Rivers, Lakes, and Water Resources Jiangsu, Hubei, and Hunan

Summary of Presentations on May 15, 18, and 20, 2009 For the conferences in three of the four Green Tour 2009 cities, the provincial environmental protection bureaus each chose water-related topics as one of their two local, priority topics to be addressed at the conference. The Jiangsu Environmental Protection Bureau chose the topic of Tai Lake and shallow lake pollution control. In the related session, the Director of the Tai Lake Division of the Jiangsu Environmental Protection Bureau, Mr. Jiang Wei, gave a presentation on pollution control in Tai Lake. This was followed by two presentations offering the international perspective on pollution control in shallow lakes. Professor Laszlo Somlyody, Chairman of the Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics, gave a presentation on shallow lake eutrophication and clean-up; and Erik Borset of Norplan gave a presentation on the case of the cleanup of Mjosa Lake, the largest lake in Norway. The Hubei Environmental Protection Bureau chose the topic of water resources management strategy. The first presentation in the related session was given on Hubeis water resources management strategy by Mr. Zhang Wenman, Chief of the Environmental Monitoring Center Station of the Hubei Environmental Protection Bureau. His presentation was followed by presentations by three international experts discussing international experience in water resources management and recommendations for Hubei. Mr. Lars Skov Andersen of COWI China spoke on water management by objective, speaking both of the situation in China and experiences in Europe. Professor Laszlo Somlyody presented an analysis of strategic water management, focusing on experience in Europe and with the Rhine River in particular. Finally, Eric Borset presented experiences and recommendations based on lessons learned in Europe with integrated water resources management. The Hunan Environmental Protection Bureau chose the topic of international experience in river clean-up, particularly as applies to the Xiang River. Mr. Lars Skov Andersen presented on the topic of industrial water and energy efficiency for a cleaner Xiang River. Professor Laszlo Somlyody presented on international case studies of river clean-up in Europe, with a focus on the Rhine and some reference to the US and closing with lessons learned. Finally, Erik Borset presented on experiences in cleaning up the Danube in Europe, covering the program developed and a review of mining and industrial pollution issues, and closing with lessons learned. The aforementioned presentations are summarized below. As some presenters (namely the international ones, Lars Skov Andersen, Laszlo Somlyody, and Erik Borset) presented in more than one city, we have combined the summaries of their presentations into one section per 1

presenter. Thus, it should be noted that the order below no longer reflects the original ordering of the presentations, though the cities and dates covered in each section are indicated as a subtitle for each speaker.

1. Water Management by Objective (presented in Wuhan) and Industrial Water and Energy Efficiency for a Cleaner Xiang River (presented in Changsha)
Presented by Lars Skov Andersen of COWI China in Wuhan on May 18 and Changsha on May 20, 2009 (notes are a compilation of the two presentations) In Wuhan, Mr. Andersen gave a presentation on water management by objective; and in Changsha he presented on industrial water and energy efficiency for a cleaner Xiang River. His management by objective presentation first explained the meaning of management by objective (determining the strategy by figuring out how to achieve desired water outcomes) and then focused on two examples, the World Bank-supported Upper Yangtze Basin Project (with plan designed in 1996-1998) and the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD). The first (the Upper Yangtze Basin Project) has a one dimensional objective, water quality. Looking at current data for water quality and also projections based on modeling, actions to improve water quality (such as the building of wastewater plants) are determined. The EUs WFD is multi-dimensional in its objectives as it addresses different types of water, so is much broader than the Yangtze project. Mr. Andersens presentation on industrial water and energy efficiency for a cleaner Xiang River covered both the issue of industrial wastewater discharges to the Xiang River and energy efficiency initiatives. He raised the concept of industrial symbiosis, by which waste streams from some producers are used by others. On the water side, he discussed efficiency of industrial water use, objectives for cleaner water and strategies to achieve these, and processes and technologies. On the energy efficiency side, he explained the concept of energy efficient design and offered an example from Denmark. He closed by discussing barriers to efficiency improvements (both water and energy). More details on each of the two presentations are given below:

I. Management by Objective
Mr. Andersen began his presentation by explaining management by objective; he then offered two case studies, one in China and one in Europe. Management by objective indicates use of integrated water resources management to achieve targets, or objectives, for good water. 2

The case of the Upper Yangtze Basin: One example of management by objective is the water quality strategy for the Upper Yangtze Basin in Sichuan and Chongqing, a World Bank project Mr. Andersen worked on from 1996 to 1998. The project called for developing a strategy for the entire Upper Yangtze Basin, which is 750,000 km2 in area and home to 112 million people, including 15 major cities with 6.7 million people. The basin contains both the Jinsha and Yangtze Rivers and six major tributaries. The overall objective was environmentally sustainable economic growth, including both access to water resources to support urban development and environmental infrastructure to support economic growth and maintain water quality. To achieve this objective, targets were for rivers within and downstream of the major cities to meet Chinese Class III water quality standards (for domestic urban use), for river flow to meet water demands, for the water supply system to match urban growth, and for wastewater systems to also achieve Class III. China rates water quality from Class I to Class V, with Class I being the best and Class V being not suitable for any use. Class III is suitable for drinking water sources (after treatment), secondary protection areas, fisheries, and swimming. These classes, however, were developed as a system for determining functional use rather than for delineating objectives for water quality. In the baseline analysis, we see the entire stretch of river attaining (in 1994) better than Class II quality (as exhibited by data on ammonia nitrate concentration), but modeling out to 2010 (for the case of no treatment) shows in the urban environment, at the confluence of the Jialing and Yangtze (Chongqing area), a large and serious violation of Class III for total coliform bacteria concentration. The conclusion is that it was necessary to stop diffuse discharges of wastewater. In another baseline analysis in 1994, data shows violation of Class III for the Tuo River, a Yangtze tributary into which half of the wastewater of Chengdu City flows. The tributary significantly violates Class III for most of the year. On the basis of the data collected, modeling done, and objectives, a decision was made to design a water strategy with three components: urban environment, rivers, and Three Gorges Reservoir. For the urban environment component, the strategy called for constructing intercepting sewers in all cities to stop diffuse discharges and enable centralized discharge and treatment downstream of cities. For the rivers, the plan called for investing in primary treatment (a simple mechanical treatment to remove the worst pollutants) in all cities and towns; to invest in secondary wastewater treatment in cities on tributaries (only where we saw that water quality was poor); and to defer (delay) investment in secondary treatment in cities on the main Yangtze River, since main stream quality was acceptable based on model. For the Three Gorges Reservoir, the strategy called for reducing diffuse discharges from rural areas. The wastewater plan called for moving sequentially through implementation in phases from the tributaries (and developing treatment in cities and then towns and then industry) to the Yangtze (and Chongqing). Mr. Andersen showed projected results in water quality improvement. After 3

implementation, it is seen that a remaining 10 percent of the water would not be able to achieve the objective by conventional treatment so that another strategy was needed. In total, about $9 billion US was spent on five different types of treatment facilities in the three phases of the project. Mr. Andersen noted that he was proud of water quality achievements in Sichuan (and showed figures for 2006), but also that he noticed (from another presentation) that Wuhan may be doing better. Results of the project suggesting its success (but also showing room for improvement) can be seen by its status as of 2008: The strategy resulted in new master plans for water and wastewater for 15 cities. Intercepting sewers were given priority, often associated with embankments and riverside recreational areas. Independent wastewater companies were formed. A wastewater discharge fee was introduced; and a wastewater treatment fee is being introduced gradually. In 2003, Chongqing had the highest water and wastewater fees in China. In terms of room for improvement, HRD (human resources development, <1 percent of budget) has been neglected causing low efficiency of wastewater treatment plants. Overall, however, investments are well ahead of plan as of 2008. Case of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD): This is a current project that is also management by objective and driven by multi-dimensional objectives. The overall WFD objective is to achieve good status of all water by 2015. Good status is defined as a condition that deviates only slightly from the undisturbed state. Good status is the second highest quality class. (The ecological status classes are: high, good, moderate, poor, and bad.) Good status is defined by scientific research and inter-calibration. For this we identify natural background conditions, identify reference sites or extrapolate conditions, and inter-calibrate between river basins to ensure comparable results. The aim of inter-calibration is NOT to standardize methodologies, but to ensure that results are comparable. The focus is on defining good status. The multi-dimensional aspect of the EU initiative is in that it deals with different types of water bodies and different objectives for these. For surface water, the goal is good ecological and chemical status (quality), requiring measurements in biology, chemistry, hydrology, and morphology. For groundwater, the goal is good quantitative and chemical status, including groundwater level and chemistry. The exception to the above is that the goal for heavily modified and artificial water bodies is to achieve good ecological potential (water quality). As a result of these different types of water bodies and objectives, the work will need to have many aspects. The work, then, will not just be wastewater treatment projects. Instead, we need to look at the whole ecological cycle and issues not only of water quality, but also of habitat morphology and flow regime. Conclusion: Efficient improvement and protection of the water environment requires management by objective, integrated river basin management, and all sectors contributing to the

objective. For management by objective you must look at what you want to achieve with the water. For this you need integrated river basin management and cooperation of sectors.

II. Industrial Water and Energy Efficiency for a Cleaner Xiang River
Mr. Andersens presentation covered both the issue of industrial wastewater discharges to the Xiang River (reduction through water use efficiency) and energy efficiency initiatives. On the water side, he discussed efficiency of industrial water use, objectives for cleaner water and strategies to achieve these, and processes and technologies. On the energy efficiency side, he introduced energy efficient design, offered some examples, and outlined benefits. He closed by discussing barriers to achieving water efficiency and energy efficiency. Wastewater and the Xiang River Qingshuitan Industrial Zone: The Qingshuitan Industrial Zone is on the Xiang River, in between the cities of Zhuzhou and Changsha. It is a source of risk for the water supply of the Xiang River and Changsha. The zone, established in 1992 and 35 km2 in area, has 130 factories, with production in the areas of thermal power, metallurgy, chemicals, and building materials. Wastewater discharge is 28.6 million tons per year and 80,000 tons per day. Mr. Andersen mentioned that, although wed heard a lot of factories had been closed in Hunan, his thinking for Qingshuitan is that Hunan does not need to close the factories, but instead to modernize them. He has heard that there are five-year plan targets to reduce wastewater discharge in the zone. He noted that his company, COWI, a Danish Company, has the know-how and technology to help Hunan meet those targets. Industrial Water Use Efficiency Improvements and Industrial Symbiosis: Mr. Andersen made a comparison between Zhuzhou and Denmark in terms of GDP per ton of water used and came out with the result that industrial water use efficiency is 150 times higher in Denmark than Zhuzhou. While the difference in part reflects different structures of the industrial economies of the two places, it also indicates the potential for huge water savings in industry in Hunan. He then offered a model of industrial symbiosis used in Denmark. industrial symbiosis means that industries (and municipal and agricultural water users) live together and nourish or feed each other with (water) resources. He then offered a simplified diagram of the model of industrial symbiosis used in the Danish city of Kalundborg. Reflecting the concept of industrial symbiosis, the waste used from one factory is used as input for another. The industrial zone in the city produces about 10 percent of the worlds insulin at Novo Nordisks facilities and 10 percent of the worlds enzymes at Novozymes factories. Excess energy from the power plant (in form of heat) can be used in district heating for the city. Gypsum from the power plant can be used to manufacture building materials. Cleaning of oil in the refinery in the zone produces sulfur, which is used in chemicals and fertilizer manufacturing. Finally, the sludge from enzyme

production can be used in agriculture and biogas production, the latter of which can be fed back to the power plant for use. Wastewater and Waste Minimization Strategy: In preparing a strategy for wastewater and cleanup of the Xiang River, the most important thing is that we have clear objectives and tie these to clear outputs. Mr. Andersen suggests looking at objectives and outputs at four levels: the river basin, the industrial zone, the factory, and the production line. For example, objectives at the river basin level would include safe drinking water for Zhuzhou, Xiangtan, and Changsha and improved hydro-ecology or the Xiang River. Outputs to meet these objectives would then be an early warning and emergency response system and an integrated river basin management outline and action plan. At the industrial zone level, the objective would be economically and environmental sustainable development; and outputs to achieve this would be a wastewater management strategy and plan and a financing plan. At the factory level, objectives would be to reduce environmental charges and achieve symbiosis by turning waste into raw materials. Outputs to achieve this would be an inventory of waste and wastewater streams and a mapping of demand for waste products. At the production line level, objectives would be to find clean technology solutions to minimize water use by the recycling of process water; and outputs to achieve this would be environmental audit reports. Elements of the wastewater strategy and plan output would include: (1) centralized treatment (possibly pre-treatment by chemical precipitation and biological treatment), (2) dual sewer system (including wastewater loaded by bio-degradable organics and wastewater loaded with toxic organics and metals), (3) separation or pre-treatment of wastewater that may inhibit biological treatment, (4) industrial symbiosis to increase re-use of water, and (5) environmental audits of individual enterprises (for pollution prevention and control at the source and for implementation of clean technology to minimize waste and wastewater streams). Mr. Andersen showed a diagram of industrial wastewater treatment flows and explained how initial treatment is decentralized and must take place at the industrial enterprise. Mr. Andersen offered the example of industrial water use efficiency of the TAJCO Ningbo Metal Plating factory. Using new counter-current rinsing technology, the wastewater discharge from the factory is only one percent of the discharge from traditional technology. Ninety-five percent of the rinse water is recycled; and 99.9 percent of heavy metals are removed. Energy Efficiency: Mr. Andersen then went on to discuss energy efficient design and benefits. He pointed out that, while the initial impression given is that improving energy efficiency is all about technology, in fact, money/financing is also really important. Energy efficiency not only benefits the environment, but can make enterprises more profitable. Energy efficient design of new factories is a term that covers the design principle of taking energy considerations into account from the very first day of designing a brand new factory on a new site (greenfield project)

or designing an expansion of an existing factory or simply just designing new process equipment or new utilities for your factory. Mr. Andersen offered an example of energy efficient design the Danish Crowns bacon factory near Horsens, which is the most modern bacon factory in the world and has a capacity of processing 75,000 pigs per week (Monday to Friday). COWI was the main consultant on this large greenfield project and was in charge of planning, engineering, inspection, energy efficient design, and many other aspect of the project, which was commissioned in 2004. The project called for an enlarged cooling tower plant, with the addition of four new towers to the existing ten old ones. The enlarged cooling tower plant has two operation modes parallel operation and series operation. When cooling water flows are less than 3,000 m3/hour, the series operation is used and this gives better cooling of the cooling water overall. The cooling tower project reduced energy consumption by 4,900 MWh/year and resulted in savings equivalent to over 3.5 million RMB/year with an investment of only about 2.5 million RMB/year, so that the payback period was less than one year. Barriers to Efficient Solutions: Mr. Andersen reviewed barriers to efficient solutions (both for water and energy use) and divided these to those on the political level, industrial zone level, factory level, and working level. On the political level, barriers include lack of coordination between economic growth and environmental protection, inadequate administration and financial (dis-) incentives, and weak enforcement of otherwise good legislation. On the level of the industrial zone, the barrier is that the zone management has limited authority over enterprises. At the factory level, issues are that there is a focus on fixing visible short-term problems rather than on long-term planning, that there is a focus on technology rather than management solutions and that there is a lack of trust of outside consultants (who could bring solutions). At the working level, barriers to efficient solutions are strong hierarchies that make interviews and data collection difficult and low incentive for workers to promote practical solutions.

In closing, Mr. Andersen emphasized that water efficiency and energy efficiency are good for both business and the environment.

2. Shallow Lake Eutrophication and Clean-up (presented in Nanjing), Strategic Water Resources Management (presented in Wuhan), and River Clean-up (presented in Changsha)
Presented by Dr. Laszlo Somlyody, Chair of Department of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics in Nanjing on May 15, Wuhan on May 18, and Changsha on May 20, 2009 (notes are a compilation of the three presentations) In Nanjing, Dr. Somlyody presented on international experience with shallow-lake eutrophication and clean-up; in Wuhan, he presented on international experience with strategic water resources management; and in Changsha, he presented on international experience with river clean-up. The presentation on shallow-lake eutrophication and clean-up covered the causes of eutrophication and the experiences in Hungarys Lake Balaton, where the algal response did not at first appear to clearly correspond to outside loads. An important lesson is that internal loads in the lake sediment and difficult to estimate non-point source loads from agriculture must be understood. The presentation on strategic water resources management covered the types of freshwater problems, drivers of these, solutions, examples, and lessons learned. It was emphasized that, as the drivers are broad and out of the water box (e.g. economic, political, and social in nature), solutions will not be purely technical in nature. An example, the EU Water Framework Directive, is an umbrella program; and the most important lesson from this example, perhaps, is that water resources management should be carried out on many levels, from the whole river basin down to sub-units within countries. The presentation on river clean-up covered examples from Europe and the US and concluded with lessons learned. The cases, particularly, the Rhine in Europe, show that dead rivers can be rehabilitated, but that it takes a long time and costs are high. Experiences in Hungary show that economic and political transition may result in improved water quality without concerted remediation programs. Data from the US shows that agriculture may be one of the largest causes of water quality impairment. More details on each of the three presentations are given below:

I. Shallow Lake Eutrophication and Clean-up: International Experience

Professor Somlyody began his presentation in Nanjing with some general comments on eutrophication, then spoke on experience in Hungary with Lake Balaton, ways to address 8

eutrophication, and lessons learned for China. He began by showing what looked like a green field, but was in fact a lake plagued by eutrophication. He mentioned that the word eutrophication was first used in 1919 and how a phosphorous load on a normal lake can lead to eutrophication. He also displayed data showing the strong correlation between phosphorous loads and chlorophyll-A, which can indicate eutrophication. Lake Balaton in Hungary: In 1946 before World War II, Lake Balaton had its first warning of eutrophication. The lake, located in Hungary, has an area of 600 km2 and depth of six meters. In 1983, there was a huge blue-green algae bloom. Looking at data for a certain basin (Keszthely Basin) in the lake, one can see a huge increase in phosphorous load starting in the mid-1970s that may be responsible for the bloom. The blooms peaked in 1983 and were at worst in the summer months of July and August. A control strategy was implemented around the time of the worst bloom in 1983, but there was no reaction. In 1994, a tropical algae from Kenya was introduced, showing the global aspects of eutrophication. Sudden improvement was seen in 1995. Professor Somlyody then discussed the role of the sediment, which can contain its own phosphorous load, thus presenting a sort of background load, in eutrophication. He also mentioned that agriculture/non-point sources of phosphorous dominated in the Lake Balaton case. Frequent modelling is used for the non-point sources. There is also a background load of deposition from the atmosphere. Professor Somlyody emphasized that it is absolutely necessary to calculate the background load from the sediment, which might also be called the internal load. He then discussed some of the scales, models, and estimates used to calculate contributions from nonpoint/agricultural sources. Lessons: The lessons learned from such international experience in shallow lake eutrophication include the following: First, there is scientific knowledge out there with regard to this type of lake watershed problem; and it should be used. Second, experience shows that there can be a time lag between when phosphorous load increases and when there are the largest algae blooms. That is, there may be unusual load responses; and these are due to the accumulation of phosphorous in the sediment and also nonpoint sources that may not be well-understood. The approach to dealing with eutrophication might include the following: (1) data and monitoring of the lakes present state; (2) limitation of the nutrients P and/or N; (3) estimates of external loads (background loads, non-controllable loads; point sources; and diffuse, non-point sources; (4) work on the internal load (in the sediment); (5) estimates of likely load-response and identification of targets; (6) design of control measures and estimates of costs; (7) development of an action plan; and (8) implementation and development of appropriate institutions as needed. A key point, then, is that total load control is not enough. There are many hypertrophic shallow lakes in China for which the above lessons learned may be relevant.

II. Strategic Water Resources Management International Experiences

Professor Somlyody began his presentation in Wuhan with a discussion of the types of freshwater problems found and the types of drivers of these. He emphasized that the solutions call for more than technology alone, as the problems often come from drivers outside the water box, such as political, economic, and social drivers. He discussed the development of water strategies and raised the EU Water Framework Directive (EU WFD) and its River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) as an example. Among the RBMPs, he discussed the example of the Danube River and particularly the importance of operating on many levels (from full river basin to smaller and smaller sub-areas). He closed his presentation with a discussion of lessons learned from the European experience that might apply to China. Freshwater problems, drivers, and solutions: Outlining major freshwater problems and drivers, Professor Somlyody named water scarcity, water quality, water supply sanitation, extremes, disappearing waters, and shared waters as problems. As drivers of these problems, he named population, development, poverty, globalization, climate, capacity, and governance. He suggested that in addition to food crises, population crises, and energy crises, there is now a question of whether we will face water crises. Its not yet clear whether we will, but we do need to deal differently with water than we did in the past. In the past, the approach to water use was quite a simple model of demand for uses and resources used according to demand. In the future, he predicts, because of a range of drivers outside the water box, including political, economic, and social ones, pressures are created on the water supply and we thus need water management to mediate between the available resources and our uses of them. In terms of solutions, while engineers may believe we can solve water problems by technical tools, such as wastewater treatment and flood control technologies, they forget that our water problems are a result of a broader scope of drivers, such as population, education, poverty, etc. In developing a water strategy, we should consider the current state of the water, our goals (short, medium, and long-term), drivers of the problem, and alternative scenarios for the future. The solutions will need institutions and monitoring, as well as adjustments along the way, based on the results of the monitoring. Example of the EU Water Framework Directive: The EU Water Framework Directive (EU WFD) is a good example of strategic water resources management and involves 27 counties. The WFD defines its principles as sustainability, ecosystems, integration, and precaution. Its objective is to achieve good status of waters for different eco-regions and river basins. Measures are adopted only under the conditions of full cost recovery and public participation. The details and institutional systems are left to individual countries to decide. Under the EU WFD umbrella, there are about 30 individual directives. Under the WFD umbrella are River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs), which are revised every six years based on monitoring. The 10

Danube River RBMP is an example of integration on different levels. The levels include (from largest to smallest) large river basins (in this case, the Danube), countries, sub-basins, sub-units, and local water bodies. Fourteen countries are involved in the Danube Basin RBMP. In Hungary, there are two sub-basins and 42 much smaller sub-units for the Rhine. Professor Somlyody suggests that planning both be as specific as needed and as general as possible. It should also be as iterative as possible, including both a top-down and bottom-up approach. Lessons learned: The lessons learned are that the following are needed for strategic water resources management: (1) a clear evaluation of existing problems, (2) realistic future goals, (3) alternative scenarios, (4) transparent governance and institutions in charge, (5) efficient legislation, (6) information, data, and monitoring, and (7) sound methodologies.

III. River Clean-Up International Case Studies

Professor Somlyody began his presentation in Changsha discussing generally the issue of dead rivers in Europe and the US and then focusing on the case of the Rhine in Europe. He then discussed the successful clean-up of the Rhine and raised some other successful cases, including water quality improvement in Hungary and the situation in the US. He compared the various causes of river quality impairment in the US. Finally, he closed with lessons learned that may apply to China. Water quality problems in Europe and the US and the Case of the Rhine: From up to 40 years ago, rivers in Europe and the US suffered from lack of oxygen, toxics, and other problems. There was at that time no evidence that dead rivers could be rehabilitated. Yet, now there are success stories that China can learn from. In Europe, there are two river basins of particular note, the Danube and the Rhine. The Danube is the second largest river in Europe. Its basin has 80 million inhabitants and 14 countries; and the main source of pollution in the river is agriculture. The Rhine Basin covers eight countries and 50 million inhabitants, with industry being the main source of pollution. The story of the Rhines pollution and clean-up actually covers 100 years. While its generally believed the Rhines problems began around the time of World War II, salmon studies in the Rhine were actually launched at the end of the 19th century to describe problems with the river. Data from the late 1860s to 1960 show an overall, ongoing decline in numbers of Salmon in the river, except for a surge around 1880. A drop to almost zero salmon in 1960 was caused by organic and inorganic substances, salt, heavy metals, pesticides, hydrocarbons, and chlorine. After the mid-70s, there was (as a result of conventions and measures) a significant decrease in soil chlorine; and ammonium concentrations also went down. In 1986, there was a serious accident when an insecticide factory spilled 1,000 tons of product into the river; and the Rhine became dead again. The Rhine Action Program was adopted in 1987. Success, however, was achieved in bringing down the load of halogenated organic 11

substances by 80 percent between 1986 and 1995. Pollutants in the sediment of the river were and remain a serious problem. The Rhines sediments have an accumulation of both inorganic and organic pollutants (such as Zn and PCBs); and these remain in the sediments for a long time. By 2000, a return of salmon was achieved in the Rhine, so that its clean-up can be deemed a success. The number of species in the river has been going up; and today it is a healthy ecosystem. The cost of the successful clean-up of the Rhine was 40 billion Euros, spent between 1975 and 1990. A key lesson learned from this experience is that clean-up is an extremely long process; and there needs to be gradual adjustment of the plan along the way. Examples from Hungary and the US: The case of Hungary shows that, with political and economic transition, emissions to water were reduced. Data shows marked reduction in fertilizer use by around 1990 and, though more gradual, large reduction in COD between 1975 and 1995. Water quality in various locales also shows strong improvement. These improvements are due to structural changes in the economy rather than remediation measures. Turning to the US, we can see high expenditures on wastewater treatment and cases of strong improvement in river water quality. Between 1972 and 1993, total expenditures in the US on municipal and industrial wastewater treatment, including capital expenditures as well as operations and maintenance, was about $600 billion (in constant 1987 USD). This is about 0.7 percent of GDP during the period. Looking at causes of water quality impairment in the US in 1990-1991, the top cause, far surpassing all others, was agriculture. Other causes include municipal point sources, urban runoff, mining, industrial point sources, silvaculture, and hydrologic modification. Lessons Learned for China: The European and US cases include many examples of dead rivers that have been cleaned up, thus showing that it is possible to revive such rivers. Experience, however, also shows that rehabilitation takes time and is expensive. A mix of policy tools has been shown to be successful. These include: shut down of polluting factories, fines, fees, standards and treatment, subsidies, grants, EIAs, ISO 14000, permits, etc. Clean technologies can also play a role. In terms of financing and affordability, phased development is a possible approach. Finally, a new trend in restoration is hydromorphological and ecological restoration of rivers.

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3. Lake Mjosa Action Plan (presented in Nanjing), Water Resources Management (presented in Wuhan), and Danube Environmental Program (presented in Changsha)
Presented by Mr. Erik Borset, NORPLAN in Nanjing on May 15, Wuhan on May 18, and Changsha on May 20, 2009 (notes are a compilation of the three presentations) In Nanjing, Mr. Borset presented on experience from Norway with shallow lake eutrophication and clean-up; in Wuhan, he presented on water resources management experience and recommendations; and in Changsha, he presented on experience in Europe with river clean-up. The presentation on shallow lake eutrophication and clean-up focused on the case of the Mjosa River in Norway. This lake, which began to have eutrophication problems in the early 1970s, was cleaned up by a science-based and cost-effectiveness based action plan, with the government providing secretariat, science and monitoring, and some financial support. After a first phase focusing on obvious sources of pollution, results were still not good enough; and agriculture was identified as the best place to focus in a second phase. An information campaign was included among the effective measures in this second phase. As a result of the second phase, the river was successfully stabilized. Making sure you have solid scientific backing for selected actions is a key lesson taken from the Mjosa case. The presentation on water resources management experience and recommendations covered overall recommendations for gradual change, methodologies for integrated water resources management, and specific recommendations for a number of environmental sectors. While emphasizing the difficulties of institutional change and the need therefore to be gradual, Mr. Borset in this presentation also conceded that China, like no other country hes seen, can sometimes do things very quickly. For integrated water resources management, he suggests phased action plans, as the plan will need to be revised based on results of monitoring. For legal and economic instruments, he suggests that these be simplified and made more clear. For water monitoring, he suggests that China simplify its current system. The presentation on river clean-up in Europe focused on the Danube River as an example of river clean-up that might inform Hunans efforts to clean up the Xiang River. Past industrial challenges faced by the Danube that were introduced by Mr. Borset include industrial pollution, nutrient loads resulting in eutrophication, and large cities with only incomplete wastewater treatment. A donor project resulted in a convention to clean up the Danube, along with an associated action plan for doing so. There was a focus on assessment of industrial hotspots. In the end, it was found that most problems with industrial pollution were along the Danubes tributaries and not the main river. Changes in industrial structure and moves to cleaner production had improved the situation on the main river with time. The clean-up work did

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experience some institutional problems. Namely, a cost-benefit approach was taken, but there was lack of coordination among countries in that all were focused on their individual benefits. More details on each of the three presentations are given below:

I. Lake Mjosa Action Plan

Mr. Borset began his presentation by introducing environmental problems in Norways Lake Mjosa, then went on to discuss identification of sources of pollution, phased plans for addressing the issues, results, and lessons learned. The Mjosa is Norways biggest lake. Serious concerns with its water quality were raised in the 1970s when there were blue-green algae blooms (of plankton algae, known as Ocillatona), creating a very unpleasant smell. This raised concerns to all users in the area of drinking water. The lake was also very valuable in terms of fishing and recreation, so concerns about losing these functions were raised as well. Initiation of the Action Plan: An action plan was launched; and all municipalities and industries (of which there were not many) in the catchment participated. The Norwegian Government strengthened the research and (joint) monitoring program. They provided secretariat services and some financing through soft loans. Source of Problem: Phosphorous was identified through scientific work as the limiting factor for algal growth; and therefore the action plan focused on reducing the total load of P to the lake. The sources of P identified and which thus became a focus were municipal wastewater, industrial wastewater, and use of detergents by households. Phase One of the Action Plan and Results: New municipal wastewater treatment plants were built and old ones upgraded and equipped with phosphorous removal facilities. After four to five years, less algae was measured in the summer months and problems of the bad smell of drinking water had stopped. Yet, the situation in the lake was still judged as unstable; and a second, follow-up phase was initiated. Phase Two of the Action Plan and Results: The first phase had focused on obvious pollution sources and the ones over which Norways State Pollution Authority had direct legal power. The second phase addressed more difficult sources, based on a cost-benefit (actually a cost-efficiency) approach. The most cost-efficient measures were found in agriculture. The following actions were adopted: restrictions in certain agricultural activities, reduction in subsidies for fertilizers, economic support for environmentally friendly practices, and information campaigns (which had a significant positive effect). The overall results were that the median P concentration in the summer (growth) season had been reduced by about 60 percent. (It should be noted that a lot of 14

phosphorous is in ordinary runoff from the mountains and forests, so that its concentration cannot be reduced down to a very low level.) The highest algal concentration measure before action started was 12.5 mg chlorophyll a /m3. (While this may not seem so high compared to some cases in China, it is enough to set off algal blooms.) The level in 2007, was 1.6 to 2.3 mg/m3, which is near the target of 2.0 mg/m3 that had been set. The level has been stable for many years now, so it is concluded that a stable, controlled situation has been reached. Lessons Learned: Lessons learned from the Mjosa Lake case that may inform the Chinese case are as follows: Use a stepwise assessment and implementation approach. Assess the problems and identify the main causes. Identify the obvious and manageable actions, using solid scientific backing for your choice of action. Implement the plan. Monitor the development. Carefully analyze cost-benefits of follow-up initiatives. Finally, implement a pragmatic menu of approaches.

II. Water Resources Management: Experiences and Recommendations

Based on experience with a project in which hed been involved in China, Mr. Borset began with a general discussion of the importance of institutions and gradual change. He then discussed methodologies for integrated water resources management, followed by a discussion of legal and economic instruments. He then discussed institutional and other recommendations with regard, successively, to urban pollution control, municipal waste water treatment, industrial pollution, agricultural pollution, and water quality monitoring. Overall Message: Mr. Borset began by suggesting that one should not underestimate institutional and bureaucratic restraint to changes and transfer of responsibilities in water resources management. He suggested that, as a result, gradual changes be made, in particular if several conditions are changing at the same time. Yet, at the same time, he recognized that China is unique and has been able to make dramatic changes or take actions unheard of in other countries. The efficient implementation of Chinas Close Down policy, in which numerous paper mills were closed, is an example. He further noted that the experiences and recommendations given in this presentation are based on the World Bank study Water Pollution Control in China, prepared by Chinese experts and with input from Mr. Borset and Professor Somlyody. The study was published in 2006 as a World Bank discussion paper Water Quality Management Policy and Institutional Considerations. Integrated Water Resources Management: There is general consensus that it makes sense to have a management structure that coordinates management of water quality and quantity and manages the river basin as one unit. The approach suggested is to define long-term strategy and realistic short-term targets for water quality. Institutional reform should be accelerated to 15

manage the process. All water infrastructure elements should be seen in relation to one another. And, we should be open to change in problem focus, as this happens all the time. As a result, phased development is needed. We need realistic approaches to integrate water quality and water quantity. In China, then, an issue is that MEP (Ministry of Environmental Protection) leads pollution control efforts, while MWR (Ministry of Water Resources) leads in quantitative aspects. Legal and Economic Instruments: Mr. Borset sees a lot to be done in the use of legal and economic instruments for water resources management. Namely, these instruments need to be simplified and made clearer. He suggests reducing the number of laws and regulations, determining a simple and basic set of standards, and developing these gradually. Fees and fines, he suggests, should be used for improved pollution control; and the fee and fine system should be developed in parallel with the standards. Recommendations for various sectors: Mr. Borset made recommendations for integrated water resources management in urban pollution control, municipal wastewater treatment, industrial pollution control, agricultural pollution control, and water quality. For urban pollution control, he suggests trying to see the connection between all the urban systems. He further suggests clarifying the roles of protection departments and water boards and establishing utilities as independent economic units. Finally, he suggests avoiding unnecessary future excess capacity. For municipal waste treatment, he notes that the choice of treatment process should be based on knowledge of concentrations of pollutants in inflows into the system and that a flexible approach is needed in technical planning. He notes that the development of industrial structure, urbanization, water price, etc. have strong impacts on inflow water volume and quality. It has been found to be effective to organize wastewater treatment plants as independent economic units, often with municipal or city ownership. For industrial pollution, he suggests that the era of close down is over and that for the future China needs a more cost effective policy. He suggests giving priority to sectors with the highest cost efficiency in pollution control and promoting water conservation and recycling (through increasing water charges). He also suggests promoting cleaner production. For agricultural pollution, he indicates that the main focus (although the most difficult) should be put on reducing diffuse runoff of N and P. Increasing eutrophication problems in Chinese water bodies, he notes, result in a focus on agricultural pollution. Pig and chicken farms are also of particular concern and can be managed using the same principles as other point sources of pollution. Progress in reducing agricultural pollution can be made by increasing knowledge and understanding of the problem. The use of extension services for information and awareness raising can be adopted. Further, incentives for good practice might be adopted, as might a reduction in subsidies for fertilizers. 16

For water quality, it is suggested that China harmonize and simplify the present monitoring system and concentrate on a few, key parameters. Quality assurance needs to be adopted at all stages in the monitoring process. Further, complex integrated systems should be avoided until the basic functions are in place.

III. Danube Environmental Program

Mr. Borset explained that his presentation on river clean-up would focus more fully on institutional aspects, as compared to those of his international colleagues, which had offered more in terms of the technical, chemical, and hydrological aspects of clean-up. His presentation focused on the case of the Danube as an example of river clean-up in Europe that might inform Hunans efforts to clean up the Xiang River. Mr. Borset first introduced the Danube and its past environmental challenges and then went on to describe the convention and strategic plan for cleaning up the Danube. He described findings with regard to mining and industrial pollution in the Danube Basin. Finally, he closed with results and lessons learned. The Danube and its environmental challenges: The Danube is a very long river, with a length of 2,857 km long. Its basin covers 800,000 km2, which makes it the second biggest river catchment in Europe, second only to the Volga Basin. The upper sources of the Danube are in southern Germany, while the lower reaches are in Romania. The river discharges about 200 km3 of water per year into the Black Sea. Environmental challenges faced by the Danube in the past include: industrial pollution from poorly managed industrial complexes; large cities with incomplete sewage treatment; war damages and accidental releases of pollutants; nutrient loads of P and N to the Black Sea and the ecological changes caused by eurtrophication; need for flood control; and need for wetlands conservation. The most important wetland is the Danube Delta, which is one of the most important bird sites in the world. Further, it might be noted that flood control objectives may be in conflict with wetland conservation objectives. Convention and Strategic Plan: A donor project resulted in a convention and action plan to clean up the Danube. First, an environmental program was set up for the Danube as a result of a joint GEF (Global Environment Facility, with implementing agencies being the UNDP and the World Bank) and EU-PHARE project in 1992. A task force was set up with representatives from recipient countries, international donors, and NGOs. The project co-ordination unit was set up in Vienna. The Danube River Protection Convention (DRPC) was signed in June 1994 and went into force in October 1998. The Conventions Secretariat is based in Vienna. The strategic action plan document for 1995-2005 was endorsed in December of 1994, with the following goals: (1) reduce negative impacts of activities in the Danube River Basin on the river ecosystem and the Black Sea. (2) Maintain and improve the availability and quality of water in the Danube 17

River Basin. (3) Establish control of hazards from accidental spills. (4) Develop regional water management cooperation, including a monitoring system. Mining and Industrial Pollution: As pre-intervention studies, different hotspots of industrialrelated activity on the main tributaries were investigated along the river to see if investment in this area could help clean up most of the pollution. Other industrial-related activities under the program were: joint/harmonized water quality programs to oversee progress and early warning systems for accidental release of pollutants and toxic substances that could hurt fish downstream. There were large industrial and mining complexes along the river; and point and non-point sources of petroleum pollution were also major problems. Results indicated that activities in the catchment led to serious discharges of heavy metal, toxic organic pollutants, and organic material (COD) into the water. The monitoring program showed, however, that the status of the main Danube was relatively good due to its high dilution and oxygenation capacity. The problems caused by industrial pollution were mostly limited to the Danubes tributaries. Lessons Learned: In the end, many of the mining and industrial hotspots identified in the beginning disappeared as the result of the transition into market oriented and quality focused production processes. Surviving industries introduced clean technologies, which significantly reduced emissions. Closed sites with hazardous waste dumps represented a permanent problem. Further, it was found that increased tariffs on water use and wastewater handling reduced water consumption and discharges. Industrial wastewater pre-treatment made operation of treatment plants more efficient. Also, monitoring, early warning systems, and institutional strengthening had been successful. Some institutional or methodological problems were experienced as well. In principle, a cost benefit approach was applied. However, each country wanted their share of the investments. Upstream countries and donors see business opportunities and favor their technological solutions. ministries of environment participated in setting the river basin priorities. Other responsible ministries sometimes had different priorities. Finally, donors had country-by-country rather than a regional or river basin perspective in their approach to cooperation.

4. Pollution Control in Lake Tai Watershed of Jiangsu Province

Presented by Mr. Jiang Wei, Director of Tai Lake Division of the Jiangsu Environmental Protection Bureau in Nanjing on May 15 Director Jiangs presentation began with an introduction to the area of Tai Lake and to the lake itself. He then went on to discuss water quality in the lake and eutrophication issues. He then discussed the sources of pollution and short-term, emergency and long-term measures to address the pollution. He further discussed planning and institutions for pollution control in the lake. He 18

then discussed specific measures for control of municipal wastewater and agricultural pollution, as well as measures for ecological recovery. He closed by discussing investment, technical, and policy support. Introduction to Jiangsu, Tai Lake catchment, and the lake itself: Jiangsu Province, in which Tai Lake is located, is located along Chinas eastern seaboard in the Yangtze River Delta. Jiangsus area is 102.66 km2, accounting for about one percent of Chinas area. The population of the province is 76 million people, which is about six percent of Chinas total. Jiangsus GDP is three trillion RMB, about ten percent of the nations total. The result: The province has a relatively large economy and relatively small area; and, thus, pressure on population, resources, and environment is large. The Tai Lake catchment has a population that is 20 percent of that of Jiangsu Province. The area of the catchment is 0.3 percent of the nations total area. The catchments GDP is 50 percent of Jiangsu Provinces total and 6.4 percent of the nations total. Per capita GDP of the area is three times the national average. Overall, it can be seen that the Tai Lake catchment is a key area in Jiangsu Province. The population and towns in this area are relatively concentrated. There are lots of enterprises, the economy is relatively large, and the burden of pollution is heavy. The Tai Lake Catchment contains five cities and 30 counties. The main cities are Wuxi, Suzhou, and Changzhou. Tai Lake is Chinas third largest freshwater lake. It has an area of 2,338 km2 (about the same size as Shenzhen) and an average annual depth of 1.89 m. Its water volume is about 4.4 billion m3. A network of over 200 tributaries feeds the lake; and the tributaries have interconnected water systems. There are 189 lakes within the catchment that have an area of over 0.5 km2. This is typical of large-scale lakes in plains areas. Water quality and eutrophication of Tai Lake: From the early 1980s to the early 1990s, the average water quality of Tai Lake declined from Class 2 to Class 3. From the mid-1990s to today, the water quality in Tai Lake has continued to decline to Class 5. Nutrients in the lake have taken it from mesotrophic status to eutrophic status during this same period. Since the 1990s, eutrophication outbreaks (blue-green algae) in the lake have become common. The causes of eutrophication are total N and total P loads. Total N is less than Class 5 and is a key factor influencing water quality in Lake Tai. Total P is Class 4. COD is Class 3. In 2008, satellite remote sensing was used to study eutrophication in the lake. It was found that May, August, and Sept. are the peak eutrophication months in the lake. Each year, from April to October, emergency monitoring is carried out. During this period, daily reports are made and the eutrophication is studied daily. Both satellite and manual methods are used for monitoring. With over a year of work, in 2008, the frequency of eutrophication as well as the area of

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eutrophication both went down, the first by 28.8 percent and the second by 44.3 percent, as compared to 2007 levels. Sources of pollution: Sources of pollution in the lake include both outside sources and internal sources. External sources include industry, daily life use wastes, agriculture, animal husbandry, soil erosion, transport and tourism, rainfall, etc. The main means of entry of pollutants are tributaries feeding the lake. Internal sources of pollution are the sediments, which have a volume of two billion m2, of which the flow of sediments is 233 million m3 and the average thickness is 0.82 m. Release of N and P from the sediments account for about one quarter of the total load of these in the lake. Urgent measures: Monitoring and early warning systems include satellite remote sensing, automatic monitoring, and manual monitoring. There are daily monitoring reports and emergency reports. Work has been done to address eutrophication problems. In 2008, technology was used to address 600,000 tons, which is equivalent to removing 160 tons of N and 40 tons of P. Work has also been done to ensure security of water supply. A secondary water supply network and interconnection has been built. Long-term measures: The following long-term measures have been taken for control of pollution in Tai Lake: (1) Industrial pollution control In six different industries (chemicals and papermaking, tanning, brewing, dying, printing, and electroplating), enterprises have been prompted to upgrade; (2) Municipal pollution control Wastewater treatment plants and associated pipe networks have been constructed; (3) Rural pollution (daily life sources) control Decentralized wastewater treatment facilities have been built; (4) Agricultural pollution control Reduction in pesticide and fertilizer use and runoff and development of standards for livestock farms have been implemented; (5) Dredging; and (6) Ecological restoration. Planning: The State Council has approved implementation of The Comprehensive Management Program for Tai Lakes Water Environment. The Jiangsu Provincial Government has prepared an implementation program for this plan. There is also a plan for the main tributaries entering the lake. This is known as 15+2+2. There are also individual plans for dredging, ecological restoration, and other special topics. Finally, there are individual implementation plans for the different cities, counties, and towns involved. Institutional and Legal Framework: The following measures have been taken for setting up institutions for the cleaning up of Tai Lake: The provincial government has set up the Tai Lake Water Pollution Prevention and Control Committee, the Provincial Tai Lake Water Pollution Prevention and Control Office, the Provincial Leading Group on Emergencies of Eutrophication in Tai Lake, the Provincial Committee on Control of Pollution and Eutrophication in Tai Lake, and the Interdepartmental Coordination Mechanism for Two Provinces and One Municipality. 20

Jiangsu Province has also taken a number of legal actions related to cleaning up Lake Tai. The province has revised its ordinance for prevention and control of pollution in the lake. It has also implemented policy for establishing municipal and town wastewater treatment facilities and setting water pollution discharge limits for key industrial sectors. Jiangsu has also closed down a number of chemicals enterprises in aggregate a total of 3,101 by the end of 2008. Finally, the province takes special actions each month to stop illegal pollution discharge. Monitoring: The province has begun establishment of an automatic monitoring station network and information-sharing platform. When complete, the system will have 180 automatic water quality monitoring stations (including eutrophication warning buoy stations). Of this total, 75 were built in 2008 of which four were floating buoy stations. These stations altogether monitor 282 pollution sources. Control of municipal and rural daily-life pollution: To address municipal water pollution in the Tai Lake area, Jiangsu is establishing centralized wastewater treatment plants. In 2008, newly built plants had a capacity of 1.1705 million tons per day; and newly built pipe systems had a length of 3,500 km. The rate of wastewater treatment in cities and towns in the area reached 75 percent. For 699 rural settlement sites, decentralized wastewater treatment is being set up. Already, 401 facilities have been completed; and 74 settlements located in top-level protected sites are fully served. In terms of non-toxic solid waste, handling capacity of 1,600 tons per day will be set up. Finally, the quality of sludge disposal will be raised, so as to prevent secondary pollution from wastewater plants. Control of agricultural pollution: Measures will include the shutdown and relocation of 1,720 livestock and poultry farms in the area that do not meet requirements. Remediation will take place on 184 medium and large-scale livestock farms; and 111 biogas projects will be installed on livestock farms that have good scale. Annual nitrogen containing fertilizer use will be reduced by 3.2 percent and pesticide use will be reduced 7.97 percent. Sixty-six demo projects for rural household wastewater treatment will be implemented; and 172,000 m2 of ecological interceptor demo ponds will be constructed. Finally, water hyacinth planting will be limited to 15,600 mu (a mu is 1/15 of a hectare). Water transfer drainage and dredging: By 2012, 97.51 km2 is targeted to be dredged with a total volume of 35.41 million m3. Ecological Restoration: Reforestation will be carried out around the lake and on the two shores of the tributaries feeding into the lake. A project for restoring wetlands around the lake will be set up as will a provincial-level wetlands park.

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Investment and Policy: Beginning in 2008, provincial finance will arrange for two billion RMB annually to be allocated especially to cleaning up Tai Lake. This is expected to stimulate nearly 12.0 billion yuan in other investment. In addition, it will be required that municipalities and counties newly add 10 to 20 percent of financing for pollution control in Tai Lake. In terms of policy support, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Environmental Protection will have pilots in the area for emissions trading and environmental resources compensation, etc.

5. Strategic Management of the Water Resources of Hubei

Presented by Mr. Zhang Wenman, Chief of the Environmental Monitoring Center Station of the Hubei Environmental Protection Bureau in Wuhan on May 18, 2009 Mr. Zhangs presentation was divided into three parts, covering (1) current status of water resources and recent results for water quality in Hubei Province, (2) challenges/problems facing water resources management in Hubei Province, and (3) strategies for addressing water resources issues in the province. In terms of current status of Hubeis water resources, he noted that Hubei has abundant water resources (being known as the province of a thousand lakes) and overall has stable or improving water quality that on average, in Hubeis rivers, is somewhat better than national average quality levels. At the same time, while a strong majority of sections of the Yangtze and Han Rivers and of the Yangtze tributaries meet requirements, tributaries of the Han are at a lower level, which he calls moderately polluted. He also classifies Hubeis lakes as, on average, moderately polluted. In terms of issues/problems with Hubeis water resources, among the problems he mentions are: low per capita water resources and floods; significant stretches of rivers and lakes that are of unacceptable quality, particularly among tributaries of the Han River and among Hubeis lakes, and, to a lesser extent, among some tributaries of the Yangtze; lake and river eutrophication and problems with agricultural non-point source pollution; ecological degradation in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze, including reductions in fish and biological diversity; and increases in discharge of industrial and domestic solid waste, including electronic wastes and batteries, and sludge from wastewater plants. Strategies suggested for addressing the problems include those related to policy, pricing, and adopting and environmental responsibility system for water bodies. A focus on safe drinking water, adjustment of the industrial structure, and speeding up of construction of environmental infrastructure (wastewater plants, etc.) is also put forward. Also, work on controlling non-point sources of pollution, water quality monitoring by remote sensing, and improvement in water pollution control technologies are also raised. Finally, improving public participation through awareness raising activities, etc. is also suggested.

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More details on Mr. Zhangs presentation are given below:

Current Situation of Water Resources in Hubei

In discussing the current situation of water resources in Hubei, Mr. Zhang began by discussing the scale of the provinces abundant resources and then went on to outline current levels of water quality achieved. In terms of scale, Hubei (known as the province of a thousand lakes) is rich in both river and lake resources. The province lies in the middle reaches of the Yangtze, containing 16.4 percent of that rivers total length. The Han River also runs through the province (where it meets the Yangtze), with Hubei containing 54.8 percent of that rivers length. Hubei has 574 lakes with area over 100 mu (one mu is 1/15 of a hectare). It also has abundant wetland resources. Current river water quality: Mr. Zhang pointed out that, over the years, the provincial party committee and the provincial government have been paying great attention to protecting the water environment and have adopted a series of measures to protect the water environment and achieved significant results. Overall, the provinces water quality is somewhat better than Chinas average; and water quality in the majority of sections on the main stretches of the Yangtze and Han Rivers meet standards. Yet, while tributaries of the Yangtze also do fairly well, tributaries of the Han are considered moderately polluted. Overall, in the province, the proportion of sites with Class I to III water quality is 82.9 percent, while the proportion of Class V is 7.6 percent. These results compare favorably to the averages for Chinas seven major water systems, which are 55.0 percent of sites meeting Class I to III and 20.8 percent of sites being Class V. Hubeis lakes and reservoirs with water quality of Class III or better make up 54.5 percent of the total, an improvement over 2007 levels of 50 percent. In terms of the main stretches of the Yangtze and Han Rivers, 78.9 percent reach standards for the functions for which they are classified. Of 52 monitoring stations in tributaries of the Yangtze, 84.6 percent have water quality of Class I to III and meet standards for their assigned function, while 9.6 percent are in Classes IV to V and 5.8 percent are below Class V. Among 19 monitoring stations of the Han River, 47.4 percent perform in Class II or III, while 26.3 percent are Class IV and 26.3 percent Class V. Current lake water quality: Lakes in the province are, overall, considered moderately polluted, with the main pollutants being total nitrogen and phosphorous. Among 15 water areas of 11 provincial-level lakes, 20.0 percent have water quality of Class II, 13.3 percent of Class III, 40.0 percent of Class IV, 6.7 percent Class V, and 20.0 percent below Class V. Of the total, 20.0 percent of the water areas are considered to have water quality meeting the standards for the functional applications for which they are categorized.

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Water quality in area of Three Gorges Reservoir: The general water quality of the main body and tributaries of the Three Gorges Reservoir Area is considered excellent, with 90.5 percent of the 21 monitoring sections meeting Class II standards and 9.5 percent meeting Class III standards. Drinking water quality: Improvements have been seen in centralized drinking water quality, with the proportion meeting standards rising from 94.5 percent in 2008 to 99.9 percent at present (2009).

Water Resources Problems/Challenges in Hubei

Mr. Zhang began the part of this presentation by discussing those problems he sees as a result of an imbalance in Hubeis water resources and then went on to discuss several water resource issues related to water pollution. Imbalance of water resources in Hubei: In terms of the imbalance, Mr. Zhang pointed out that, although Hubei appears on the surface to have an abundance of water, it is actually lacking in water in many regards. Related problems are as follows: (1) The amount of water resources per capita is relatively limited. The level is 1,719 m3 per person as compared to the national average of 2,630 m3 per person. (2) Water resources are not distributed evenly in time: Excessive flow of water through Hubei frequently results in floods; and drought is also common. (3) Hubeis water resources are not distributed evenly geographically, with southern areas and mountain areas having more water, while northern areas and plain areas and river valleys have less and may be lacking in water. The gap is huge. Water distribution does not match population, output value, etc. For example, Mr. Zhang named five areas together having 55 percent of the population (Wuhan, Xiangfan, Jingzhou, Xiaogan, and Huanggang), but only 32 percent of water resources. (4) Utilization of water resources has not been rational, with overuse resulting in problems such as drying up of rivers, shrinking of lakes and wetlands, etc. Water quality issues in Hubeis lakes and rivers: Mr. Zhang conceded that there are water quality problems in Hubeis lakes and rivers. Monitoring data from 2008 indicates that 9.5 percent of monitoring sections on rivers are of water quality of Class IV and V and 7.6 percent are below Class V. For example, on tributaries of the Yangtze, 9.6 percent of monitoring sections are of Class IV or V; and 5.8 percent are below Class V. On the tributaries of the Han River, 26.3 percent of the monitoring sections are Class IV and 26.3 percent are Class V. Among provincial lakes, 40.0 percent of monitoring areas are Class IV, 6.7 percent are Class V, and 20.0 percent are worse than Class V. Of these lake monitoring areas, only 20 percent meet the standards for their functional classification. Among 15 water areas in 11 provincial-level lakes, five are in a state of slight eutrophication. The inside lake of Da-ye has a medium level of 24

eutrophication. Pollution in urban lakes and sewage discharge ditches is serious, with some of these water bodies having lost their assigned function. Water problems caused by agricultural non-point pollution and livestock breeding pollution: In terms of livestock farms, in 2006, these discharged 204,000 tons of COD in Hubei, or 33 percent of the provinces total. Discharge of total nitrogen and total phosphorous was about 80,000 tons that year in the province. Application of fertilizer and pesticide was 2.9 million tons and 131,700 tons, respectively, with a utilization rate of only about 30 percent. There is a lack of proper disposal of municipal sewage and solid waste in rural areas. High density aquaculture and caged aquaculture is still being carried out in some lakes. Excessive amounts of feed are thrown in the lakes resulting in pollution and eutrophication. Algal blooms in rivers: The frequency of algal blooms in key river basins is increasing, namely in the Three Gorges Area and in the Han River. In the area of the Three Gorges Reservoir, blooms are occurring frequently in some secondary rivers. For example, in the Xiangxi River, blooms have occurred each year since the first bloom caused by diatom in late February 2004 and the green algae bloom that occurred in July 2005. At present, blooms in the area are spreading from branch waters and reservoir bays to waters near the shoes of the main stretches; and the algae is changing from river algae (diatom, etc.) to lake algae (blue algae, etc.). Over the past ten years, algae blooms have occurred many times in the main part of the Han River. The area covered is expanding. Results from simulations suggest that, if the south-to-north water diversion is implemented, the frequency of blooms in the Han River may rise from 9.2 percent to 13.6 percent. A water bloom that occurred in the basin of the Dongjing River at the end of winter/beginning of spring in 2008 indicates that the problem of algal blooms in the main stream and branches of the Han River is getting worse. Ecological degradation in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze: In recent years, riverbed erosion and siltation in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze have led to problems. Blockages in lakes causes change in water flow and increased siltation, reducing lake area and thus deteriorating lake quality and causing swamping and eutrophication. As a result, there has been a decrease in aquatic resources, including natural fish and overall biodiversity. Increased discharge of solid waste: During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006-2010), the volume of industrial solid waste discharged increased at 15 percent annually in Hubei and the discharge of domestic urban waste increased at 7.2 percent annually. Hubei has already built 54 sewage treatment plants with daily treatment capacity totaling 3.63 million tons and annual sludge production of about 93,000 tons. Hubei has a huge consumption of electronics products; and, according to incomplete statistics, the province annually discards 1.8 million pieces of electronic products and 50,000 tons of batteries. This electronics waste contains lead, mercury,

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cadmium and other heavy metals, as well as some other poisonous and harmful substances, so that improper disposal poses a serious threat to Hubeis water resources.

Strategies for Addressing Water Resource Issues in Hubei Province

Mr. Zhang offered eight overall strategies for addressing the above water resource problems/challenges. These eight strategies are summarized below: Improving the policy system for protecting water resources in the province: Mr. Zhang indicated that a key strategic measure for addressing water issues will be to further improve policy, including that regarding water pricing and financing of projects, as well as relevant tax, banking, and land policies. He mentioned making use of the development of the pilot Wuhan Urban Circle as a means of gradually bringing natural resources and losses due to pollution and ecological damage into the national system of accounting, and of developing demos for COD discharge permit trading, bonds for water rehabilitation, ecological compensation in water basins, etc. He also suggested implementation of a strict responsibility system for government officials in terms of achieving targets for the environmental protection of water bodies. Under this system, officials at all levels will take on responsibility for rivers and lakes. He further suggested promoting innovation in environmental and economic policies, such as: (a) policies for green loans to reduce risks to enterprises; and, (b) in industries with a high occurrence of environmental accidents, piloting of environmental pollution liability insurance to improve the capacity to prevent accidents. Finally, he suggests strengthening environmental evaluation of listed companies and the timely disclosing of information on enterprise violation of environmental regulations. Focusing on ensuring the safety of drinking water sources: Mr. Zhang suggests a focus in this regard on the Yangtze River, Han River, Qingjiang River, Danjiangkou Reservoir, Three Gorges Reservoir, Honghu Lake, Liangzi Lake, and East Lake, strengthening prevention and control of water pollution to ensure safe drinking water from these sources. In order to achieve this, current environmental laws and regulations should be strictly implemented and EIAs should be conducted for all new projects that impact the environment. Treatment of industrial pollution sources that affect drinking water sources should be enhanced, upgrading or closing down those enterprises that do not conform. In addition, work needs to be done to improve the safety of rural drinking water. Adjustment of the industrial structure to reduce water pollution, including upgrading of polluting industries and encouragement of less polluting industries: This strategy would involve promoting those industries that have low water consumption and lighter pollution than others. Expansion of industries with the reverse (high water consumption and pollution) should 26

be restricted. Measures should be adopted for eliminating outdated capacity in sectors such as paper making, brewing, dyeing, tanning, pharmaceuticals, sorting of mined materials, and chemicals. An end should be put to the review and approval of projects that discharge heavy metals like mercury, cadmium and hexavalent-chromium, as well as persistent organic pollutants, into rivers or lakes. Those projects that emit nitrogen and phosphorous into lakes should be strictly controlled. Cleaner production should be promoted and clean production auditing enforced in sectors such as chemicals, metallurgy, paper making, brewing, and pharmaceuticals (all of which discharge high levels of pollutants). The upgrading of such traditional sectors should be combined with the development of new high-tech industries. Acceleration of construction of urban environmental infrastructure and improvement of treatment rates of municipal sewage and waste: Mr. Zhang suggests that Hubei target, by the end of the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2006-2010), to have built urban sewage treatment plants in all cities above the county level and to achieve a municipal wastewater treatment rate of 70 percent and municipal solid (non-toxic) waste treatment rate of 60 percent. He suggests that higher standards be set for treatment of sewage entering key river basins and lakes. He also suggests that policy support be made available to villages and towns that cannot afford to construct and operate wastewater treatment facilities. He further suggests that work be done to develop policies and technical measures for sludge treatment of urban wastewater plants and that work be done to ensure that these plants properly handle leakage and sludge to avoid secondary pollution. Strengthening control of non-point sources of pollution from rural areas: Recommendations for reducing non-point source pollution include implementing clean rural areas projects, promoting recycling of agricultural waste, and popularizing use of clean energy (such as biogas and solar energy) in rural areas. In terms of livestock farms, it is suggested that pollution control be strengthened and scientific studies done to determine where, within range of key river and lake areas, such farms should be forbidden. Reduction in the use of pesticides and fertilizers should be encouraged and follow up with pollution-causing aqua-farms conducted. Rural people should be taught how to use fertilizer and pesticides in a reasonable way; and ecological and organic agriculture should be developed, with the build-up of organic green food bases. Development of water quality monitoring by satellite remote sensing and setting up of a comprehensive monitoring system: The envisioned, remote sensing water quality monitoring system would be able to achieve real-time and quick acquisition of data on the water environment for large river basins and surrounding areas. The system would allow the quick release of information on water environmental quality and would also enable the development of an early warning system for water pollution accidents.

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Strengthening of research on water pollution control technology and technical support for water clean-up: Mr. Zhang suggested that difficult problems related to Hubeis water environment be included in the provinces list of Special Science and Technology Projects. He suggests that financing for such projects be increased. He further suggests technical support for rehabilitation of lakes be provided. Improvement of public participation in environmental management of water resources: Mr. Zhang suggests that, in combination with World Water Day, World Environment Day, China Trans-Century Environmental Protection Campaign, and similar activities, a broad program of awareness raising aimed at the public be adopted. He also suggests that a public information system and a public hearing system to review the approval of construction projects be set up.

In closing, Mr. Zhang mentioned that the 13th World Lake Conference will be held in Hubei in November of this year (2009) and welcomed all to attend.

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