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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost I thank Almighty for all the blessings on the successful completion of this seminar. A seminar in its entire means can only be accomplished with the assistance of many people. I show my sincere gratitude to all those who contributed in this seminar work, they can never be forgotten. I owe a great deal of gratitude towards Head of Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Mrs.Lizz Joseph for her whole hearted support for this seminar. I express my sincere thanks to the lecturers Fr. Josekutty Chacko, Mrs. Tinu Scaria, and Fr. Jacob Kurian for their encouragement and support throughout my preparations. At last, but not the least, I thank Jeji B Chandran (Secretary, Electrical Engineering Association) for making arrangements for the seminar and I also thank all my friends and well wishers for their cooperation and moral support.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................... 4 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................. 5 HOW A CAMERA WORKS? ................................................................................................................................. 6 WHAT IS AN IMAGE SENSOR? .......................................................................................................................... 10 HISTORY OF IMAGE SENSORS .......................................................................................................................... 11 TYPES OF IMAGE SENSORS............................................................................................................................... 11 CHARGE COUPLED DEVICE ............................................................................................................................... 12 Basic Operation of a CCD ................................................................................................................................. 13 TRANSFORMATION OF AN IMAGE USING CCD ARRAY .................................................................................... 15 FRAME TRANSFER CCD IMAGE SENSOR........................................................................................................... 16 INTERLINE TRANSFER CCD SENSOR ................................................................................................................. 17 INTERLINE TRANSFER VS FRAME TRANSFER .................................................................................................... 17 CMOS SENSORS ................................................................................................................................................ 18 BASIC OPERATION OF CMOS SENSORS ............................................................................................................ 18 COMPARISON OF CCD AND CMOS SENSORS ................................................................................................... 20 ACCELEROMETER SENSOR ............................................................................................................................... 21 MEMS technology ............................................................................................................................................ 22 MEMS ACCELEROMETERS .................................................................................................................................. 24 MEMS fabrication ........................................................................................................................................... 25 GYROSCOPE SENSOR ........................................................................................................................................ 27 PROPERTIES OF A GYROSCOPE ........................................................................................................................ 32 Proximity Sensor .............................................................................................................................................. 36

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost I thank Almighty for all the blessings on the successful completion of this seminar. A seminar in its entire means can only be accomplished with the assistance of many people. I show my sincere gratitude to all those who contributed in this seminar work, they can never be forgotten. I owe a great deal of gratitude towards Head of Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Mrs.Lizz Joseph for her whole hearted support for this seminar. I express my sincere thanks to the lecturers Fr. Josekutty Chacko, Mrs. Tinu Scaria, and Fr. Jacob Kurian for their encouragement and support throughout my preparations. At last, but not the least, I thank Jeji B Chandran (Secretary, Electrical Engineering Association) for making arrangements for the seminar and I also thank all my friends and well wishers for their cooperation and moral support.

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ABSTRACT

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INTRODUCTION WHAT IS A SENSOR?

A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against known standards. The following are the different types of sensors: SENSED QUANTITY Temperature Heat Electrical resistance Electrical current Magnetism Radiation Acoustic ( Sound ) Pressure SENSOR Thermometer, Thermocouple Bolometer, Calorimeter Ohmmeter, Multimeter Ammeter, Galvanometer Magnetometer, Fluxgate compass Geiger Counter, Dosimeter, Scintillation Counter Seismometers, Microphones, Hydrophones Altimeter, Barometer, Barograph

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HOW A CAMERA WORKS?

Photography is undoubtedly one of the most important inventions in history -- it has truly transformed how people conceive of the world. Now we can "see" all sorts of things that are actually many miles -- and years -- away from us. Photography lets us capture moments in time and preserve them for years to come. The work of a camera photography is considered to be one of the greatest inventions of mankind. It has not only helped us see the entire world through a click, but has also transformed how people conceive the world. They can also be kept as a remembrance for the rest of our life. Camera can be defined as a device that is used to capture and record photos or videos. EARLY USE OF CAMERA Nowadays we see a lot of advanced cameras that are used to capture motion as well as images from a very far distance. During the time of its invention images could be taken only in a room and could not be portable. The instrument should be kept in a dark chamber or box and the room should function as a real-time imaging system. Thus the camera was earlier called camera-obscura which meant dark chamber. The first of this kind was invented by a scientist called Johannes Kepler. But this apparatus was very huge and could be portable only as a tent. For this instrument to work the light was passed onto it through a convex lens. Thus an image consisting of external objects would be formed which was subjected to the surface of a paper or glass, placed at the focus of the lens. A much compact and portable camera was introduced in 1685 by Johann Zahn. After years of work by many prominent people the first colour photo was invented by the famous physicist James Clark Maxwell along with Thomas Sutton. Then came the invention of the video made in cameras during the early 1920s. This technology has eventually grown to such heights that in this 21st century, these ordinary film cameras have been replaced by digital cameras. PARTS OF A CAMERA A camera has mainly three parts. They are

Mechanical part or the camera body

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Optical part or the lens section The chemical part or the film

The way in which these three parts are connected represents the different types of cameras. Thus by combining these three parts and using them under the correct calibration produces a correct picture. They are capable of working in both the visible spectrum as well as in other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The basic shape of a camera needs an enclosed hollow chamber with an opening at one end. This opening, also called aperture helps in the entrance of light. This light is the actual image that has to be captured. So a capturing mechanism is set at the other end. All cameras have the lens assembled in the front. This lens helps in capturing the light, which is in turn captured and stored by the recording surface. Most ordinary cameras can take one image at a time. Most video cameras can take a maximum of 24 film frames/sec. MECHANISM OF A CAMERA To know the complete mechanism of the camera, it is better to know each and every parameter of the camera. 1. Focus A cameras focus greatly depends on the clarity of the picture taken. But the focus can be limited only to a certain distance. This range is limited to the range of the lens. This range when adjusted to get a perfect image is called the focus of the camera. For accurate focussing of cameras, the device is comprised of a fixed focus and also consists of a wideangle lens and a small aperture in front of the camera. The range of focus will be clearly indicated in the camera with symbols like two people standing upright, mountains and so on. For a simple camera, a reasonable focus of about 3 meters to infinity is available. The focus available on each camera is different. Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras have a focus that can be changed according to our like. This is done by providing a objective lens and a moving mirror so as to projecting the image to a ground glass or plastic micro-prism screen. Similarly each camera has different settings which will be explained briefly later.

The focus of a camera depends on two main features. They are

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The structure and position of the lens. The angle in which the light beams enter into the lens.

Consider a pencil kept at a short distance from the lens. When the distance is altered, that is kept near and then farther away from the lens, the angle of entry of the light changes accordingly. This light is hit on the film surface kept inside the camera. The angle becomes sharper when the image is close to the lens and will become narrower when the image is kept far away. Thus when the lens is focused farther and then nearer from the pencil, the image is actually moving closer or farther away from the film surface. The correct image will be obtained when the focus is adjusted in such a way that you can line up the focused real image of an object so it falls directly on the film surface. 2. Camera Lens The quality of the photograph taken largely depends on the type of lens used. The precision of a lens depends on a factor called bending angle. This in turn, depends on the structure of the lens. If the lens has a flat shape, the bending angle is less. Thus the light beams will converge a little distance farther away from the lens. Thus the image is also formed farther away. Thus when the distance increases, the size of the image also increases, though the size of the film is constant. If the lens has a round shape, the bending angle will be high. Thus the image will be formed a lot more nearly to the lens. Costly cameras have a lot of lenses, which are replaced or combined according to the magnification required. This magnification power of a lens is called the focal length. Greater the focal length, greater the magnification. 3. Camera Film For an image to be recorded and viewed it must be stored in a film. When an image is captured, it is actually being chemically recorded onto a film. The film mainly consists of millions of light-sensitive grains, which are suspended on a plastic strip. These grains chemically react, when exposed to light. This reaction causes the image to be recorded on the film. This film is then developed by reacting it with other chemicals. For black and white films, the chemicals cause the grains to appear darker when exposed to light. Thus, the darker areas appear lighter and the lighter areas appear darker. This is reversed while printing out the photos.

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For producing colour films, the film consists of light sensitive materials that respond to colours red, green and blue. When they are washed and chemically reacted, you get a negative of a colour photo. DIFFERENT CAMERA DESIGNS There are a lot of types of cameras like Plate camera, large format camera, medium format camera, folding camera, rangefinder camera and so on. Out of these the most used ones are the single-lens reflex camera (SLR) and the point and shoot camera. The difference comes in the manner in which the photographer visualizes the scene. In a point and shoot camera, you do not see the real image through the camera lens. Instead, you get to see only a blurred vision of the image. In an SLR camera, you can see the real image of the scee you are about to capture. It has the same configuration as that of a periscope. When the image is seen from the lens, it hits the lower mirror and bounces from there. It then hits the prism. This prism flips the image to form the original image. The mirror and translucent screen help in providing the exact image to the photographer. Thus, you can focus and compose the image so as to get the exact picture you have in mind.

With upcoming technology, the point and shoot cameras are nowadays fully automatic. SLR is built with both manual and automatic controls. The only difference between the manual and automatic cameras is that the former will be controlled by a central processor, instead of the photographer. The focus system and the light meter transmit the signals to the microprocessor and thus activate all the motors accordingly. These motors control the adjusting lens and also open and close the aperture.

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WHAT IS AN IMAGE SENSOR? Unlike traditional camera, that use film to capture and store an image, digital
cameras use solid-state device called image sensor.

Image sensors contain millions of photosensitive diodes known as photo sites. When we take a picture, the camera's shutter opens briefly and each photo site on
the image sensor records the brightness of the light that falls on it by accumulating photons. The more light that hits a photo site, the more photons it records.

The brightness recorded by each photo site is then stored as a set of numbers
(digital numbers) that can then be used to set the color and brightness of a single pixel on the screen or ink on the printed page to reconstruct the image. PIXELS

The smallest discrete component of an image or picture on a CRT screen is known

as a pixel.

The greater the number of pixels per inch the greater is the resolution. Each pixel is a sample of an original image, where more samples typically provide
more-accurate representations of the original. FILL FACTOR

Fill factor refers to the percentage of a photosite that is sensitive to light. If circuits cover 25% of each photosite, the sensor is said to have a fill factor of 75%.
The higher the fill factor, the more sensitive the sensor.

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HISTORY OF IMAGE SENSORS Before 1960 mainly film photography was done and vacuum tubes were being
used.

From 1960-1975 early research and development was done in the fields of CCD
and CMOS.

From 1975-1990 commercialization of CCD took place. After 1990 re-emergence of CMOS took place and amorphous Si also came into the
picture.

TYPES OF IMAGE SENSORS

An image sensor is typically of two types: 1. Charged Coupled Device (CCD) 2. Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)

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CHARGE COUPLED DEVICE

CCD Stands for "Charged Coupled Device." CCDs are sensors used in digital cameras and video cameras to record still and moving images. The CCD captures light and converts it to digital data that is recorded by the camera. For this reason, a CCD is often considered the digital version of film. The quality of an image captured by a CCD depends on the resolution of the sensor. In digital cameras, the resolution is measured in Megapixels (or thousands of or pixels. Therefore, an 8MP digital camera can capture twice as much information as a 4MP camera. The result is a larger photo with more detail. CCDs in video cameras are usually measured by physical size. For example, most consumer digital cameras use a CCD around 1/6 or 1/5 of an inch in size. More expensive cameras may have CCDs 1/3 of an inch in size or larger. The larger the sensor, the more light it can capture, meaning it will produce better video in low light settings. Professional digital video cameras often have three sensors, referred to as "3CCD," which use separate CCDs for capturing red, green, and blue hues. Charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are silicon-based integrated circuits consisting of a dense matrix of photodiodes that operate by converting light energy in the form of photons into an electronic charge. Electrons generated by the interaction of photons with silicon atoms are stored in a potential well and can subsequently be transferred across the chip through registers and output to an amplifier.

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HISTORY OF CCD SENSORS

The CCD started its life as a memory device and one could only "inject" charge into the device at an input register. However, it was immediately clear that the CCD could receive charge via the photoelectric effect and electronic images could be created. By 1969, Bell researchers were able to capture images with simple linear devices; thus the CCD was born. It was cconceived in 1970 at Bell Labs.

Basic Operation of a CCD In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region, and a transmission
region made out of a shift register (the CCD, properly speaking).

An image is projected by a lens on the capacitor array (the photoactive region),

causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the light intensity at that location.

A one-dimensional array, used in cameras, captures a single slice of the image,

while a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a twodimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of the sensor.

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Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each
capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor.

The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, which
converts the charge into a voltage.

By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire semiconductor
contents of the array to a sequence of voltages, which it samples, digitizes and stores in some form of memory.

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TRANSFORMATION OF AN IMAGE USING CCD ARRAY

1- CCD camera, 2- CCD detector, 3- Reading, 4- Amplifier, 5- A/D converter, 6Digitization , 7- Download

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FRAME TRANSFER CCD IMAGE SENSOR

Top CCD array used for photo detection (photo gate) and vertical shifting. Bottom CCD array optically shielded used as frame store. Operation is pipelined: data is shifted out via the bottom CCDs and the horizontal CCD during integration time of next frame. Transfer from top to bottom CCD arrays must be done very quickly to minimize corruption by light, or in the dark (using a mechanical shutter). Output amplifier converts charge into voltage, determines sensor conversion gain.

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INTERLINE TRANSFER CCD SENSOR

Photodiodes are used. All CCDs are optically shielded, used only for readout. Collected charge is simultaneously transferred to the vertical CCDs at the end of integration time (a new integration period can begin right after the transfer) and then shifted out. Charge transfer to vertical CCDs simultaneously resets the photodiodes, (shuttering done electronically for `snap shot' operation).

INTERLINE TRANSFER VS FRAME TRANSFER

Frame transfer uses simpler technology (no photodiodes), and achieves higher fill factor than interline transfer. Interline transfer uses optimized photodiodes with better spectral response than the photo gates used in frame transfer. In interline transfer the image is captured at the same time (`snap shot' operation) and the charge transfer is not subject to corruption by photo detection (can be avoided in frame transfer using a mechanical shutter). Frame transfer chip area (for the same number of pixels) can be larger than interline transfer. Most of todays CCD image sensors use interlines transfer.

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CMOS SENSORS
CMOS" refers to both a particular style of digital circuitry design, and the family of processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits (chips). CMOS circuitry dissipates less power when static, and is denser than other implementations having the same functionality. CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metaloxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) to implement logic gates and other digital circuits found in computers, telecommunications equipment, and signal processing equipment.

BASIC OPERATION OF CMOS SENSORS

In most CMOS devices, there are several transistors at each pixel that amplify and move the charge using wires. The CMOS approach is more flexible because each pixel can be read individually. In a CMOS sensor, each pixel has its own charge-to-voltage conversion, and the sensor often also includes amplifiers, noise-correction, and digitization circuits, so that the chip outputs digital bits. With each pixel doing its own conversion, uniformity is lower.

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As shown above, the CMOS image sensor consists of a large pixel matrix that takes care of the registration of incoming light. The electrical voltages that this matrix produces are buffered by column-amplifiers and sent to the on-chip ADC.

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COMPARISON OF CCD AND CMOS SENSORS

CMOS image sensors can incorporate other circuits on the same chip, eliminating the many separate chips required for a CCD. This also allows additional on-chip features to be added at little extra cost. These features include image stabilization and image compression. Not only does this make the camera smaller, lighter, and cheaper; it also requires less power so batteries last longer. CMOS image sensors can switch modes on the fly between still photography and video. CMOS sensors excel in the capture of outdoor pictures on sunny days, they suffer in low light conditions. Their sensitivity to light is decreased because part of each photosite is covered with circuitry that filters out noise and performs other functions. The percentage of a pixel devoted to collecting light is called the pixels fill factor. CCDs have a 100% fill factor but CMOS cameras have much less. The lower the fill factor, the less sensitive the sensor is and the longer exposure times must be. Too low a fill factor makes indoor photography without a flash virtually impossible. CMOS has more complex pixel and chip whereas CCD has a simple pixel and chip.

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ACCELEROMETER SENSOR
Accelerometers are one of the simplest but also most applicable microelectro mechanical systems. They have become indispensable in automobile industry, computer and audiovideo technology. This seminar presents MEMS technology as a highly developing industry. Special attention is given to the capacitor accelerometers, how do they work and their applications. The seminar closes with quite extensively described MEMS fabrication. An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that measures acceleration forces. These forces may be static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at our feet, or they could be dynamic - caused by moving or vibrating the accelerometer. There are many types of accelerometers developed and reported in the literature. The vast majority is based on piezoelectric crystals, but they are too big and to clumsy. People tried to develop something smaller, that could increase applicability and started searching in the eld of microelectronics. They developed MEMS (micro electromechanical systems) accelerometers. The rst micro machined accelerometer was designed in 1979 at Stanford University, but it took over 15 years before such devices became accepted mainstream products for large volume applications. In the 1990s MEMS accelerometers revolutionised the automotive-airbag-system industry. Since then they have enabled unique features and applications ranging from hard-disk protection on laptops to game controllers. More recently, the same sensor-core technology has become available in fully integrated, full-featured devices suitable for industrial applications. Micro machined accelerometers are a highly enabling technology with a huge commercial potential. They provide lower power, compact and robust sensing.

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Multiple sensors are often combined to provide multi-axis sensing and more accurate data .

MEMS TECHNOLOGY
What could link an inkjet printer head, a video projector DLP system, a disposable bioanalysis chip and an airbag crash sensor - yes, they are all MEMS, but what is MEMS? Micro Electro Mechanical Systems or MEMS is a term co ined around 1989 by Prof. R. Howe and others to describe an emerging research eld, where mechanical elements, like cantilevers or membranes, had been manufactured at a scale more akin to microelectronics circuit than to lathe machining. It appears that these devices share the presence of features below 100_m that are not machined using standard machining but using other techniques globally called micro-fabrication technology. Of course, this simple denition would also include microelectronics, but there is a characteristic that electronic circuits do not share with MEMS. While electronic circuits are inherently solid and compact structures, MEMS have holes, cavity, channels, cantilevers, membranes, etc, and, in some way, imitate mechanical parts. The emphasis on MEMS based on silicon is clearly a result of the vast knowledge on silicon material and on silicon based microfabrication gained by decades of research in microelectronics. And again, even when MEMS are based on silicon, microelectronics process needs to be adapted to cater for thicker layer deposition, deeper etching and to introduce special steps to free the mechanical structures. MEMS needs a completely different set of mind, where next to electronics, mechanical and material knowledge plays a fundamental role. Then, many more MEMS are not based on silicon and can be manufactured in polymer, in glass, in quartz or even in metals. development of a MEMS component has a cost that should not be misevaluated and the technology has the possibility to bring unique benets. The reasons that prompt the use of MEMS technology are for example miniaturization of existing devices, development of

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new devices based on principles that do not work at larger scale, development of new tools to interact with the micro-world. Miniaturization reduces cost by decreasing material consumption. It also increases applicability by reducing mass and size allowing to place the MEMS in places where a traditional system doesnt t. A typical example is brought by the accelerometer developed as a replacement for traditional airbag triggering sensor also used in digital cameras to help sta-bilize the image or even in the contact-less game controller integrated in the latest handphones. Another advantage that MEMS can bring relates with the system integration. Instead of having a series of external components (sensor, inductor...) connected by wire or soldered to a printed circuit board, the MEMS on silicon can be integrated directly with the electronics. These so called smart integrated MEMS already include data acquisition, ltering, data storage, com-munication, interfacing and networking [4]. As we see, MEMS technology not only makes the things smaller but often makes them better. The MEMS component currently on the market can be broadly divided in six categories where next to the well-known pressure and inertia sensors produced by different manufacturer like Motorola, Analog Devices. The micro-uidic applications are best known for the inkjet printer head popularized by Hewlett Packard. The MEMS component currently on the market can be broadly divided in six categories Packard, but they also include the growing bioMEMS market with micro analysis system like the capillary electrophoresis system from Agilent or the DNA chips. Moreover MEMS deals with the now rather successful optical projection system that is competing with the LCD (liquid crystal display) projector. RF (radio frequency) MEMS is also emerging as viable MEMS market. Next to passive components like high-Q inductors produced on the IC surface to replace the hybridized component as proposed by company MEMSCAP we nd RF switches and soon micromechanical lters. But the list does not end here and we can nd micro machined relays (MMR) produced for example by Omron, HDD (hard disk drive) read/write head and actuator or even toys, like the autonomous micro-robot EMRoS produced by EPSO

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MEMS ACCELEROMETERS
There are many different ways to make an accelerometer. Some accelerometers use the piezo-electric effect - they contain microscopic crystal structures that get stressed by accelerative forces, which cause a voltage to be generated. Another way to do it is by sensing changes in capacitance [3]. This seminar is focused on the latter. Capacitive interfaces have several attractive features. In most micromachining technolo-gies no or minimal additional processing is needed. Capacitors can operate both as sensors and actuators. They have excellent sensitivity and the transduction mechanism is intrinsically insen-sitive to temperature. Accelerometers are being incorporated into more and more personal electronic devices such as media players and gaming devices. In particular, more and more smartphones (such as Apples iPhone and the Nokia N95) are incorporating accelerometers for step counters, user interface control, and switching between portrait and landscape modes. They use accelerometers as a tilt sensor for tagging the orientation to photos taken with the built-in camera. The Nokia 5500 sport features a 3D accelerometer that can be used for tap gestures, for example to change to next song by tapping through clothing when the device is in a pocket. Camcorders use accelerometers for image stabilization. Still cameras use accelerometers for anti-blur capturing. Some digital cameras, such as Canons PowerShot and Ixus range contain accelerometers to determine the orientation of the photo being taken and also for rotating the current picture when viewing Accelerometers are also being used in new contactless game controller or mouse. IBM and Apple have recently started using accelerometers in their laptops to protect hard drives from damage. If you accidentally drop the laptop, the accelerometer detects the sudden freefall, and switches the hard drive off so the heads dont crash on the platters In a similar fashion, high g accelerometers are the industry standard way of detecting car crashes and deploying airbags at just the right time. They are used to detect the rapid negative acceleration of the vehicle to determine when a collision has occurred. They also have a built-in self-test feature, where a micro-actuator will simulate the effect of deceleration and allow checking the integrity of the system every time you start up the engine. Recently the gyroscopes (they rely on a mechanical
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structure that is driven into resonance and excites a secondary oscillation in either the same structure or in a second one, due to the Coriolis force [13]) made their apparition for anti-skidding system and also for navigation unit. The widespread use of accelerometers in the automotive industry has pushed their cost down dramatically [2, 14]. Accelerometers have also found real-time applications in controlling and monitoring military and aerospace systems. Smart weapon systems (direct and indirect re; aviation-launched and ship-launched missiles, rockets, projectiles and sub munitions) are among these application. Some MEMS sensors have already been used in satellite. The development of micro (less than 100kg) and nano (about 10kg) satellites is bringing the mass and volume advantage of MEMS to good use.

MEMS FABRICATION
Micro-fabrication is the set of technologies used to manufacture structures with micrometric features. This task can unfortunately not rely on the traditional fabrication techniques such as milling, drilling, turning, forging and casting because of the scale. The fabrication techniques had thus to come from another source. As MEMS devices have about the same feature size as integrated circuits (IC), MEMS fabrication technology quickly took inspiration from microelectronics. Techniques like photolithography, thin lm deposition by chemical vapor de-position (CVD) or physical vapor deposition (PVD), thin lm growth by oxidation and epitaxy, doping by ion implantation or diffusion, wet etching, dry etching, etc have all been adopted by the MEMS technologists. Moreover, MEMS also grounded many unique fabrication techniques that we will describe in this seminar like bulk micromachining, surface micromachining, deep reactive ion etching (DRIE), etc . In general, MEMS fabrication tries to use batch process to benet from the same economy of scale that is so successful in reducing the cost of ICs. As such, a typical fabrication process starts with a wafer (silicon, polymer, glass...) that may play an active role in the nal device or may only be a substrate on which the MEMS is built. This wafer is processed in a succession of processes that add, modify or remove materials along precise patterns.

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The problem of patterning a material (or making layout) is generally split in two distinct steps: rst, deposition and patterning of a surrogate layer that can be easily modied locally. In the most common process called photo-patterning, the surrogate layer used is a special polymer (called a photoresist) which is sensitive to UV-photon action (Figure 4.1).

Now we have to transfer the pattern to the material of interest. There are two main tech-niques that can be used to transfer the pattern: lithography and lift off. Combination of photo-patterning and lithography is known as photolithography and is nowadays the most common techniques for microfabrication, lying at the roots of the IC revolution This is how the basics of MEMS or at least patterned wafers that will be used in further process are made. Technologically very important and also quite expensive step in process is packaging. It can present even more than 50% of nal product cost. Lets now look in detail at some materials and some processes or techniques that can be used during MEMS process. We already mentioned some above.

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GYROSCOPE SENSOR
A gyroscope plays a significant role in the gaming arena for game consoles as well as smartphones. Smartphones with gyroscope support are able provide the player a richer experience in handling the game controls than a smartphone without it. Back in June 2010, Steve Jobs announced the first iPhone to offer gyroscope support, which is the Apple iPhone 4 we know today. A mechanical gyroscope is a device consisting of a small spinning wheel that is mounted inside two circular metallic rings that are perpendicular to each other. The spinning wheel would continue spinning on its axis regardless of the alignment of the outer rings.

it is primarily used in measuring or maintaining orientation. Thus, this nifty device is able to detect angular movements such as the rotation around the X-axis, rotation around the Y-axis and the rotation around the Z-axis or also known as roll, yard and pitch in laymans terms.

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On the other hand, an accelerometer is only able to detect three linear axes of vectors, including left-right (X-axis), top-bottom (Y-axis) and up-down (Z-axis). Unlike a gyroscope, it measures translation of direction and cannot detect if a device made a full spin or is experiencing inertial change. Mechanical and Electronics Engineering today have managed to transform the mechanical gyroscope into a Microelectromechanical system (MEMS), also known as vibrating structure gyroscope. So, instead of having a spinning wheel inside the microchip, a vibrating mass is placed in the center of the chip. The mass will be vibrated whenever an electrical signal goes through it. Moving the phone will cause the changes of electrical signals that are picked by the sensors. The sensors will send instructions to be interpreted by the software to provide the necessary feedback to the user. When combining both the accelerometer and the gyroscope, you will have a total of 6-axis motion sensing that is able to have precise motion detection by simply moving the phone naturally. This creates an opportunity for game developers to utilise the motion sensing capability of the phone to create games that uses motion control instead of on-screen controls. For example, in a first person shooter game, the player can navigate around the gameplay by tilting and moving the phone instead of using the on-screen controls. On the other hand, developers could give player a different perspective on solving a puzzle, where the player could explore the three dimensional model in a realistic manner by tilting or twisting the phone

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A number of games from developer Gameloft offer gyroscope controls for both the iOS and Android platforms including N.O.V.A., Modern Combat: Sandstorm and Asphalt 6. Other games include Doodle Jump, Temple Run, Gyroblox (iOS) and Zen Bound 2 Universal (iOS) also supports motion sensing. In addition, augmented reality apps such as Sky Map (Android) and Wikituide also utilise some aspect of the gyroscope, allowing discovery and exploration by simply moving the phone around. BASIC IDEA OF GYROSCOPE

A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of angular momentum.In essence, a mechanical gyroscope is a this orientation does not remain fixed, it changes in response to an spinning wheel or disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. Although

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external torque much less and in a different direction than it would without the large angular momentum associated with the disk's high rate of spin andmoment of inertia. Since external torque is minimized by mounting the device in gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any motion of the platform on which it is mounted. Gyroscopes based on other operating principles also exist, such as the

electronic, microchip-packaged MEMS gyroscope devices found in consumer electronic devices, solid-state ring lasers, fibre optic gyroscopes, and the extremely sensitive quantum gyroscope. compasses would not work (as in Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation systems where magnetic the Hubble telescope) or would not be precise enough (as in ICBMs), or for radio-controlled helicopters the stabilization of flying vehicles like or unmanned aerial vehicles. Due to their precision, gyroscopes are also used to maintain direction in tunnel mining. mechanism comprising a rotor journaled to spin about one axis, Within mechanical systems or devices, a conventional gyroscope is a

the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner gimbal or ring; the inner gimbal is journaled for oscillation in an outer gimbal for a total of two gimbals.

The outer gimbal or ring, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the degrees of rotational freedom.

The next inner gimbal is mounted in the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal) so as pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal). This inner gimbal has two

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The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is journaled to spin about an axis, which is always perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees of rotational freedom and its axis reaction force about the output axis.

possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied about the input axis by a The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration that the top of the wheel moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis. whether the output gimbals are Examples of some free-outputgimbal devices would be the used to sense or measure attitude reference gyroscopes the pitch, roll and yaw attitude

of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so

A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon of a free- or fixed- configuration.

angles in a spacecraft or aircraft. The centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. The rotor simultaneously spins about one axis and is capable of oscillating about the two other axes, and, thus, except for its inherent resistance due to rotor spin, it is free to turn in any direction about one or more of the elements. For example, the spinning rotor may be

the fixed point. Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in gimbals. A control is used on spacecraft to hold or maintain a desired attitude angle or pointing direction using the gyroscopic resistance force. In some special cases, the outer gimbal (or its equivalent) may be omitted so that the rotor has only two degrees of freedom. In other cases, the centre of

moment gyroscope (CMG) is an example of a fixed-output-gimbal device that

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gravity of the rotor may be offset from the axis of oscillation, and, thus, the coincide.

centre of gravity of the rotor and the centre of suspension of the rotor may not

PROPERTIES OF A GYROSCOPE
Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft and spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability (Hubble Space Telescope, bicycles, motorcycles, are used in tops, boomerangs, yo-yos, and Powerballs. Many other rotating gyroscopic effect is not being used. The fundamental equation describing the behavior of the gyroscope is:

and ships) or be used as part of an inertial guidance system. Gyroscopic effects devices, such as flywheels, behave in the manner of a gyroscope, although the

where the pseudovectors and L are, respectively, the torque on the the vector is its angular velocity, and the vector is its angular acceleration.

gyroscope and its angular momentum, the scalar Iis its moment of inertia,

It follows from this that a torque applied perpendicular to the axis of

rotation, and therefore perpendicular to L, results in a rotation about an angular velocity of precession P is given by the cross product:

axis perpendicular to both and L. This motion is called precession. The

Precession can be demonstrated by placing a spinning gyroscope with its axis horizontal and supported loosely (frictionless toward precession) at one end. by remaining with its axis horizontal, when the other end of the axis is left unsupported and the free end of the axis slowly describes a circle in a Instead of falling, as might be expected, the gyroscope appears to defy gravity

horizontal plane, the resulting precession turning. This effect is explained by

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the above equations. The torque on the gyroscope is supplied by a couple of

forces: gravity acting downward on the device's centre of mass, and an equal force acting upward to support one end of the device. The rotation resulting from this torque is not downward, as might be intuitively expected, causing the device to fall, but perpendicular to both the gravitational torque

(horizontal and perpendicular to the axis of rotation) and the axis of rotation causing the device to rotate slowly about the supporting point. Under a constant torque of magnitude , the gyroscope's speed of momentum: precession P is inversely proportional to L, the magnitude of its angular

(horizontal and outwards from the point of support), i.e., about a vertical axis,

where is the angle between the vectors P and L. Thus, if the gyroscope's spin slows down (for example, due to friction), its angular momentum decreases and so the rate of precession increases. This continues until the

device is unable to rotate fast enough to support its own weight, when it stops precessing and falls off its support, mostly because friction against precession cause another precession that goes to cause the fall. By convention, these three vectors - torque, spin, and precession - are all oriented with respect to each other according to the right-hand rule. To easily ascertain the direction of gyro effect, simply remember that a rolling wheel tends, when it leans to the side, to turn in the direction of the lean. GYROSTAT A gyrostat is a variant of the gyroscope. It consists of a massive flywheel concealed in a solid casing. Its behaviour on a table, or with various modes of laws of static equilibrium due to the gyrostatic behaviour of the interior invisible flywheel when rotated rapidly. The first gyrostat was designed

suspension or support, serves to illustrate the curious reversal of the ordinary

by Lord Kelvin to illustrate the more complicated state of motion of a spinning

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body when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on the pavement, or a hoop or bicycle on the road. MEMS GYROSCOPE A MEMS gyroscope takes the idea of the Foucault pendulum and uses a vibrating element, known as a MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical System). The MEMS-based gyro was initially made practical and producible by Systron Donner Inertial (SDI). Today, SDI is a large manufacturer of MEMS gyroscopes. FOG A fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) is a gyroscope that uses the interference of light to detect mechanical rotation. The sensor is a coil of as much as 5 km of optical fiber. The development of low-loss single-mode optical fiber in the of Sagnac effect fiber optic gyros. VSG or CVG A vibrating structure gyroscope (VSG), also called a Coriolis Vibratory Gyroscope (CVG), uses a resonator made of different metallic alloys. It takes a position between the low-accuracy, low-cost MEMS gyroscope and the higher-accuracy and higher-cost FOG. Accuracy parameters are increased by using low-intrinsic damping materials, resonator vacuumization, and digital electronics to reduce temperature dependent drift and instability of control signals.

early 1970s for the telecommunications industry enabled the development

High-Q Wine-Glass Resonators for precise sensors like HRG or CRG are based on Bryan's "wave inertia effect". They are made from high-purity quartz glass or from single-crystalline sapphire. USES

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In addition to being used in compasses, aircraft, computer pointing devices, etc., gyroscopes have been introduced into consumer electronics. Since the gyroscope allows the calculation of orientation and rotation, designers have has allowed for more accurate recognition of movement within a 3D space

incorporated them into modern technology. The integration of the gyroscope than the previous lone accelerometer within a number of smartphones. Scott new addition of the gyroscope in the iPhone 4 may "completely redefine the way we interact with downloadable apps". Nintendo has integrated a gyroscope into the Wii console's Wii

Steinberg, known for his critiques on newly released technology, says that the

Remote controller by an additional piece of hardware called "Wii turning.

MotionPlus". It is also included in the 3DS, which detects movement when Cruise ships use gyroscopes to level motion sensitive devices like gyroscopic self-levelling pool tables.

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PROXIMITY SENSOR
The main function of this proximity sensor is to detect how close your smart phone's screen is to your body. When you use your smart phone, it detects the position of ear with respect to screen and turns off the light of screen and saves battery. Also proximity sensor stops the accidental touch, unwanted input during talk. This sensor also detects the signal strength, interference sources and amplifies or filters by use of Beam Forming Technique. Thus, in a nutshell, proximity sensor detect the presence of body like cheek, face or ear and stops the web surfing, music or video during talk/calling and save the battery. After the conversation, it resumes the same function which was stopped earlier during talk.

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