindu f o l d might have been a p r a c t i c e here i n t h e p a s t , t h a t i s f r o m t h e time of f o r c i b l e conversions t o o t h e r r e l i g i o n s onwards. Gradually such conversions might' have been
increased here; and t h e r - . l e r s and people might have been
5. Resolution passed a t t h e meeting of t h e Vaidikas held a t E s t a t e O f f i c e of Zamorin under t h e auspices of Zamorin Manavikrama Raja and Malayam C o l l e c t o r ?.He E l l i s , on 20th August 1922 MS.(Malayalam) 7 v a l l a t h o l Vidya Peedam Library, Sukapuram, ~ d a p a l ) .
6. ibid, P.2.
i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h i s p r a c t i c e of r e t u r n of t h e converted Hindus a t a l a t e r time, because of p o l l u t i o n . The
converted Hindus on t h e o t h e r hand might have been i n d i f f e r e n t towards t h e e x p i r a t o r y procedure a t temples. So t h i s concept of p o l l u t i o n w i t h t h e conjunction of changed vedic i d e a s might have been a cause of r i g i d i t y 'of casteism i n Kerala and t h e e v i l p r a c t i c e s of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability. The Resolution passed i n 1 9 2 2 must
o n l y have been a remnant of t h e p a s t procedure t o r e t u r n t h e converted Hindus. So i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e f o r c i b l e
conversions of t h e p a s t w e r e t h e r o o t cause of t h e e v i l p r a c t i c e s of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability i n Kerala.
I
I
(
"Malabar law was custom modified i n accordance w i t h t h e i r needs by t h e Erahmins. Thus r e g u l a t i o n s r e g a r f i n g u n p e r c e i v a b i l i t y etc.
u n t o u c h a b i l i t y , unapproachability.
Were made by them and s t r i c t l y enforced by t h e s t a t e which t o t e l l y change6 t h e manner of l i f e of m i l l i o n s of low c a s t e
men who formed t h e m a j o r i t y of population of Kerala".
C a s t e i s m was p r m l n e n t i n Hindu Society a t t h e

beginning of the 19th century. l i k e t h e Nambuthiris an& The high caste Kindus
'I.T.K,Ravindraa I n s t i t u t i o n s and Movements in Kerala History (Charithram P u b l i c a t i o n s , Trivandruar, 19%) Ch.11, o ~ . c i t . , p . 4 2 .
privileged s t a t u s i n society,
Even high c a s t e Nairs The
servad the N e m b u t h i r i s as danestlc servants.
untouchable c a s t e s who c o n s t i t u t e d t h e bulk of the population

w e r e i n a very backward c o n d i t i o n and severe r e s t r i c t i o n s
w e r e imposed upon their general freedom of movement.
The Nambuthiri Brehmins were the highest c l a s s i n

Kerala i n the s o c i a l hierarchy.
The second important classes
' ! u
PI
were t h e Kshatriyas.
The Ambala V a s i s and the high class
N a i r s belonged t o t h e t h i r d category.
The f o u r t h category
belonged t o t h e Sudras which included t h e l o w c l a s s N a i r s of

K e r a l e as w e l l a s non-Brahmin
(non-Malayali) castes of
h i g h e r class.
The f i f t h category applied t o the untouchable
castes and s i x t h category applied t o t h e s t i l l lower

unapproachable c a s t e s ,
Frun t o p t o bottun of the s o c i a l
hierarchy, p o l l u t i o n w a s p r a c t i c e d i n Kerala. Each of t h e above s a i d c a t e g o r i e s of Hindus had c a s t e s and sub-castes. Brahmins t h a t i s , the Nambuthiri Brahmins
i n c l u d i n g a l l classes of V e d i c and non-Vedic Brahmins were considered t o belong t o the f i r s t catagory of castes.
\
The
second category was t h e Kshatriyas which included Tampurans, Tamoans,

Vasis.
Samanthans etc.
The t h i r d category w a s t h e Ambala
I n Malabar Sociology, Vaisyas have been conspicuous
by their absence
.'
Adikal, Chakkiyar, Chakkiyar Nambiar,
8. M.Sankara
Menon, Census Reoort of India. Cochin 1901,Vol,XX, pt,~,-(Cochin Govt, Ijress, Ernakulam, Ch,VIII, P.189.
Chengazhi Nanbiar, Kollattu Kurup. M a r a f . N-iyassan, Pisharodi, Poduval, Thiyyattunni. V a r i a r etc, were included i n Anrbala V a s i s . Below them s t o o d t h e high caste N a i r s
i n c l u d i n g many sub-divisions i n which t h e N g h e s t sub-castes were known as Wriyam, i n Malabar and Vellayma i n Cochin. &nong t h m t h e r e were various grades of s o c i a l
s t a t u s and t h e members of t h e h i g h e r sub-castes d i d not f r e e l y mingle with those of t h e lower.

The Brahmins were
deemed t o be p o l l u t e d by the touch of t h e N e i r s . them w a s the s t a t u s of l o w c a s t e Sudras.
Below
"There are f o u r
inter-mediate castes between Nayars and t h e p o l l u t i n g C a s t e s t h a t may be c a l l e d low class Sudras f o r want of a
better generic nameY
.'
Veluthedans, Velakka Thalavans,
Chaliyans and Ezhuthachans etc, were included i n t h i s category.

Nairs and t h e castes above t h e N a i r s were
The non-Malayali
p o l l u t a d by t h e touch of t h e s e people.
Brahmins and sane non-Malayali castes had t h e same s t a t u s
as t h o s e of the l o w c l a s s Sudras.
The c a s t e s below t h e l o w
caste N e i r s w e r e t h e popularly known untouchable and
unapproachable castes.
9 . C.Achutha Menon, Cochin S t a t e Mannual, (Gochin Govt. Prea8, Ernakulam. 1911) Ch.111, Cb.cit.,
P.202.
The castes below the low c a s t e N a i r s were generally having socia with their
ith varying degrees i n accordance
T h .
K-alans
within t h e
,I
I
s o c i a l distance of 24 Malabar f e e t polluted c a s t e s above'
--
them.
The Ezhavans and Panans had t o keep 32 f e e t away'

The fishermen canmunity a s such
from t h e higher castes.
a s Mukkuvan. Valan. Arayan e t c , had t o keep a d i s t a n c e of

36 f e e t fran the c a s t e s above them.
The Kanakkans and
Kootans had t o keep a distance of 48 f e e t from t h e higher castes.

The higher csstes would be polluted by t h e
approach of Cherumans o r Eulayann w i t h i n a distance of

64 Malabar feet.
The Parayans and Vettuvans had t o keep
and Ulladans had t o keep 74 f e--. a distance r u n t h e h i s h e r - t _. castes.
/ , -
t d i s t m c e from the higher c a s t e s .
The Nayadies
The c a s t e s t a t u s s t i p u l a t e d t h a t a member who
acquired pollution by t w c h o r approach o r i n any o t h e r manner but had not performed any p u r i f i c a t o r y ceremony would be severaly d e a l t w i t h . the nature of punishment dependins on t h e degree of p o l l u t i o n acquired. The
10. There i s reference i n the following source about the s o c i a l d i s t a n c e d each c l a s s e s of peopleCensus Report of Cochin, 1901. Vol.XX, P t . 1 , Ch.VIII, P . 1 8 2 .
p o l l u t i o n v a r i e s i n connection w i t h i n t e r 4 n i n g . i n t e r - m a r r i a g e and p o l l u t i o n by touch o r approach. l1 I n connection with inter-dining, t h e h i g h e r caste members if
p a r t a k i n g of t h e meals ~ r e p a r n dby one of a lower caste was a caste offence. For example. no m e m b e r of any h l g h e r
11. C.Achutha Menon. Census of I n d i a , Cochin, 19111 Vol.XVI11 Pt.1. (Cochin Govt. Press. Emakulan.
1912 Ch.XI,
We
P . 6 8 .
Par-92.
et a cleer p i c t u r e of the above said restricted =as% r u l e s frcm t h i s Report that, "The meals prepared by persons belonging t o h i g h e r c a s t e s can be p a r t a k e n of by t h o a e belonging t o t h e lower ones, b u t the converse.'is s t r i c t l y p r o h i b i t e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n the caee of females. A high class Nambudiri male may e a t t h e food cooked by low c l a s s Nembudiries, and even by Tinnnulpads, ht their females cannot* S i m i l a r l y Nayar males c a n p a r t a k e of t h e meals prcpared by any Nayar w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n of subcaste; b u t a female belonging t o a lower. A l l Nayar females can eat t o g e t h e r i n ehe same room. b u t t h o s e of h i g h e r sub-castes may n o t s i t i n t h e same row for t h e purpose w i t h t h o s e of a lower one. S i m i l a r r u l e s are observed a l s o a o n g the lower castes. I n t a r - m a r r i a g e a l s o is g e n e r s l l y governed by the same r u l e s a s t h o s e of Inter-dining. A Nambudiri female c a n of c o u r s e be married only i n h e r own c l a s s . b u t a N m b u d i r i male can form Sambandham union i n any caste below h i s . b u t n o t below t h a t of Hayara. As a rule Nayar belonging to the Nayar and i n - m e d i a t e c a s t e s may marry only where t h e y e a t , t h a t is. w i t h e q u a l s and s u p e r i o r s . b u t these r u l e s are n o t s o s t r i c t l y observed i n these days as formerly, e s p e c i a l l y bg the Nayars. P o l l u t i o n i s another e l e m e n t f o r c a s t e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , and there a r e some f e a t u r e s of it which are p e c u l i a r t o this p a r t of India. A Naabudiri is p o l l u t e d by the touch of any one below h i m i n the Social Scale, while Kammalans and the c a s t e s below them p o l l u t e h i m , i f t h e y approach w i t h i n a p r e s c r i b e d r a d i u s . Similarly, the members of any o t h e r castes a n p o l l u t e d by the touch or approach. a e t h e case may be, of the castes b l o w them."
c a s t e e a t s w i t h t h e Ezhavans o r Tiyyans o r chogmars. higher male members were prevented from having sexual
The
connection with lower c a s t e females below t h e rank cf Nairs and male m e m b e r s of a l l castes w e r e prevented fran having sexual r e l a t i o n s with females of higher castes.
The
non-performance of funeral rites and non-observance of ceremonial pollutions such as death, b i r t h and pollution i n connection with women e t c , were sane and r e s t r i c t i o n s .
Of
the offences t o caste rules
Similar offences, i f canmitted between
members of sub-castes, were t r e a t e d as m i n o r oms.

The e a t i n g of flesh, f i s h and t h e use of intoxicating
drinks were prohibited t o B r a h m i n s , Kshatriyas and Ambala Vasis.

E u t t h e Nayars and c a s t e s below them were prohibited
f r a n t h e use of beef only from t h e i r food.
The accounts
of 1901 Madras Census Report show t h a t there were twenty two c a s t e s i n Halabar which p o l l u t e e v e n without touching but do not e a t beef. l2 It i s noticeable t h a t i n f e a s t s and on ceremonial occasions, some r e s t r i c t e d formalities had t o beobserved i n the a l l o c a t i o n of s e a t s i n the dining h a l l according t o s o c i a l status.
This customary s t a t u s
i n Ksrala bound up i n a l l dealings between each c a s t e
12. W.Francis, Census R e ~ o r t of India Madras, 19018 Vol.XV, P t . 1 , (G4vt. P r e s s , Madras, 1902) Ch.VIII. PP 138-9.
with o t h e r castes. among Brahmins.
Widow remarriage w a s not allowed
I n f a n t marriage was a camon r u l e among
t h e Malayalis and g i r l s were enforced t o marry before puberty i n t h e Malaya11 c a s t e syetem.

At
t h i s t i m e t h e Hindus observed varying degrees of
d i s t a n c e s i n p o l l u t i o n . l3 These varying degrees of d i s t a n c e s i n p o l l u t i o n according t o caste s t a t u s were a p p l i c a b l e t o

t h e whole of Kerala. l4
Every man considered himself
p o l l u t e d by t h e touch o r approach of one of a c a s t e below him.

"A Nambudiri i s p o l l u t e d by t h e touch of any one
below hlm. i n the S o c i a l Scale, while Kammalans and the
1 4 . Pharoah 61 Co., G a z a t t e e r of Southern India, Athaenem P r e s s , Madras, 1855) P.518. I t i s s a i d i n t h i s G a z e t t e e r t h a t t h e Thiyyas of
Malabar w e r e not allowed t o approach within s i x t e e n f e e t of Superior Hindus: b u t i n t h e north of Malabar they may approach w i t h i n f i v e f e e t , and g e n e r a l l y a c t u a l c o n t a c t only i s considered t h e r e t o cause p o l l u t i o n . L.K. Anantha Krishna I y e r , The Cochin Tribes and C a s t e s Vol.1, (Cochin Government Press, Ernakulam, 1909., F i r s t Edition, Cowo Publications, New D e l h i 1981) Ch.XVI, p.311 The a u t h o r rejects t h i s above s a i d d i s t z n c e by saying t h c t "So f a r as my information goes, t h i s does not appear t o be c o r r e c t . They (Thiyyas of North Malabar) cannot approach Brahman houses o r temples, nor can they pass through Brahman Villages i n Palghat. N o member of any higher c a s t e s e a t s with them'.
c a s t e s below them p o l l u t e him i f they approach within a prescribed radius.

The Namtuthiri was considered himself
16
p o l l u t e d even by t h e approach of a N a i r within s i x f e e t . Similarly, t h e m e m b e r s of any o t h e r c a s t e s were p o l l u t e d

by t h e touch o r approach of the c a s t e s below them. The
members of a l l castes must s t r i c t l y obey t h e d i s t a n c e
pollution.
N o such d i s t a n c e of p o l l u t i o n was associated
with t h e C h r i s t i a n s and Muslims whose touch was considered a s polluting. Such type of p o l l u t i o n acquired by t h e
It
Hindus varied on t h e grounds of t h e i r s o c i a l s t a t u s .
was decided by t h e Vaidikas t h a t t h e suggested expiatory provisions t o t h e d e f a u l t s of Hindus i n regard t o t h e Mappila r e b e l l i o n of 1 9 2 1 a t t h e i r meeting is enough t o 17 a l l Hindus except Brahmins. For example, i f Brahmins acquired it by touch o r by inter-dining o r i n t e r - m a r r i a g e with them. they were ex-caamunicated f r a n t h e caste. Similar was t h e c a s e of a l l o t h e r Hindu castes. because of t h e Orthodox c h a r a c t e r of t h e society. The Mappila
rebedlion of 1921 a l s o r e s u l t e d i n various degrees of p o l l u t i o n t o some of the Hindus of B r i t i s h Malabar. The
15. C. Achutha Menon, The Cochin State Manual, o ~ . c i t . , Ch.111, . . P . 1 9 5 .
16. K . V . Krishna Ayyar, A s h o r t History of Kerals. Pub.by S . V . P a l (Pai & C o . , E r n a k u l a 1966)

CheXVI.
.m-
P.128.
c o n t a c t s by touch l i k e Co-living and e a t i n g of the food prepared by the Mappilas i n t e r - d i n i n g and s o on, w i t h the Hindus d u r i n g the c o u r s e of r e b e l l i o n r e s u l t e d i n s e v e r a l
types of p o l l u t i o n t o the Hindus i n regard to the period
of r e b e l l i o n . l8
Thus i n t e r - m a r r i e g e , i n t e r d n i n g and
p o l l u t i o n by touch or approach were the tests by which c a s t e - s t a t u s o r s o c i a l s t e t u s was determined i n Kerala. P u r i f i c a t i o a trczm p0Uutrioa There were v a r i o u s kinds of p u r i f i c a t i o n wbfch e x i s t e d i n Kerala i n regard t o p o l l u t i o n by touch o r apprcach. i d e a of p u r i t y or c l e a n l i n e s s was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p o l l u t i o n by touch or approach. The Nambuthiri BrahmThe
and Kshatriyas were p o l l u t e d by t h e touch of h i g h c a s t e

N a i r s i n such a way t h a t the l o w c a s t e N a i r s who p o l l u t e d
t h e high c a s t e Piairs by touch.
The Kammalans p o l l u t e d the

"The approach
\ .
'
N a i r s by appmaching w i t h i n twelve f e e t . l9
o f a Nayadi w i t h i n a d i s t a n c e of three hundred feet i s said
--
t o c o n t m i n e t e a Brahman, who h a s t o bathe and p u t on a new s a c r e d thread, t o c l e a n himself of pollution... touches a Brahman, t h e l a t t e r should bathe.
I f a Nayar
I f a thandan,
J Tiyan. Carpenter, blacksmith, gold s m i t h , cheruman, Paraiyan,
19. V. Nagam Aiya, The Travancore S t n t e Manual, V01.11 (Travanc~re Government Press. Trivandrum,1906)~h.~,~.390.
o r Nayadi approaches a Brahman o r Nayar w i t h i n t h e

p r o h i b i t e d &stance,
they have t o b a t h e t o c l e a n s e themselves
f r u u t h e p o l l u t i o n . *20 A plunge b a t h e i n t h e tank o r stream
w a s t h e method of washing o f f p o l l u t i o n of a l l kinds.
But
t h e p o l l u t i o n by touch o r approach c a n be removed o n l y with some p u r i f i c a t o r y ceremonies a l s o b e s i d e s bathe i n water. For example, i f a Nayadi who p o l l u t e s a B r a h m i n by approaching him w i t h i n a d i s t a n c e of f o u r f e e t ( i n s p i t e of t h e 74 f e e t approach d i s t a n c e between t h e Nayadi and Brahmin), t h e Brahmin has t o bathe, renew h i s sacred t h r e a d and d r i n k Panchagavyam. Such k i n d of p u r i f i c a t o r y bathe and o t h e r
p u r i f i c a t o r y ceremonies had been observed i n Kerala during t h i s time.

The lower castes a l s o observed p o l l u t i o n a r y
p u r i f i c e t i o n s , j u s t as i n the c a s e of h i g h e r castes.
Mr.K.V.
Krishna Ayyar s a y s t h s t 'A Pulayan almost a t t h e
o t h e r end o f t h e s o c i a l s c a l e , would b o t l ~ ef i v e t i m e s i f touched by a Parayan. and seven times if a p ~ r o a c h e dw i t h i n t h e p r o h i b i t e d d i s t c n c e by an U l l a t a n , and symbolically empty himself of h i s p o l l u t e d blood by p r i c k i n g h i s f i n g e r
2 0 . S . Appadorai I y e r , Madras Government Museum B u l l e t t i n , Vol.11, N o . 1 ; Anthropology. N a adies of Malabar (Government P r e s s , Madras, 1901 o ~ . c i t . , P.71.
21. Panchaqawam i s a m i x t u r e o f t h e f i v e g i f t s of t h e c o w milk, c u d s , b u t t e r , u r i n e and dung.
w i t h a t h o r n and s h e d d i n g a few d r o p s b e f o r e h i s l a s t 22 bathe:' I n t h e same way, i f B V e t t u v a n who was p o l l u t e d by a Nayadi o r a n U l l a t a n , s h o u l d have been t a k e n
p u r i f i c a t o r y b a t h e s w i t h f a s t f o r s e v e n days: s u b s i s t i n g on water a n d t o d d y f o r t h e r e m o v a l o f p o l l u t i o n . 23 Thus'
t h e l o w e r c a s t e s as w e l l a s t h e h i g h e r c a s t e s observed p u r i f i c a t o r y ceremonies f o r removing p o l l u t i o n . The p o l l u t i o n a c q u i r e d by t h e Hindus by t h e touch o f o t h e r r e l i g i o n i s t s l i k e C h r i s t i e n s and Muslims c o u l d b e removed t h r o u g h t h e p u r i f i c a t o r y p r o v i s i o n s o r d e r e d by t h e
rulers.
F o r example, d u r i n g t h e t i m e of Mappila R e b e l l i o n i n
1921, t h e p u r i f i c a t i o n from t h e p o l l u t i o n a c q u i r e d by t h e Hindus ( e x c l u d i n g Brahmins) who had d o n e any work a t t h e t i m e i n c o n t r a v e n t i o n of Hindu r e l i g i o u s P r a c t i c e s c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d
by d o i n g e x p i a t i o n a s t w e n t y one d a y s twelve thousand or
/3
V a s h i v a d u s ( o f f e r i n g s ) and s h o u l d b e o f ' e r e d
Namajapams ( t o u t t e r name of t h e d e i t y such a s ' S i v a ' 'Narayana ' )

*
t o t h e i r n e a r e s t temple a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
0
temple customs a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e i r c a s t e s .
Each t y p e of s u c h
p o l l u t i o n had e a c h t y p e o f p r o p e r p u r i f i c a t i o n s l i k e t h e above s a i d , f o r t h e removal o f p o l l u t i o n and a g a i n t o become
22. K.V.Krishna liyyar, A s h o r t H i s t o r y of K e r a l a , o p . c i t , , Ch.VI, ~ p . 1 2 8 9.
Sankara Menon, Census R e p o r t o f Cochin, 1931, P t . 1 ( C o c h i n Government P r e s s , Ernakulam, 1933) App.11, P.290, par.4. 24. R e s o l u t i o n p a s s e d a t t h e m e e t i ~ g o f the-... PP. 1-2.
Vol.XX1,
23. T . K .
Hindus. 25
An i n t e r e s t i n g type of p u r i f i c a t i o n had e x i s t e d 'In the Sudras and
i n t h e Cochin s t a t e i n regard t o such p o l l u t i o n s .

case of caste o f f e n c e s m e r i t i n g ex-communication,
p e r s o n s i n f e r i o r t o them i n c a o t e c o u l d be saved f r o m t h a t p e n a l t y bg the Raja of Cochin by p r e s e n t i n g t o them w i t h h i s own hands a Kindi o r v e s s e l of w a t e r t o drink. m26 Few
of t h e converted low c a s t e peoples such as Pula)-ans, F i s h e m e n etc; had taken this o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e t u r n again t o Hinduism fran the converted r e l i g i o n . They had t o take
w a t e r from any member of t h e Cochin r o y a l f m i l y f o r t h e removal of t h i s p o l l u t i o n acquired by being converts, Enforcement of C a s t e Rules The C a s t e System of Kerala was t h e most r i g i d cunpared t o o t h e r parts of India.
The c a s t e r u l e s and ordinances
were d r a s t i c and t h e i r observances w e r e r i g o r o u s l y enforced.

Even v i o l a t i o n of i t s u n i n p o r t n n t rules had merited p e n a l t y o f ' v a r i o u s kinds and imposition of v a r i o u s degrees of purifications. V i o l a t i o n of i t s more important rules had
m e r i t e d complete ex-communication from t h e c a s t e and s o c i e t y .

25. =-The
Vaidikas decided i n t h i s meeting t h a t t h e r e a d i n g of Vedas by t h e Sudras,the wearing of ear r i n g s by the Hindu females l i k e Mappila women, draped d r e s s e s by t h e Hindu females etc. through t h e pznacez- -: of Mappilas; and suggested e x p i a t i o n t o t h e s e d e f a u l t s a s three days Panchaaawm Seva and should be o f f e r e d n o t less t h a n three thousand Namai aDams.
26. Census R e ~ o r t o f Cochin, 1911* Vol.XVII1, o ~ . c i t . , Ch.XI, P . 7 0 , Par.95.
Pt.1,
K e r a l a had s t r i c t l y observed atmospheric p o l l u t i o n with t o u c h p o l l u t i o n , b u t other p a r t 6 of I n d i a observed only touch p o l l u t i o n . "The t i n y p l a n t of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y grew
i n t o t h e mighty and many-branched tree of unapproachability 27 i n i t s p r i e s t - r i d d e n and f e r t i l e s o i l . Caste rules and r e s t r i c t i o n s were s t r i c t l y enforced i n Kerala through t h e agency of c a a t e a s s o c i a t i o n s popularly known as enangu and t a r a g s s o c i a t i o n s z a n d through t h e v a i d i k a n s and t h e r u l e r of t h e s t a t e . "The duty o f t h e
s o v e r i g n w a s t o p r o t e c t t h e Dheala ( g e n e r a l l a w of this c o u n t q ) and uphold t h e Marvadp o r Acharam o f each caste and l o c a l i t y . 2e by t h e enanqu and (customary r u l e s )
These r u l e s were enforced
a s s o c i a t i o n s i n t h e case of minor
o f f e n c e s and by t h e v a i d i k a n s and t h e ruler of t h e s t a t e i n t h e c a s e of more s e r i o u s ones. 29

I t was on t h e occasion of
. K . Sankara Menon, Census Rewrt of I n d i a , Cochin, 27. T 1 9 3 l , o ~ . c i t . V o l . x x I , pt.1 ch.XII, p.251, par.11.
28. K.V. Krishna A w a r . The Zamorins of C n l i c u t f n m the
was the a s s o c i a t i o n of a number of families onging t o t h e same sub-caste i n a v i l l a g e and was the a s s o c i a t i o n of t h e l e a d i n g men of v a r i o u s castes i n a v i l l a g e .
a death o r marriage o r o t h e r occurances i n a family, the family mmbers of enansu system, who made the necessary arrangements f o r t h e occasion. 30 on such occasions, the
e l d e r s of the families used t o s e t t l e a l l a o c i a l disputes and dispose of minor c a s t e offences.

The type of
punishments were suspension from t h e enanqu a s s o c i a t i o n and imposed f i n e s o r o t h e r s m a l l e r punishments. The f i n e s
t h u s r e a l i s e d were paid i n t o t h e funds of t h e v i l l a g e

temple.
Although t h i s system d i d not exist and t h i s
a s s o c i a t i o n f a i l e d t o t a k e action, m e m b e r s of o t h e r c a s t e s and sub-castes came t o take actions. The
tars
a s s o c i a t i o n punished f o r t h e breach of caste r u l e s by suspending fzun t h e p r i v i l e g e s of t h e v i l l a g e comunity such as the s e r v i c e s of the v i l l a g e barber, washeman, c h i t i k a n o r p u r i f i e r &om p o l l u t i o n etc. h e more
OT
important cases w e r e reported t o t h e Vaidikans
a s o r t of head among p r i e s t s , o r H i s Highness, t h e Raja, according t o t h e seriousness of t h e offence, and a c t i o n
30. The d e t a i l s about the functions of enanau and & a a s s o c i a t i o n s taken from: P.Govinda Menon, Census R e ~ o r t of Cochin, 1921, V~.XIX,
(Cochin Government Press, Ernakulua, 1922) Ch.XI, P.69, Par.94.

P t . 1 ,
was taken according t o t h e i r o r d e r s . 31
Complete ax-
communication could n o t be passed without t h e s a n c t i o n o f t h e mler.

It i s
clear from t h e foregoing e x p l a n a t i o n
t h a t i n the casteism, t h e p r e c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapprc)achability i n Kerala was t h e imposed c u r s e upon the p e o p l e a s a n a t i o n a l product of t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e and t h e s t r i c t enforcement of c a s t e r u l e s . BRIEF DESCRIPRION ABOUT THE UNTOUCHABLE AND USAPPROACHABLE CASTES I N KERALA
A
From t o p t o bottom o f t h e s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y w a s p r a c t i c e d i n Kerala. These c a s t e s b e a r i n g d i f f e r e n t names, pulayan etc.) ( f o r example, chiruman,
b u t p e r f o m i n g t h e same f u n c t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t
p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y , should be t r e a t e d as belonging t o t h e
same c a s t e o r not.
According t o t h e customs of t h e Orthodox
Hindu S o c i e t y i n Kerala, a l a r g e number of castes belonged t o t h e impure c a t e g o r y of p o p u l a t i o n i n regard t o t h e i r s o c i o , economic and r e l i g i o u s s t a t u s . The measurement s c a l e of The most important
i m p u r i t y v a r i e d from caste t o c a s t e .
31. The p o l l u t i o n acquired by t h e Hindus e x c e p t Brahmins d u r i n g t h e t i m e of Mappila r e b e l l i o n of Malabar i n 1 9 2 1 i s an example of more s e r i o u s o f f e n c e s t o caste r u l e s . T h i s c a s e had been seen by the Zamorin o f C a l i c u t and Malayam C o l l e c t o r as one of n s e r i o u s case. So a committee of Vaidikas h e l d a t t h e E s t a t e o f f i c e of Zamorin and Malayam C o l l e c t o r R.H. E l l i s on 20th August 1922 and passed a r e s o l u t i o n w i t h some p r o v i s i o n s i n regard t o remove such p o l l u t i o n .
impure s e c t i o n s among them were t h e low c l a s s Hindus, a b o r i g i n a l t r i b e s and lower c u s t e i m m i g r a n t s from o t h e r p a r t s of India. sub-castes. o f Hindu s o c i e t y Unapproachable class woo a s e c t i o ~ i n r e g a r d t o t h e p o l l u t i o n i n K e r a l a compared t o o t h e r p a r t s of Inc?ia. I n o t h e r p a r t s of I n d i a , " T h e i r ( P o l l u t i n g Each o f t h e s e c l a s s e s had c a s t e s and
c a s t s ) e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is t h a t , according t o t h e t e n e t s of o r t h o d o x Hinduism, Hindu system, 'untouchable', t h e y are, though w i t h i n t h e
- that
i s t o say, t h a t f o r a l l
o t h e r Hindus t h e y c a u s e p o l l u t i o n by touch a n d d e f i l e f o o d 32 o r water. But i n X e r a l a , t t r e h i g h c a s t e Hindus had been 2 o l l u t e d even t h e a?>roach of p o l l u t i n q c a s t e s w i t h i n a prescribed distance. Caste S t a t u s w a s important i n t h e F o r example, t h e d i s t a n c e of
c a s e d approach t o a person.
ap?roach was h i g h s r when a - . p r o a c h i n g t h e h i g h e z c a s t e s l i k e Erahmins a n d X s h a t r i y a s a n d it was lower when approaching t h e Nairs.

It i s c l e a r from t h e a b w e f a c t t h a t t h e
2:;proachable d i s t a n c e t o h i g h e r c a s t e s was v a r y i n s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c a s t e s t a t u s of h i g h e r c a s t e s . thing that the among unap?roacbbkcastes them within the just Panikkar
It is
an interesting
a l s o o b s e r v e d mutual of p o l l u t i n g the case of
polluLkion classes hiaher of
fold
Hindu
Society,
as
in
castes.
So K. M.
observes
32.
PT. I The C o n d i t i o n of t h e problem,

Report of t h e Indian S t a t u t o ~ Commission , Vol. I, (Gov?rnment of I n d i a , C e n t r a l p u b l i c a t i o n Branch, C a l c u t t a , 1930) op. c i t , Ch.4 p.37.
that ''Untouchable Society was in fact an imitation of Hindu life, in all its weakn~sses,often enforcing amon themselves social distinctions as rigid as among caste Hindus, and consequently as broken up and divided as the other. "3 3 The low class Hindus can be divided into four sections in regard to the length of unapproachability. The first section can be called as higher unapproachable castes and the second section as lower unapproachable castes, the third section as the Forest and Hill tribes and the fourth section as non-indegenous castes. The
higher unapproachable castes can be again divided into three groups, in regard to the distance of their unapproachability. Hibher Una~roachab3e Caster The castes belonging to the first group of higher unapproachable section polluted the higher castes by approach within twenty four feet. In the distance of
pollution, the artisan class, collectively known as the Karmnalans belonged to the first group of polluting castes. Marassari or Carpenter, Kallassari or Mason,
33. K . M . Panikkar, Hindu Society at Cross Roads, . S . Jaya Singh, (Asia publishing Published by P House, Bombay, First Ed.1955, Reprint:1967) 0 p . c i t . . P . 5 4 .
Musari 07brazier, Kollan or blacksmith, Tattan or gold smith were included among the artisan community. Tolkollan or leather worker also included in the c o m n i t y . o f Kamalans. The second group of higher unapproachable section ~elans,~' included the castes like the Ezhavas, Panans, -Mannans and Vilkurups. These castes had to keep a
.,
~
7%
'
distance of thirty two feet away _ from .._. the hi,gber,ms. > , .. The Ezhavas were known in different names at various parts of the country. "To the South this class is known
as Shannars: to the north as Teeans, Denominations carrying with them but slight shades of disinction, and all may be considered as applicable to the same race". 34 Palm cultivation and toddy drawing were their
heriditary occupations but they were also engaged in agriculture. The Panans were engaged in sorcery as In the case of profession, the Panans
well as medicine. w e r e " . . .
the musicians of the inferior order, but to this
profession they add that of players, pretend to a knowledge of medicine and the occult sciences-the two latter accomplishments are here generally united
-a
doctor being necessarily a nusician, and about equally
s k i l f u l i n b o t h c h a r a c t e r s n . 35
L.K,
~ n e n t h aKrishna 1 y e r
states t h a t some of t h e Pananm were engaged i n magical

rites of a r e p u l s i v e c h a r a c t e r , i n order to become
p o s s e s s o r of a powerful "medicinen, t h e p o s s e s s i o n of which was believed t o have t h e power of o b t a i n i n g anythlnq he wished,36 The Vilkurupa were engaged i n making Vilkurups w e r e s o c a l l e d
umbrellas, bows and arrows.
because t h e i r t h e i r occupation i n former t i m e s was t o t r a i n low caste youngmen t o a t h e l e t i c f e a t s and arms, and t o make bows and arrows. 37 among t h e Vilkurups. There were no s u b c a s t e Velans and -Manna8 were -the washenmn 'I -....-._ _of t h e p o l l u t i n g castes, T h e y had t o s t a n d a t a d i s t a n c e / - . . . . ... . The s e r v i c e s of ,) of t h i r t y two feet__ f r o .m . t h. e . . .Brahmins. --
_
~
mannans ___-,--and Vela,ns arenxrsgu.tre.d by caste women -. . - _ _ ___ for

"
'
)ZC____
& , .
~-
-~
p u r i f i c a t i o n -a f t e r d e l i v e r y and monthly period.

,
The
,
Velans a l s o a c t e d as phvaicians-.0 6 - ~ ~ k wclasses. ec - .~ .,. ~.~. ". ., ... .-~.-~. .
L/<
------
The fishermen c o m n i t y an2 some o t h e r c a s t e s

below t h e rank of t h i r t y t w o f e e t d i s t a n c e were p o l l u t i n g
unapproachable c a s t e s .
They h3d t o keep a d i s t a n c e of t h i r t y W k u v a n , Valan, They were
s i x f e e t away from t h e h i g h e r c a s t e s .
Arayan etc. belonged t o t h e fishermen community.

35. ibid, cp.cit..
37. C.Achutha
p . 1 5 6 . 3 6 . The cochia Tribes and Castes,Vol.I.
Ch.X.
annual,
P.174
Menon. The Cochin Ch,III, P . 204.
State
engaged i n works r e l a t i n g t o f i s h i n g and sea.
The
39 P u l l m a n casts w a s g e n e r a l l y held t o be i n f e r i o r t o Tiyyans.

They were t h e s i n g e r s b e f o r e th. S e r p e n t K ~ v M . ~ O They s i n g
a t t h e S e r p e n t Kavus a p e c u l i a r song, accompanied by t h e

t o g of an i n s t r u m e n t called Pulluva Kudam ( a k i n 5 of p o t ) . They were also tmployed i n medicine and t h e i r females
were mid wives of t h e low c a s t e s .

L
. A _ , . , . , . . . ,
The Kaniyans belonged

,
t o t h i s group of t h i r t y s i x f e a t d i s t a n c e c a s t e s - 'I
... . .
c h i e f occupation of t h e Kaniyan6 w a s t o cast horoscopes and t o choose t h e p r o p i t i o u s t i m e f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n of marriages and o t h e r ceremonies. Logan saps, " H i s @aniyan94
The
3G
work i n s h o r t mixes him up w i t h t h e g r a v e s t a s with t h e most t r i v i a l of t h e domestic e v e n t s of t h e people, and h i s i n f l u e n c e and p o s i t i o n are correspondingly g r e a t . "42
39. H,A.Stuart, Census Report of Madras. Government Press, Madras, 18-72.
1891, Vol.XII1
40. S e r p e n t Kavue w e r e t h e worshipping p l a c e s of s e r p e n t s . They were g e n e r a l l y known i n Kerala a s S i The p u l l w a n s had t o eep a Serpent Kavus f o r s i n g i n g songs. 41. L.K. Anantha Krishna Xyer. The Cochin T r i b e s and castes, Vol.1, Ch.XI, p.228. The a\lthor s a y s t h a t t h e Kaniyans had t o keep t h i r t y s i x f e e t from a Brahmin and twenty f o u r f e e t from h N a i r , but on a u r r i a g e o c c a s i o n s a - ? a i r g i v e s a B i f t (dakshina) o f f o u r annas and betel l e a v e s t o t h e a s t r o l o g e r s t a n d i n g c l o s e b e s i d e him and y e t t h e r e was no p o l l u t i o n . 42. William Logan, UALABAR, Vol-I (Government of IWBtas, 1887r R m r i n t , Charfthram ~ u b l i c a t i o n s . Trivandrur~.
LOWS
Wlapprochable:
Castes
The above mentioned t h r e e groups of c a s t e s were t h e highestunapproachable c a s t e s i n Kerala and b e l w them stands t h e p o s i t i o n of lowest unapproachable castes. There were four groups among t h e lowestunapp,pmachable. castes. The f i r s t group of t h e lowest p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s was t h e Kanakkans and Kootans. They had t o keep a distance The
of f o u r t y e i g h t f e e t away from the higher c a s t e s .
Kanakkans were good boat-men a s well as a g r i c u l t u r a l labourers. The Kootans were a g r i c u l t u r a l labourers.
The second group of t h e lowest p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s was included t h e rmlayans. The Pulayans o r Cherumans
,&{
-*-
had t o keep a d i s t a n c e of s i x t y four f e e t away from t h e higher c a s t e s . They were engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r a l labour.
The Malavedans of Travancore were not a h i l l t r i b e a s t h e i r name implies. They were employed by 'Sudra8
farmers t o guard t h e crops from t h e ravages of wild beasts. 43 The Malankuravans were engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r a l
labour found mostly i n some t a l u k s of Travancore areas, with two sections-one l i v i n g i n t h e jungles and the o t h e r
i n t h e plains.
The Malankuravans were obliged t o stand
43. Edgar Thurston, Madras Government ~ I u s ~ w , B u l l e t i n , Vo1.III. No.1, ~nthropology. Notes on some of t h e people of Malabar, ' ~ a l a v e d a n s of ~ravancore'; Pdscel lanea with six p l a t e s , '(~overnmentP r e s s Madras, 1900) P. 06.
a t a d i s t a n c e of f o u ~ t y paces according t o some c a s t e s , and according t o others, s i x t y f o u r paces from t h e hiqh 44 c a s t e Hindus. The Parayans and Vettuvans were included i n t h e t h i r d group of lowest unapproachable castes.
~~
.. . . .
They were
unapproachable t o the higher c a s t e s within a prescribed
(,: radius
of seventy -- r o f e e t .
The Parayans were engaged The Parayans. t h e lowest
i n a g r i c ~ i l t u r a lf i e l d labour.
c l a s s among t h e lower c l a s s Hindus were p a r t i c u l a r l y regard a s one of the worst powers of witchcraft. 45 Wttuvans were hunters by occupation: The
a l s o engaged i n
a g r i c u l t u r a l labour and c o l l e c t i o n of f o r e s t productions. The Nayadies and Ulladans were included i n t h e fourth group of lowest unapproachable c a s t e s .
__C_--
They had
t o keep a d i s t a n c e of seventy f o u r f e e t away from the superior castes. manual labour. 47 The Nayadies a s a c l a s s were averse t o Begging, watching crops i n t h e p l a i n s ,
7;'
and c o l l e c t i n g f o r e s t produce were t h e i r chief
44.
L.A.Krishna Iyer, The Travancore Tribes and Castes, Vol. I, (Government Press, Trivandrum, mTTTp.95. Pharoad & Co., P.524. Gazetteer of Southern India,
45. 47.
L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Tribes and . 5 4 . Castes of Cochin, Vol.1, Ch.111, P
c c c u p a t i c r , ~4 .e
The Ulladans were c h i e f l y engaged i n
a g r i c u l t u r a l l a h u r , f e l l i n g t r e e s and i n scopping out logs f o r boats.
The approach of f o r e s t t r i b e s and h i l l t r i b e s a l s o causes p o l l u t i o n t o c a s t e Hindus. They were influenced
by a l l t h e prejudices of c a s t e , and were divided i n t o

,
several d i s t i n c t t r i b e s w i t h l i t t l e i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h each other but t h e i r c h a r a c t e r was s i m i l a r which p a r t a k e s of t h e rude wildness of t h e i r h i l l s , but it was i n no instance ferocious. 49 The r u l e r t r e a t e d t h e f o r e s t and h i l l t r i b e s
w i t h g r e a t a f f e c t i o n . eventhough t h e jungle and h i l l t r i b e s
cause p o l l u t i o n t o t h e higher castes.
Their approach
48. c.Achutha Menon, Census Report of cochin, 1891, Pt.1. Ch.XI.P.114. Dar.274There is a reference i n this r e p o r t abou't t h e Nayadies t h a t "They a r e a lazy people a n d a z e t h e most i r r e s p e r e s s i b l e of beggars. They s u r p r i s e t h e t r a v e l l e r by t h e i r clamorous howl f o r c h a r i t y and follow h i m f o r miles together till they g e t something. On t h e r e c e i p t of some small present, they express t h e i r g r a t i t u d e by discharaing a v o l l e y of B i l l i n g s gate". 49. Ward and Conner, Geographical and s t a t i s t i c a l Memoir Vol.1, P.157 50. L.K.Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes and P.21, Castes, Vol.1, I H e savs i n t h e c a s e of Kadars. of Cochin. t h a t wheneter H i s Highness t h e ~ a j a tours i n the forests they follow h i m c a r r y him from p l a c e t o p l a c e i n ManjalS o r Palanquins, carry Samans and i n f a c t do everythinq f o r him. H i s Highness i n r e t u r n was much attached t o them, feeds them, gives them c l o t h e s , ornaments, combs and looking glasses.
...,
within twenty four f e e t causes pollution t o c a s t e Hindus,
51
There were a large umber Of Poteat and H i l l t t i b e s i n Kerala.
Some of them were t h e Irulas. Kadars Malayans,

The I r u l a s
Mala Pantaram, Walapulayans, Malayarayans etc,
were a Semi-Brahmanised f o r e s t t r i b e
who were found mainly
i n Malabar and w a d .
The Badagas of B i l g r i s was a Kanarese The Eravallena
Caste and c h i e f l y engaged i n agriculture.'52
were a Tamil and Malayalam speaking jungle tribe found i n

t h e Chittoor Taluk of Cochin State.
Their chief occupation
was agriculture,
The Kadars and Malayans were t h e most

The Kadars were
typical of t h e f o r e s t t r i b e s i n Cochin.
found i n Nelliampathi and Parambikulam w h i l e t h e Malayans were foudd i n other h i l l s and forests. The Mala pantaram
were a nomadic t r i b e found i n t h e h i l l ranges near r i v e r s and were a l s o known a s Paliyans. The Mala pulayans were
found i n t h e Anjanad Valley of t h e Devikulam Taluk i n
51. Pharoah & Co.,

52.
Gazetteer of Southern India, P.519.
Edgar Thurston, Madras Gwernment Museum Bulletin, 1~0.1, ~ a a a g a s of Nilgris, tGovernment Press, vo1.11, Madras. 1897) P . l - ~ h e author aavs t h a t "The name Badaga-o r Vadugan means 'northeknert and t h e Badagas, who speak a language a l l i e d t o Kanarese, a r e no doubt descended front Kanarese Hindu c o l o n i s t s from t h e Mysore Country, who migrated, probably about t h r e e centuries ago. t o t h e h i l l s owing t o famine, p o l i t i c a l turmoil, o r l o c a l oppression i n t h e i r own countryY.
North Travancore.
The mlayarayana were nomadic

Thm Mannans of Travancore was
a g r i c u l t u r i s t s and hunters.
h i l l tribe; lived inside t h e forests under the custody of
Forest Department.
T h i s department employed t h e m for the
collection of minor f o r e s t produces.
The Kanikkars was a
h i l l t r i b e i n Travancere subsisting mainly on migratory
cultivation, hunting and on f o r e s t produce.
Their social
s t a t u s was no so low as t h a t of the Pulayas. 53 There were a l s o some other t r i b e s i n Kerala who were causing pollution t o high caste Hindus. Some of them were
The members
Paniyans, Kururnans, Karimpalans and Mavilans.
of Paniyan, a jungle t r i b e were engaged i n agriculure and fount5 chiefly i n the Wynad and Kottayam taluks of Malabar. T h e i r position i s said t o be very l i t t l e above
t h a t of a slave, f o r every Paniyan is landlord's 'Nano, and though he is, of course, f r e e t o leave h i s master, he i s a t once traceU and good care is taken t h a t he does not get employment elsewhere". 54 The Kurnman was another
53. V,Nagam Aiya, The Travancore State Mannual, V01.13.r Ch-IX, P . 4 0 8 . 54. V.
Stuart, Maaras, Census Report 1891. Vol.XII, Ch-X Op.Cit., p.249.
caste whose p r i n c i p a l o c c u p a t i o n w a s wood c u t t i n g and

t h e c o l l e c t i o n of f o r e s t produce. 5 5 Karimpalans were The
found i n t h e n o r t h e r n t a l u k s o f Malabar D i s t r i c t .
K u r i c h y a s and Kurumbars w e r e f o u n d i n Malabar and engaged i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e Cardamom trees which grow i n 56 t h e high p a r t s o f Malabar a b o v e t h e range o f s u k h e i n . T h e i r C h i e f o c c u p a t i o n were Kumeri ( s h i f t i n g ) c u l t i v a t i o n and g a t h e r i n g honey. b l a v i l a n s were found i n t h e C h i r a k k a l
Taluk o f Malabar and were employed a s mahouts, a l s o collect honey and o t h e r f o r e s t p r o d u c e s .
A n o t h e r t y p e o f p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s were t h e noni n d i g e n e o u s Hindus i n K e r a l a . They had a s i m i l a r s t a t u s
55. R.Dis.Nd.4374/42 d a t e d 30.4.1942, D.143 4 2 d ated 1 4 t h A p r i l 1942.
No.Per1. (~egionai A r c h i v e s . Kozhikode) I n t h e xnnual Report of 1 9 4 2 a b o u t t h e p r i m i t i v e tribes and back ward communities t o t h e collector o f Malabar from t h e Sub-Col lector o f M a lappuram, s tates t h a t t h e P a n i y a n s and Kummans were t h e o n l y t w o backward communities f o u n d i n l a r g e numbers i n N i l a m b u r , Amarambalaa and Mambad amsoms o f Ernad Taluk o f B r i t i s h Malabar.
56. Reports o f a J o i n t Commission, Eengal and Bombay, appointed t o i n s p e c t i n t o t h e state & condition o f t h e P r o v i n c e of Malabar i n t h e years 1 7 9 2 and 93 P r i n t e d b y H.Smith,(Fort S a i n t George e t t e P r e s s , 1 8 6 2 ) p.14, Par.15.
l i k e t h e low c a s t e Nairs.
A l l foreign Hindus except
Brahmins cause a Nambuthiri i n Kerala by contact, while 57 t h e low c a s t e Hindus i n Malabar cause atmospheric p o l l u t i o n . Some of these c a s t e s were t h e Ambattans, Andis, Chakkans, Devangas, Kaikolans, Odden, Palans e t c . The Ambattans were Tamil barbers and Andis were a c l a s s of Tamil beggars. The Chakkans were t h e Tamil o i l Devangas were a c a s t e of
pressers and d e a l e r s i n o i l .
weavers who speak Telugu o r Canarese and were found i n t h e C h i t t u r and T a l a p p i l l i Taluks of Cochin s t a t e . 58 The
Kaikolans were a l s o weavers and immigrants from Tamil Nadu. Kudumbies were a Konkani speaking people and engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r e and f i e l d labour. 59
It i s possible t h a t t h e i r
57. C.Achutha Menon, Cochin Census Report, 1891, P t . 1 , Ch.XI, p.114, pr.2'75. 58. L.K. Anantha Krishna I y e r , The Cochin Tribes and 1 1 , (Cochin Government Press, ~rnakul'am. Castes, Vol. 1 1912, Reprint Cosmo Publications, N e w Delhi, 1981) p.369.
59. Kudurbies were one of t h e immigrants from Konkanf speaking s t a t e . They came t o Kerala i n regard t o t h e inhuman p r a c t i c e s of Portuguese invaders a t GOa. Souvenir, issued f o r t h e A l l India Saraswath c u l t u r a l organisation, 3rd conference by t h e General Secretary, G.Venugupalakamath (vidya p r i n t s , Kaloor Road, Cochin, 1974) p.19, K.P. Nayak i n h i s essay on t h i s Souvenier, says t h a t an eminent researcher Valoulikar, e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c a p i t a l of t h e Bilaharas was t h e famous town of B e l i i n Goa and t h e Bilaharas were t h e ancestors o f Kudumbies today.
ignorance of Malayalam language might have been t h e cause which r e l e g a t e d t h e Kudumbies t o a degraded l e v e l i n Kerala. Odden was a Telugu c a s t e who were engaged i n e a r t h work and digging tanks etc. Tamil Nadu. Otans were o t h e r c l a s s of p o t t e r s from
These were some of t h e foreign Hindus i n
Kerals who s u f f e r e d t h e e f f e c t s of untouchability i n Kera la. o w Caste Hindus social Status o f - t h e L
-A 1 1 the
The low c a s t e Hindus a l s o observe mutual p o l l u t i o n among them, i n t h e matter of food and drink.
p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s such a s t h e Kammalans, t h e Szhavas, Fisherman, Pulsyas e t c . were forbidden t o e a t t h e food prepared by t h e c a s t e s lower than them a s t h e case may be.
But the food and water from t h e c a s t e s above them was
acceptable t o them.
For example, t h e food of c a s t e s above
t h e xammalans such a s t h e Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Sudras were acceptable t o t h e Kammalans: but they were forbidden t o e a t what ever was prepared by t h e barbers, washermen, /o member of and o t h e r casteman below them i n ~ t a t u s . ~ ON
r
any higher c a s t e s e a t s with t h e Ezhavas.
The Ezhavas e a t
a t t h e hands of a l l c a s t e s above them i n Social Status, but s t r i c t l y a b s t a i n from taking t h e food of Kammalans,
60.
L.K.Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes and Castes, Vol.1, Ch.XVII1, pp.352-3.
61
v a l a n s , Arayans, and t h e members o f o t h e r low c a s t e s .
A s r e g a r d s s o c i a l s t a t u s , t h e P u l a y a n s e a t a t t h e hands
of a l l caste-men above them, b u t a b s t a i n from e a t i n g t h e

f o o d p r e p a r e d b y t h e V e l a k k a t h a l a v a n s , Mannans, Panans, V e t t u v a n s , P a r a y a n s , Nayadis, U l l a d a n s , Malayans and Kadars. 62
The p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s and sub-castes among e a c h community w a s n o t f r e e i n t h e c a s e o f o b s e r v i n g a p p r o a c h and t o u c h p o l l u t i o n . I n t h e case of t o u c h p o l l u t i o n ,
a l l t h e a r t i s a n c l a s s e s were p o l l u t e d by t h e t o u c h of
t o l k o l l a n s , a sub-caste among them. The d e g r a d a t i o n o f
t h e t o l k o l l a n s was p r o b a b l y on a c c o u n t o f t h e i r work i n l e a t h e r , which i n i t s e a r l y s t a g e s w a s a n u n h o l y s u b s t a n c e . 63 The t o u c h o f t h e Malayans p o l l u t e s t h e I n t h e case o f a p p r o a c h p o l l u t i o n ,
Kadars a n d V i c e Versa.
t h e P u l a y a n s were p o l l u t e d by t h e P a r a y a n s , Nayadies a n d Ulladans. mutually. P a r a y a n s and V e t t u v a n s h a d t o k e e p few d i s t a n c e s P u l a y a n s and V e t t u v a n s b a t h e when t h e y a p p r o a c h
o n e a n o t h e r , f o r , ss r e g a r d s t h e i r s t a t u s t h e r e w a s a p o i n t of d i s p u t e as t o who were s u p e r i o r t o t h e o t h e r . 64
1 /
61.
ibid,
Ch.XVI1,
p.339. P.120
62. a d , Ch.VI,
63. C.kchutha
Ch.III,
Menon, Cochin S t a t e Manual,
p.203.
64. L.K.
Anantha K r i s h n a I y e r , The Cochin T r i b e s a n d Castnd, V01.1, Ch.VI, p.121.
The N a t t ' l ( ~ a t i v e )Malayans a n d Tamil Malayans had t o kee? a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e among them a n d t h e Tamil ~Xalayans were n o t a l l o w e d t o a p r o a c h t h e N a t t u Malayans w i t h i n a c e r t a i n distance. There w a s n e i t h e r inter-rrarriage nor Thus p o l l u t i o n by t o u c h and
i n t e r - d i n n i n c ; between them.65
approach and c a s t e r e s t r i c t i o n s on i n t e r - m a r r i a g o and inter-dinning

~ms a l s o p r e v a l e n t among t h e p o l l u t i n g Hindu
&
c a s t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r c a s t e s t a t u s i n Kerala.
A m i x t u r e of v e d a n t i s m end animism which
i s contained
i n t h e Hindu c u l t u r e o f I n d i a was t h e r e l i g i o n of Palayalies. The 3rahmins o b s e r v e V e d a n t i c r i t e s f o r The c a s t e s below them such a s the 3 u t t h e y were
r e l i q i o u s observances.
K s h a t r i y a s f o l l o w t h e f o o t s t e p s o f arahmins.
n o t a l l o w e d t o r e a d Vedas, o r p e r f o r m t h e p u r e l y Brahminical r i t e s such a s p r i e s t l y f u n c t i o n s , Y a q m s ( S a c r i f i e s ) , etc. 66
The High C l a s s N a i r s a n d Ambala V a s i s were n o t a l l o w e d even t o r e a d o r h e a r t h e Vedas. * T h e i r knowledge of r e l i g i o n i s
c o n f i n e d t o what i s g l e a n e d from t h e I t h i h a s a s and P u r a n a s ,
65. i b i d , v o l . I, ChII, p. 37
66. Cochin Census R e ~ o r t , 1901, V o l .
XX p t .
I, p. 30
which p r a c t i c a l l y form r e l i g i o u s t e x t s for the people
i n general, and are very widely reed and s t u d i e d by them "6 7 The Hindu c a s t e s b l o w t h e high class Hairs and Pmbala
Vasis, worship the same god6 as those of the higher c a s t e s .
Besides t h i s worship they a l s o had f a i t h i n Sakti (female) worship.

a~
of them have t h e i r own temples also.
dedicated t c Kali, o r sane manifestation of t h a t Goddess.

w i t h pries-
chosen f r a amongst themmlwes. where they

D U I ~ . They ~ ~ were
c e l e b r a t e c h i e f l y the Mandala
ignorant about the vedic and T a n t r i c forms of r i t u a l s of d e i t i e s vhich was performed i n temples by the Brahmin priests. Most of t h e i r r e l i g i o u s knowledge had b e n coming
from t h e e p i c s of I n d i a such as Ramavana and Mahabharatp.

Bacause o l d m e m b e r s of these c a s t e s now a l i v e (80 years
o r more o l d ) including women have e x c e l l e n t knowledge about these two epics. Kaasaalans o r Ezhavans had the r i g h t to worship the g r e a t Hindu gods i n their o m way and were not allowed t o worship as i n t h e c a s e of higher c a s t e s i n public r e l i g i o u s o r higher c a a t e s r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , but
w i t h the influence of Sri. Harayaria Guru, the Ezhavas
had begun to worship higher fom8 of worship t o Siva, Subrcraania and Oanapathi. 69
iha blayarr and parayam
worshipped the Baity through l e s s e r f o n w of EUndu rituals.

Their position on tho other hand w a s d i f f e r e n t
'
from t h a t of an Ezhavan or Kannalanr t h e m w a s nothing camnon between the b e l i e f s , r i t u a l and p r a c t i c e of tho former and those of the l a t t a r , m c h l e s s those of the
B r a b i n o r the Hair. 70
,...
the lower c l a s s e s have
their own p a r t i c u l a r temples, though receiving the

d e i t i e s of the higher orderst their worship of thefa hovever i s generally postponed to a long l i s t of i n f e r i o r d i v i n i t i e s , o r minute demons, w h o m their g r a t i t u d e o r apprehension leads them frequently to p r o p i t i a t e , nor s h a l l we wonder t h a t the s a c r i f i c i a l l i b a t i o n s which fona s o n a t u r a l a p a r t of those ceremonies, should so often lead to excess, They t r e a t e d the
supkt n a t u r a l s w i t h m o r e f e a r and performed various r i t u a l s t o p r o p i t i a t e the Godst to win t h e i r favour. The
Fulayans also believe t h a t s p i r i t exercise an influence
69. L . K ,
C s ,
Ananta Krillhna Iyer, The Cochin T r i b e s an9 V01.1, CheXVI, p.311. pt.1
70- Census Remrt of CochAn 1911, Vol.XVII1, Ch.IV, p.21. par.38.
71. WARD and COaRJICR. GeocrraDhical and statrstical Memoir..., V01.1, pp.103-4.
over t h e members of t h e i r families, and, therefore, regular o f f e r i n g s a r e given t o them every year e n Sankranthi daysa. 7 2 ~ o s of t t h e polluting c a s t e s have
done such o f f e r i n g s t o i n f e r i o r as well as superior d e i t i e s .

The low c a s t e people a l s o had taken pilgrimages to
other p a r t s of t h e country.
wChowrymalay o r Rama ~ s h w a r
a r e t h e limits of t h e i r journeys; they seldom take religious

vows, o r become saunasees; a few may perhaps be met who have v i s i t e d Benares, but it w i l l generally be found t h a t discontent o r embarrassment has alone warmed t h e i r piety i n t o such a pilgrimage. 73 Sastha o r I y y a p p a n * ~ nWorshipped a s
worship was common among t h e Malayalies.
he i s by a l l c a s t e s of people i n Southern India, especially, i n Malabar, Cochin. and Travancore, he is more revered and feared by t h e low c a s t e s i n r u r a l p a r t s n . 74 The lower c a s t e s worshipped t h i s d e i t y f o r
protection against demons and all kinds of i l l n e s s because most of these c a s t e s were doing work i n a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s and f o r e s t s . worshipped t h i s d i e t y r
72.
The Brahmins a l s o
I n t h e temple a t Saberirnala,
L . K . Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes and Castes. Ch.VI. P.113.
73. WARD and commR, Geographical and S t a t i s t i c a l
Memoir..
74. L.K.
Anantha Krishna Iyer, The Cochin Tribes and Castes, Vol.1, Ch.XVI, p.312.
t h e r e was no s c c i a l discriminatiOn i n regard to worship
frcm time immemorial and a l s o before the t h e of temple

e n t r y movement i n Kerala. t h a t of Iyappa a t Chow'Amongst the crowd of shrines. Malay attracts p a r t i c u l a r
devotion; i n c r e d i b l e numbers (and many from the e a s t e r n c o a t ) flocking t o it a t the period of the f e s t i v a l (January) to present their w w s and o f f e r i n g s , although
it is s i t u s t e d i n the wildest country possible, "75
T h i s land had c e r t a i n numbr o f Bhagavati Kavus.
76
These Kavus were b u i l t malnly of wood w i t h tiled W f s .

Sane images of stonee o r i d o l s stand
in t h e open a i r space
under b i g trcMs l i k e A 1 (Ficus t e l i g i ~ s a ) p~ ala ( a l s t o n i a s c h o l a r i s ) etc; these were a l s o known as Kavus. Basides Bhagaveti Kavus. Sastha. VettEkkorumakan and
demons l i k e Kuttichathaa. Oulikan a160 have Kavus,
These
d e i t i e s and demons were gropitizted with s a c r i f i c e s and t h e i r wishes had ta k i n t e r p r e t e d by oracles.

Sane o f
these Kavus l i k e t h e Kavus of Sastha o r Ehagavathi have

75. Ward and Canner, G e o q r a ~ h i c a land S t a t l a t i c a l M e m o i r . . . , Vol.1. p.105.
76. P . Anujan Achan. Arehaeolo~v. Leaf l e t N o . 3 (Helayalira). Gochin Government Gawttq
7th December 1927. Vol.WtI1. Noel6r s&lement to pt;.II Bducation Dept. p.13 This docwrnnt s t a t e s t h a t Bhagavathi I c a w w e r e the a n c i e n t places O f worship i n h r a l a .
offerings s i m i l a r to those of the temples. castes we-
Most of the low
the worshippers of their own Kavus o r other.
*Their r e l i g i o n i s more purely animistic than t h a t of c a s t e s above them. and included i n their number are the devil-dancers. astmlogers. and o t h e r representative8 of
t h e primitive 'medicine-man*
77
They have their own 'velicchapads* o r oracles i n Kavus,

*They v i s i t privata houaes and declare t h e i r
oracles when they have worked themselves up i n t o frenzy,

d a ~ c l o g*withershiner* round the yard. and slashing a t
t h e i r foreheads w i t h a sworda. 78
~hus the 1 r
castes
who had completely immersed i n superstition, had their own d e i t i e s f o r worship and p a r t i c u l a r mode of worship and offerings.
Moat of the oracles were from the castes
below the N a i r . craft,
*..
All
Hindus had f a i t h i n magic and witch
there am a multitude of pagodas called
Nuddees, dedicated t o Bhagavadi (the Buddra Kali of the

Bastern Coast) 8 her favour i s bribed o r resentorent supposed
t o be averted by annual s a c r i f i c e of buffaloes. sheep, o r poultry, a t h e r altar8 the Kirrupie of the v i l l a g e perfonns the ceremonie.8 during the f e s t i v a l s i n s t i t u t e d
77. C . A . 1 N N E S .
Madras D i s t r i c t Gazetteers 'MALAB#'. VO~OX m~a.by.#.BoE~an~r , (B.S.Baliya, curator, Madras Record o f f i c e , 1908; &print; GOV~.P=SS, Madras, 1951) Ch,III, p . 1 2 4 .
i n honour of this gooddess. s o m e of h e r v o t a t i e s suspended
from hooks a r e thus c a r r i e d round h e r shrinem.79

The h i l l t r i b e s w e r e purely a n i m i s t i c i n r e l i g i o u s l i f e and worshiped demons of various denominations. tree-spirits. and h i l l Gods l i k e Mala Vashi and Ayyappan.
They revered these s p i r i t s and demons a s patron of v i l l a g e s , p r o t e c t o r s of springs and dwellers i n f o r e s t s .

The stone o r images under a tree was t h e i r worshipping
place and made o f f e r i n g s to it.
"Amongst t h e d i v i n i t i e s
p e c u l i a r t o t h e h i l l t r i b e s a r e t h e shawars o r the dead heroes fabled t o have f a l l e n beneath the sword of panch a Pandoos". 80 "The p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s and h i l l
tribes some t i m e s nada o f f e r i n g s t o the Brahmanic
temples o r public Hindu r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s i n which they had no access, a s an act of r e a l i t y i f t h e i r gods
were troubled by some s p i r i t s of ancestors o r demons.

The Paniss of Malabar, a f o r e s t tribe have only very crude
i d e a s of religion.
'Believing i n d e v i l s o f a l l s o r t s and
s i z e s . and professing t o worship t h e Hindu d i v i n i t i e s . they reverence e s p e c i a l l y the god o f the jungles. Kad
79. WARD and CONNER. a o a r a ~ h i c a land S t a t i s t i c a l Memoir Val -I,ae.c;L,, p.104.
....
Bagavadi, o r according t o another version, a d e i t y c a l l e d Kuli, a malignant and terrible being of n e i t h e r sex,
whose f h r i n a s take
fho o m of
btorrg
placed urwiar a
tree, o r sometimes a c a i r n of atones. 181

The worship of
ancestors, snakes. trees and

YAncestors
animals was a l s o prevalent mong the Hindus.
are worshipped with q u i t e a s much devotion as the Gods

o r Goddesses, and t h e i r relics a r e even enshrined and given o f f e r i n g s t o . m82 Usually. they w e r e worshipped annually by canmenunoratlng the anniversary of the ancestor's death,
.The Mayadl has to keep s o f a r away
frcm o t h e r people t h a t he has no opportunity of
knowing anything about the Hindu gods o r the Auanas.

He believes t h a t h i t god is a Mala Devan god.
- mountain
H e i a a l s o an ancestor worshipper, and keeps
representations of t h e departed m a r the h u t
83
me
serpent worship occupies a p m m i a e n t p l ~ c ei n the r e l i g i o u s worship of Uair castes.

The p l a c e of sexpent
B.Edgar Thurston, Madran Government Mus8um WI1lettinr Vol.11, W.1, (Oovemment Press, Madras, 1879) p . 2 1 . 82,Cochin Census Remrt 19Q&, Vol.%X, p t . 1 , p.31.
8 3 . S . Appadorai I y e r , Madras Government M u m e u r n Bulletin, Vol.II, N o . 1 , bl Is of Malabar tGovemment Press, Madras, 1901)
worship w a s known a s Sarpakavu o r Nagattam Kavu which w a s i n t h e middle of jungle trees. "Sirpakaw. t h e y are
covered w i t h t h e image o f a snake, a r e p t i l e h e r e more t h a n u s u a l l y venerated, and whose worship would appear t o be of a v e r y a n c i e n t date.
""
Before t h e temple
compounds o r w i t h i n t h e temple p e e p a l trees w e r e found and worshipped. I n f e s t i v e a c c a s s i o n s a m i n i a t u r e image
of t h e d e i t y is placed n e a r t h e tree w i t h a bhandaram o r t r M a u r e box i n t o which t h e v o t a t i e s of t h e p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s d r o p t h e i r c a s h o r jewel o f f e r i n g s . 85 plants
l i k e T u l a s i (ocinaun sanctum), V i l w a m ( A e g l e mannelos)
were also worshipped a s sacred.
The a n i m a l s l i k e cow, So F r a n c i s
and b u l l , w e r e a l s o worshipped a s sacred.
m y r i g h t l y o b s e r v e s t h a t T h e Hindu a d o r e s n a t u r e i n a l l i t s forms. from t h e sun i n t h e sky. t o t h e s t o n e on t h e e a r t h ; t h e oxen and implements of a g r i c u l t u r e
are both a l i k e venerated, a s are a l s o t h e k i t e s o a r i n g

i n t h e heavens. t h e monkeys i n t h e trees, and t h e snakes
84. ward and Conner, Geographical and S t a t i s t i c a l
Memriy..
8 5 . C.A.
Vol. I . Op.citr
p.105.
Innes, Madras D i s t r i c t G a z e t t e e r s . *MALABAR:. Vol.1. Ch.111, op.cit. p . 1 5 2 .
on the ground: w h i l s t k i l l i n g a cow, has been considered a s deserving o f g r e a t e r punishment, than s l a y i n g a low casts man. 86 Thus t h e r e l i g i o u s rites of t h e Hindus i n Kerala
w e r e a mixture of Vedantism and Animism because of t h e

d i v e r s i f i e d ideas i n a common fonn of r e l i g i o u s faith.
SOCIAL LIFE
The s o c i a l l i f e of the p o l l u t i n g classes i n Kerala
was i n a very miserable condition.
Like the higher
c a s t e s . t h e i r dwellings a l s o were p o l l u t e d by t h e touch o r approach of the c a s t e s below t h e m i n t h e s o c i a l s c a l e . The p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s must s t a n d from a person of higher c a s t e o r h i s dwelling a t t h e d i s t a n c e prescribed by t h e s o c i a l scale. and they never l i v e d i n houses s i t u a t e d within a c e r t a i n d i s t r n c e
Of
I
I
each o t h e r .
I n ordinary or a
conversation such expressions as a Tiva-oad

87
1
!
I
I
Cheruma- ad ( t h a t is, t h e d i s t a n c e a t which a Tiyan o r
cheruman has t o keep) were comnonly used.
The low caste Hindus were not permitted t o l i v e
near the temples.
mPlace of residence becomes mom
86. Francis Day. The Land of the Parumals o r Cochia i t a ~ a s and t its resent. (Gantz Brothers, Adelphi presa. Vepery, 1863, AES Reprint. J . J e t l e y , f o r Asian Educational serqice, New Delhi, 1990) ch.VI1, op.cit, P.285. , 87. C.A. Innor, Madras D i s t r i c t Gazatteers, 'MALABAR Vo1.I. c ~ . x x p.103. ~,
honourable a s it approaches the Wicinity of t h e temples,... .88 The h i g h e r c a s t e s w e r e t h e r e s i d e n t s near the tamples and
the lower c a s t e s resided i n h u t s far away fran the
premises of temples.
The p o l l u t i n g castas, e s p e c i a l l y
t h e s t i l l lower s e c t i o n s among t h e m lived f a r away from t h e v i c i n i t y of high c a s t e men. Houses of parayas w e r e the village,
s i t u a t e d away from o t h e r residences o u t s i d e
These p l a c e s were o f t e n unhealthy and u n f i t f o r human l i v e s where they had no access t o t h e amenities of c u l t u r e d life. "Materially and Metaphorically t h e i r
/
,
4
e x i s t e n c e w a s dark. stoeped as they w e r e i n f i l t h and wratchednes8, ignorance
end s u p e r s i t i t i o n . 89
Thus
d i s t a n c e i n t h e case of r e s i d e n t s degraded t o lower

castes from the main stream of Hindu society.
They w e r e denied admiasion i n t o p u b l i c places

l i k e temples. markets, p u b l i c off ices, p u b l i c schools etc..
f o r the cause of pollution.
For exmple. the Pulayas were
denied admission i n t o p u b l i c markets, and must stand a t a d i s t a n c e to make t h i r purchases or s a l e s .

The Behavas
w e n not peaaltted to e n t e r within a n a t i v e c o u r t of

88. W a s d and Conner. t k i o g r a ~ h i c a land S t a t i s t i c a l
Memoir p ~ . c i t . p.105. 89. Censue R a w r t of Cochin, 1931, V 0 l . W . pt.1 Appendix 11. o~.cit. p.290. par.5 90. L.K. Anantha Krishna Iyer,. The Cochin Tribes and C a s a a , V01.1, C h . V I , ~0121.
....
j u s t i c e as they might p o l l u t e t h e judges, who were m e m b e r s o f t h e h i g h e r castes.

Caste r e s t r i c t i o n s were a l s o made
i n connection w i t h the use of dress, ornaments. dwellings etc. The p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s used c e r t a l n words The
l i k e Tarnpuran f o r addressing t h e h i g h e r castes.
p o l l u t i n g castea were forbidden t o use p u b l i c mads according t o their wishes. When on o r n e a r e r a mad, they
announce t h e i r a p ~ r o a c hthrough sounds because t h e i r presence caused p o l l u t i o n t o t h a h i g h e r c a s t e s .

The
Parayas d a r e n o t t o a p ~ r o a c ht h e h i g h e r bibes. b u t i f conversation between them pmve a t any time necessary

92
they must c a l l o u t aloud f r u n as f a r as they can be heard. For enample. S. Appadoral I y e r s t a t e s t h z t , .while t r a v e l l i n g by r a i l o r on the public roads i n Malabar, one may observe a f e w ragged and d i r t y c l o t h e s spread near t h e road, with one o r two copper c o i n s on them: and a t the serne t i m e , hear a chorous of s t e n t o r i a n voices a t a d i s t a n c e of a hundred yards, emanating ftam a f e w miserable specimens of humanity, standing ghost-like with
92. R e ~ o r t of s J o i n t Conmission, Bengal. and Bombav
a ~ ~ o i n - dt o inswct i n t o t h e s t a t e and condition o f Malzbar i n t h e year 1792 and of the ~ r o v i n c e 1 7 9 3 . Vol.1, (Fort St. George Gazette press,
dishevelled h a i r and jaded lookm.
The coins represent traveller
t h e alms given by the charitably dlsposed

t h e persons aro the Nayadis*. 93
The sounds used by the
low c a s t e s when passing through the roads helped the

higher c a s t e men go smoothly on the road without t h e
attack of p o l l u t i o n and t h e lower castes from punishments.

The r e s u l t was t h a t a man of any of the very low c a s t e s
may undergo considerable inconvenience and delay i n g e t t i n g from one place t o another. 94 1n this case, the
preference of using t h e road was only the monopoly of higher c a s t e s a t t h i s t i m e . The higher c a s t e s viewed the
presence of untouchable castes. a t every place with alarm and indignation because of the defilement.
There w e r e sane r e s t r i c t i o n s i n regard to drinking
water.
Even i n r i v e r s the lower classes had separate any v i l l a g e draws its

les w i l l be required t o point, lower down 95
s p o t s t o cleanse themselves. water from a r i v e r , the take t h e i r supply frun
..
93. S.Appadorai Iyer, ~ a d r k Govt.Musatnn Wlllettin: , Vol.11, N o . 1 . The Nayadis of Halabar, (Govt.Presa, Madras, 1901) P . 6 6 94. C.A. Innes, Madras ~ i a d r i c Gazetteers. t 'HALABAR', ~ d . by P . B . Bvans, VO~JI,ch.111, p.104. 95. Report of t h e Indian Statutorv Commission, V01.1, pt.1, Ch.4 O~.~it.p.38.
This s o c i a l custom might have been one of the products of the s i x t y four a n a c h a r a s peculiar to Kerala and the eleventh among them w a s 'you m u s t bathe i f you touch polluted w e l l s o r tanks (polluted by t h e touch of low
castes). 96 The polluting castes were denied the use of

watar from the w e l l s o r tanks public tanks and wells.
--e the
higher classes,
One of the requests t o t h e
Zamorin about the polfution of Mankawu
(tank) i n
Calicut by t h e N k i r s and Menons of Mankavu w a s that the above s a i d tank was being polluted by the touch and bathe of Tiyyas and Moplahs and so i t became useless to them and they complained t o t h e authorities. 97
The tank
w a s surrounded on a l l s i d e s by blair houses and Zamorin's

letter to M r . Thorne i n connection with this case explains
the seriousness of t h i s pollution.
~a s a y s
i n his
l e t t e r dated 6th July 1925 t o M r . Thorne t h a t ,

"dear M r . Thorne, Please go through the enclosed p e t i t i o n I
see from it t h a t a s i m i l a r p e t i t i o n has been sulmitted t o
96. Cochin Census R e ~ o r t , 1901, Vol.XX, Appendix. o ~ . c i t , p.178.
P t . 1 ,
Ch.VIII,
97. P i l e No.R.Dis 4468/25 dated 5.8.1925. ~etition of Mankavu residents dated 14th June 1925, M S . (Malayelm), (Regional Archives, Kozhikode) 98. Mr.Thorne J.A. Thorne waa TheEState Collector of t h e Zamorin of Calicut a t this time.
you.
I do n o t know what action you have taken on it.
The
f a c t s s t a t e d i n the p e t i t i o n a r e true.
The tank i n f r o n t
of m y palace i s a temple tank and cannot be used by persons under p o l l u t i o n and the tank i n question is the only o t h e r tank i n t h e l o c a l i t y f o r the use of the c a s t e residents. I f the t r e s p a s s complained i n the p e t i t i o n i s allowed t o continue I am even a f r a i d of breaches of t h e peace between the c a s t e Hindus and the ~hiyyasand Moplas of the l o c a l i t y .
I s h a l l be, thankful, t o you therefore i f you w i l l see your
'
way t o r e s t r i c t the use of the tank i n question t o the c a s t e Hindus of the l o c a l i t y . m99
Some
e x t r a c t s of the
remarks of the chairman (Muncipal) i n t h i s case t o the c o l l e c t o r was t h a t *The tank i s surrounded on a l l the s i d e s by Nair houses; and it i s s i t u a t e d near the place where the l a d i e s of the Zamorin'e Kovilakanr resideg. 100 "According t o the ancient socio-religious custan, whenever a death takes place i n a Nair fanily, t h e members have t o perform f u n e r a l obsequies i n a tank f o r a c e r t a i n number of days; i f any omits t o perform them, he loses caster
9 9 . F i l e No.R.Dis
100.
4468/25
dated 5.8.1925.
P . 2 ,
i b i d , Mankavu Kulam, op.cit, -
par.6
and he cannot p e r f o w them i n a tank which i s used o r touched by the rnoplas, thiyyaa o r o t h e r so-called lower castes..
. There a r e no doubt,
two o t h e r tanks i n the
v i l l a g e , they are p r i v a t e ones; o m i s attached to the zamorin's Kovilaksn, and t h e o t h e r t o a Nambudiri I l l c u a and these cannot be touched by the Naira f o r the purposes
above mentioned. * l o '
*If t h e Mbplas and Thiyyas are keen
on having a tank f o r t h e i r use, they can apply t o the Municipal Council t o provide a tank f o r them, i f they cannot-themselves f i n d the means f o r sinking One.
i s b e t t e r t o leave the tanks as t h e y were. 103
,102
The chainnan concluded t h a t i n the i n t e r e s t of peace it
I n Cochin, the accounts of 1933 records shows t h a t the t o t a l number of tanks and wells maintained by public funds and n o t open t o a l l sections of t h e people were about 61 tanks and 123 w e l l s i n the state. lo4 1n their
p e t i t i o n regarding the use of Niloth Chira, (tank) a t Panniankara ( i n B r i t i s h malabar) by the lower castes, t h e p e t i t i o n e r s suggest t h a t if the l o w c a s t e s thmugh
101. x d , o ~ , c i t . par.7. 102. i b i d , o ~ . c i t , p.6. par.20 103.
w.
104. Cochin L e g i s l a t i v e Council proceedings, dated 12, December, 1928, p . 4 7 1 .
mistake, i g n o r a n c e
o r i n t e n t i o n a l l y the h i g h e r caster
resumed t o use it o n l y a f t e r the customary p u r i f i c a t i o n s

d u l y performed by the Brahmins. lo5 nese rules were a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e temple t a n k s and w e l l s . I n 1929, one o f
t h e d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e Cochin L e g i s l a t i v e Council was
about the a ~ c e s s l b i l i t y Of t h e Koodalmanikkam temple t a n k

' ~ u t t a nkulam* , to the lower c a s t e s , t h e Panehayat member m106 observed t h a t , 'it c a n n o t be thrown open to a l l classes. T h e e was a w e l l understood scale of d i s t a n c e s w i t h i n which p e r s o n s of d i f f e r e n t castes may not a p p o a c h each o t h e r w i t h o u t one of t h e m p o l l u t i n g t h e o t h e r and t h e y never l i v e i n houses s i t u a t e d w i t h i n a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e of each other. F o r example, i n t h e case o f N a i r s . 'The near
aprroach anywhere n e a r h i s v i c i n i t y of a cheruman, pulayan, o r any i n f e r i o r being, even a Tiyan. as h e walks t o h i s house from t h e temple, c l e a n s e d i n body and mind, h i s marks newly s e t on h i s f o r e h e a d w i t h Sandal wood p a s t e , i s pollution. and h e must t u r n and bathe a g a i n ere he c a n
105. F i l e No.4466/25 d a t e d 5.8.1925-Petition to the D i s t r i c t M a g i s t r a t e of Halabar by t h e r e s i d e n t s o f Panniankara hsun of C a l i c u t Tzluk. (Bundle N0.263 Regional AtchhUes , Kozhikode) p.1. par.4. 106. II.C.L.C., Vol.11, pt.28,dated Motion No.15, p.2425. 8 August, 1929,
107. L e t t e r d a t e d 24 Januarv 1871, No.60, from Mr.T. Shanaunni Menon. Diwan of Cochin. t o the B r i t ish ~ r e s i d e n t . par.?; The Record o f Administration, Cochin Sts*, pt.111, (Cochin Government - P 1925) p.66.
- -
e n t e r h i s house and e a t m .
108
...
and t h e Brahmins do n o t
f a i l t o encourage impressions so favourzble t o t h e i r own i n t e r e s t , no class below t h e Hair d a r e approach t h e i r neighbourhood. and d r a w water from t h e t a n k s a d j o i n i n g "109 them, o r persume t o b a t h e i n those l a v a t o r i e s . .
The d e n i a l o f temple t a n k s and wells as w e l l a s p u b l i c t u l k s and w e l l s on t h e p l e a t h a t t h e y would be p o l l u t e d i f they b a t h e i n them, and t h e prevision of s e p a t a t e t a n k s and w e l l s f o r the u s e o f p o l l u t i n g c a s t e s
were the e x l s t i n g p r a c t i c e s which i n s u l t e d the low caste
Hindus.
These k i n d s o f p o l l u t i o n d i s t a n c e s from p u b l i c
p l a c e s s e g r e g a t e d t h e lower c a s t e s from c i v i l i s e d l i f e i n Kerala.

I t i s clear frcm the f a c t s d e s c r i b e d i n this c h a p t a r
t h a t t h e r i g i d i t y of c a s t e customs and usages w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e n i a l o f temple e n t r y t o untouchables. They w e r e
s u b j e c t e d t o s e v e r e s o c i a l d i s a b i l i t i e s i n t h e m a t t e r of freedom of movement i n r e g a r d t o p u b l i c places a s w e l l a6 i n t h e v i c i n i t y of h i g h e r castes.

The r e s t r i c t e d r i g i d
c a s t e i s m had given t h e low caste Hindus a degraded s t a t u s i n society.

A t this t i m e
caste monopoly w a s reflected i n
10B.F.Fawcett. Madras Government Museum B u l l e t t i n , Vol.111,. No.3; Anthropology'Navars of Malabar' ~i t h ; p i a t e s (Government press, Madras. 1901). 109. Ward and Conner. G e o a r a ~ h i c a land ststistical m i Vol.1. p.105.
e v e r y aspect of life.
The r i g i d i t y of this caste monopoly
c o n t r i b u t e d to the Hindus i n accordance w i t h t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s , the d e n i a l of temple e n t r y . The
d e n i a l of temples and i t s premises t o a s e c t i o n of Hindus, named them a s l o w c a s t e Hindus o r p o l l u t i n g Hindus, w a s

t h e f i n a l s t a g e i n t h e p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and
u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y e v i l s i n Kerala.
As
a r e s u l t of the
ban on e n t r y i n t o h e p r e c i n c t s of temples and approach
of h i g h e r c a s t e s made them s t r a n g e r s t o t h e new t u r n s of social life. Thus the p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and
u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y was a c u r s e upon Hindu s o c i e t y i n Kerala.

These e v i l p r a c t i c e s had k e n made a b l a c k s p o t upon
Hinduism i n Kerala, once upon a t i m e these e v i l s caused t o forbidden temple e n t r y t o one s e c t i o n of Hindus, and segregated t h e m from t h e e n l i g h t e n e d p r i n c i p l e s of Hinduism by p r a c t i c i n g s t r a n g e r methods of Hinduism i n t h e form of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability.

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CHAPTER

THE UNTOUCHABLES AND UNTOUCHABILITY I N KERALA

The p r a c t i c e of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability p r e v a i l e d i n Kerala d u r i n g t h e modern period.

c l a s s e s , ' p o p u l a r l y known a s t h e *Savarnast ( t o u c h a b l e s ) o r high c a s t e Hindus and t h e 'Avarnas' c a s t e Hindus. (untouchables) o r - l o w

s o c i e t y i n Kerala had been d i v i d e d i n t o two

These e v i l p r a c t i c e s touched every a s p e c t of

a t t a i n e d through t h e u n i t y o f men i n a l l matters a t h e i r

The Rigvedic a d v i c e t o human beings is

suggestion t o human beings i s t h a t f o r t h e achievement oncept of prosperous f u t u r e , t h a t

i s , t h e paramount aim, t h e u n i t y of Mantra, o r g a n i s a t i o n

u n a p p r o a c h a b i l i t y and t h e concept of p o l l u t i o n a r e not

i n consonance w i t h t h e gbove mentioned r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d

f o r c i b l e conversion from Hinduism t o o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . The

increased here; and t h e r - . l e r s and people might have been

i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h i s p r a c t i c e of r e t u r n of t h e converted Hindus a t a l a t e r time, because of p o l l u t i o n . The

o n l y have been a remnant of t h e p a s t procedure t o r e t u r n t h e converted Hindus. So i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e f o r c i b l e

conversions of t h e p a s t w e r e t h e r o o t cause of t h e e v i l p r a c t i c e s of u n t o u c h a b i l i t y and unapproachability i n Kerala.

Were made by them and s t r i c t l y enforced by t h e s t a t e which t o t e l l y change6 t h e manner of l i f e of m i l l i o n s of low c a s t e

men who formed t h e m a j o r i t y of population of Kerala".

C a s t e i s m was p r m l n e n t i n Hindu Society a t t h e

'I.T.K,Ravindraa I n s t i t u t i o n s and Movements in Kerala History (Charithram P u b l i c a t i o n s , Trivandruar, 19%) Ch.11, o ~ . c i t . , p . 4 2 .

Even high c a s t e Nairs The

servad the N e m b u t h i r i s as danestlc servants.

untouchable c a s t e s who c o n s t i t u t e d t h e bulk of the population

The Nambuthiri Brehmins were the highest c l a s s i n

The Ambala V a s i s and the high class

belonged t o t h e Sudras which included t h e l o w c l a s s N a i r s of

The f i f t h category applied t o the untouchable

castes and s i x t h category applied t o t h e s t i l l lower

Frun t o p t o bottun of the s o c i a l

second category was t h e Kshatriyas which included Tampurans, Tamoans,

The t h i r d category w a s t h e Ambala

I n Malabar Sociology, Vaisyas have been conspicuous

Adikal, Chakkiyar, Chakkiyar Nambiar,

s t a t u s and t h e members of t h e h i g h e r sub-castes d i d not f r e e l y mingle with those of t h e lower.

deemed t o be p o l l u t e d by the touch of t h e N e i r s . them w a s the s t a t u s of l o w c a s t e Sudras.

Veluthedans, Velakka Thalavans,

Chaliyans and Ezhuthachans etc, were included i n t h i s category.

Brahmins and sane non-Malayali castes had t h e same s t a t u s

caste N e i r s w e r e t h e popularly known untouchable and

s o c i a l distance of 24 Malabar f e e t polluted c a s t e s above'

The Ezhavans and Panans had t o keep 32 f e e t away'

from t h e higher castes.

a s Mukkuvan. Valan. Arayan e t c , had t o keep a d i s t a n c e of

The Kanakkans and

Kootans had t o keep a distance of 48 f e e t from t h e higher castes.

approach of Cherumans o r Eulayann w i t h i n a distance of

and Ulladans had t o keep 74 f e--. a distance r u n t h e h i s h e r - t _. castes.

t d i s t m c e from the higher c a s t e s .

The c a s t e s t a t u s s t i p u l a t e d t h a t a member who

p o l l u t i o n v a r i e s i n connection w i t h i n t e r 4 n i n g . i n t e r - m a r r i a g e and p o l l u t i o n by touch o r approach. l1 I n connection with inter-dining, t h e h i g h e r caste members if

the offences t o caste rules

Similar offences, i f canmitted between

members of sub-castes, were t r e a t e d as m i n o r oms.

drinks were prohibited t o B r a h m i n s , Kshatriyas and Ambala Vasis.

f r a n t h e use of beef only from t h e i r food.

i n Ksrala bound up i n a l l dealings between each c a s t e

with o t h e r castes. among Brahmins.

Widow remarriage w a s not allowed

I n f a n t marriage was a camon r u l e among

t h e Malayalis and g i r l s were enforced t o marry before puberty i n t h e Malaya11 c a s t e syetem.

t h i s t i m e t h e Hindus observed varying degrees of