Dieukhienmaydien Truyendongdien Chapt3

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 41 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES

3.1. FIELD ORIENTATION POSSIBILITIES IN INDUCTION MACHINES
Decoupled flux and torque control of an induction machine can be realised by control of instantaneous phase current values, which in turn can be achieved by stator current space vector magnitude and position control with respect to the chosen flux space vector. As already discussed in the Section 2.3.3., a vector is composed of appropriate d-q axis components, d-axis component being the real part and qaxis component being the imaginary part of the vector (i.e. d-q axes are mutually perpendicular, as already emphasised). Stator current space vector can be orientated with respect to space vector of rotor flux, stator flux or air gap flux and machine can be fed from either voltage or current type source. Comparative analysis of different orientation possibilities reveals the main reasons for prevailing application of current-fed induction machines with rotor flux oriented control. If the decoupled flux and torque control are to be achieved in an induction machine by means of either stator flux or air gap flux oriented control, an appropriate decoupling circuit has to be inserted in the control part of the system, regardless of whether the machine is fed from a voltage or a current type source. A similar conclusion is valid for a voltage-fed induction machine with rotor flux oriented control. Orientation along air gap flux space vector has been a rarely discussed and applied orientation possibility until recently. Orientation along stator flux remained as well beyond the scope of interest for a long time. Recent advancement in development of microprocessors and DSPs enables however significantly easier implementation of decoupling circuits. As a consequence, an increase in amount of research devoted to these two orientation methods has occurred recently, with emphasis on orientation along stator flux. If the flux space vector is to be estimated from measured values of stator currents and stator voltage, then the stator flux can be estimated more accurately than the rotor flux, due to inevitable parameter variation effects in the machine. This is exactly the vector control scheme where orientation along stator flux is suggested to be a better solution than the rotor flux orientation. If the machine is of such a design that rotor slots are closed, orientation along stator flux becomes especially advantageous. The variation of rotor leakage inductance in machines with closed rotor slots can be very significant and can cause even static instability if rotor flux oriented control is applied. More specifically, pull-out torque, which is theoretically infinite in the absence of parameter variations, is a function of rotor leakage inductance and if it is reduced to such a level that maximum allowed torque exceeds its value, static instability will result. On the contrary, with orientation along stator flux pull-out torque always has finite value which is however not affected by rotor leakage inductance variations. Therefore stability problems can be avoided by appropriate design of the torque controller limit. Very much the same discussion and conclusions apply for the field-weakening region as well. If there are no parameter variations, orientation along stator flux with appropriate decoupling circuit can provide the same quality of dynamic response as the rotor flux oriented control. However, if there are parameter variations, stator flux oriented control becomes superior. All the previous remarks are restricted to the case when flux estimation is performed by means of measured stator voltages and currents. The most advanced achievement in field oriented control of induction machines is the universal vector controller (UFO), which enables realisation of orientations along stator, air gap and rotor flux. Different orientation types and appropriate decoupling circuits are available. Universal vector controller enables combined application of indirect and direct vector control methods with orientations along rotor, air gap and stator flux in different operating regimes. A possible combination suggested consists of indirect rotor flux oriented control in low speed region and direct stator flux oriented control in high speed and field-weakening region (the notions of indirect and direct vector control will be explained shortly).
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Wider application of universal vector controllers with combined orientation schemes is however not likely to take place in the near future. Of far the greatest importance is still rotor flux oriented control of a current-fed induction machine, as it offers both theoretically ideal dynamic response and the simplest realisation. This vector control scheme has become during the last five years an industrial standard and there is at present a variety of commercially available drives that utilise the principle of indirect rotor flux oriented control of a current-fed induction machine. Notions of indirect and direct vector control were introduced in the preceding paragraph and they ask for further clarification. These terms are related to the way in which orientation is achieved but they are not related to any specific choice of flux along which orientation is performed. Different subdivisions of vector control techniques on direct and indirect methods are available. As will be shown in the next Section, vector control requires precise knowledge of the instantaneous angular position of the selected flux space vector. Conventional approach groups together as direct methods all the methods which utilise some measured data related to either terminal or magnetic variables (air gap flux, stator currents and voltages) for flux space vector position calculation. In the sense of this definition, indirect vector control schemes perform calculation of flux space vector position without any measurement of electromagnetic variables. Commanded axis currents enable calculation of angular slip frequency which is later on used together with measured rotor speed (position) to produce an estimate of flux position. Indirect and direct vector control defined in this way are often termed as feed-forward and feedback control, respectively. Notions of indirect and direct field oriented control will be used according to this subdivision. Summarising, indirect vector control methods here are those that utilise reference values of induction motor variables for calculation of rotor flux space vector position (plus measured speed or position), while direct methods perform the same calculation by using measured electro-magnetic variables, and, if necessary, measured rotor speed or position. Methods of direct and indirect rotor flux oriented control will be discussed in detail in Section 3.3. Only rotor flux oriented control is elaborated in what follows. Current-fed induction machine is treated first. This is followed by analysis of the voltage-fed induction machine. One important aspect of the discussion that follows is related to the power supply. As emphasised in Section 2.4., an ideal variable magnitude, variable frequency sinusoidal voltage source does not exist and an inverter has to be used instead. This is however just an unavoidable nuisance which has no consequences on the principals of the vector control. Vector control theory is developed under the assumption of ideal sinusoidal supply under all operating conditions. This means that the control is related to the fundamental harmonic of the supply in the inverter case. The fact that the inverter supply produces higher order voltage harmonics as well does not influence in any way the principles of vector control. The presence of higher order voltage harmonics in the supply simply means that the currents of the machine and the torque contain higher order harmonics as well. While these do adversely affect the behaviour of the machine (additional losses and heating, torque ripple, reduced efficiency), they do not affect the control. Hence the control system of any vector controlled drive essentially generates current (or voltage) references that are in any steadystate operation pure sine waves. The complete theory of vector control that follows in Section 3.2. assumes that the machine is supplied from a pure sinusoidal voltage source.
3.2.
ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED CONTROL
3.2.1. Current fed induction machine
As already noted, if the machine is regarded as current-fed the stator currents can be treated as known and, under ideal conditions, equal to their reference values. In other words,
ia = ia
*
i b = ib
i c = ic
(3.1)
where the asterisk denotes reference (required) phase current values generated by the control system, while current values without an asterisk are those in the machine. Equation (3.1) applies to any instant
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in time and cannot be ever fully satisfied in reality. However, by using current control of a VSI, one approaches this ideal situation. The methods of current control of a VSI are beyond the scope of interest at present and are discussed in detail in Chapter 5. From the preceding discussion it follows that the output of the control system are phase current references. Recall that the same was said in Chapter 1 in conjunction with armature current of a high performance separately excited DC motor drive. Since the stator currents are known, there is no need to consider stator voltage equations for realisation of the control scheme. In order words, stator voltage equation of the model (2.36) can be omitted from consideration. This is obviously a simpler case than when stator voltage equation has to be considered as well, as the case is with rotor flux oriented control of a voltage-fed induction machine. The model (2.36) is given in the arbitrary reference frame and is repeated here once more for convenience:
v s = Rs i s +
s
d dt
+ ja
0 = Rr i r +
r
d dt
+ j (a )
= Ls i s + Lm i r
Te = 3 2 P Lm Lr Im i s
r
= Lr i r + Lm i s
}
)
i s = ids + jiqs = i s e
j s s
(2.36)
v s = vds + jv qs = v s e
j s s
The clue to vector control consists in selection of the speed of the common reference frame. For rotor flux oriented control the speed of the reference frame is selected as equal to the speed of rotation of the rotor flux space vector at all times. The real axis of the reference frame, d-axis, is at all times aligned with the rotor flux space vector, while the q-axis is perpendicular to it. As the common reference frame is fixed to the rotor flux space vector and moreover, as the d-axis (real axis) of the common reference frame coincides with rotor flux space vector, then
s = r a = r r = r d r = r dt
(3.2)
Rotor flux space vector, Eq. (2.34), becomes a pure real variable in this special frame of reference,
= dr + j qr = r
r
(3.3a)
i.e., it follows that

dr = r qr = 0
d qr dt = 0 .
(3.3b)
Rotor flux and stator current space vectors in the common reference frame fixed to the rotor flux space vector are illustrated in Fig. 3.1. Taking into account Eq. (3.3), torque equation of (2.36) takes, using the stator current space vector equation of (2.36), the following form:
Te = 3 2 P Lm Lr
r Im i s =
{ }
3 2
Lm Lr
r iqs
(3.4)
Torque equation (3.4) is of the same form as the torque equation met in DC machine theory (see equation (1.4)) and it shows that, if the magnitude of the rotor flux is kept on constant value, torque can be independently controlled by stator q-axis current. In order to accommodate rotor voltage equation (2.36) to the chosen reference frame, rotor current space vector has to be expressed from the rotor flux linkage equation of (2.36) (note that Eq. (3.3) is
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accounted for and hence the rotor flux space vector is a real quantity; it is therefore not underlined any more):
q-axis (Im)
is
s r
r
r
d-axis (Re)
s
A-axis
a-axis
Fig. 3.1 - Illustration of space vectors in common reference frame fixed to the rotor flux space vector.
i r = r Lm i s / Lr
(3.5)
Substituting (3.5) into rotor voltage equation of (2.36) and taking into account (3.2), the following rotor voltage equation results:
0= 1 d 1 r + r + j ( r ) r Lm i s Tr dt Tr
(3.6)
where Tr = Lr/Rr is the rotor time constant. Separation of (3.6) into real and imaginary part yields
r + Tr
d r = Lmids dt
(3.7) (3.8)
( r ) r Tr = Lmiqs
Equation (3.7) reveals that, in this special common reference frame fixed to the rotor flux space vector, magnitude of rotor flux can be controlled by stator d-axis current and that magnitude of rotor flux is constant if the stator d-axis current is constant. According to Eq. (3.8), angular slip frequency sl = r is linearly dependent on stator q-axis current if the magnitude of rotor flux is constant. Consequently, developed torque is proportional to slip frequency. If the stator d-axis current is held constant, torque can be instantaneously altered if it is possible to change stator q-axis current instantaneously. Note that there is no pull-out torque (i.e., pull-out torque is theoretically infinite) and any desired value of the torque can be obtained by applying appropriate value of the stator q-axis current, while maintaining the constant rotor flux. Illustration of flux and torque production in a current fed rotor flux oriented induction machine is given in Fig. 3.2. From Fig. 3.2 it directly follows that rotor flux amplitude is controllable by stator d-axis current component only (as excitation flux can be controlled in a DC machine by excitation winding current) while for constant flux operation torque depends on stator q-axis current component only (which corresponds to armature current in a DC machine). The principle difference is however that in an induction machine both d- and q-axis stator current components are actually parts of the same stator current vector, while in a DC machine excitation and armature current are completely independent. If the machine is current-fed, stator voltage equations can be omitted from consideration and the equations derived so far constitute the complete model of a rotor flux oriented induction machine. Equations (3.4), (3.7) and (3.8) show that decoupled torque and flux control can be obtained with a
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current-fed machine in rotor flux oriented reference frame. Difficulties experienced in practical analogue realisations, before the microprocessor era, are a consequence of the need to perform coordinate transformation from rotational to stationary reference frame. The control system has to operate in rotor flux oriented reference frame if decoupled control is to be achieved, while actual machine operates in stationary phase domain. A schematic representation of a current-fed induction machine with rotor flux oriented control is given in Fig. 3.3. Block CRPWM denotes current regulated PWM inverter, speed drive is shown, and provision for operation in field-weakening region is included. Closed loop current control is not explicitly shown in Fig. 3.3: however, it is contained within the block CRPWM, that ensures that Eq. (3.1) is (approximately) satisfied. Closed loop speed control is of course present. Hence the situation is the same as in a separately excited DC machine: the inner current control loop is contained within the outer speed control loop and measurement of currents and the speed is required. Note that all the variables associated with the control system have an asterisk, while those without an asterisk are the variables within the machine. The configuration of the drive displayed in Fig. 3.3 corresponds to category of direct orientation schemes (superscript e in the transformation block indicates that an estimate of the rotor flux space vector position is used for co-ordinate transformation). Structures of rotor flux estimators are dealt with in Section 3.3.
ia ib ic 3 e 2 is iqs Lm Tr sl is jr ids Lm 1 + sTr 1 r
3P Lm 2 Lr
Te
P Js TL
1 s
Fig. 3.2 - Block diagram of an ideal current fed rotor flux oriented induction machine (note that if stator d-axis current is constant rotor flux is constant and torque depends on stator q-axis current only). Friction torque is neglected and s represents Laplace operator.
Ideal CRPWM: = i i* a a
Calculation of rotor flux vector r r

*
ia ib ic
signals from motor r i* s j e r i* s 3 ia *

* ib * ic
Te i* Torque qs contr.
i* b = ib i* c = ic ia ib ic
Speed contr.
T* e
Field weak.
* r
Flux contr.
i* ds
C R P W M
IM
Fig. 3.3 - Control of a current-fed direct rotor flux oriented induction machine: the scheme for operation in both the base speed region and the field weakening regions is shown.
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Control system in Fig. 3.3 contains two parallel channels, one for flux control and the other one for torque control. It is just one of possible versions of the direct rotor flux oriented control system. For example, if the drive is required to operate in the base speed region only, then the rotor flux reference is an independent constant input. If rotor flux reference is constant, then it follows from (3.7) that r = Lm i ds and flux controller is often omitted. Stator d-axis current reference is in such a case obtained * * as i ds = r Lm . Next, under constant rotor flux reference operation it follows from (3.4) that stator qaxis current is at all times directly proportional to the torque. Hence the torque controller may be omitted and the speed controller output becomes equal to the stator q-axis current reference. Hence one obtains the scheme of Fig. 3.4 instead of the one in Fig. 3.3.
From the rotor flux position estimator
r *
PI _ iqs*
r *
1 Lm
ia C e R jr e ib* P ib IM ids* is* 3 ic* W ic 2

M
i s*
ia*
Fig. 3.4 - An alternative form of the direct rotor flux oriented control of a current-fed induction machine (operation in base speed region only).
Control system of Fig. 3.4 is undoubtedly considerably simpler than the one of Fig. 3.3, since there is only speed controller rather than speed, torque and rotor flux controllers. Current controllers are once more hidden within the block CRPWM that ensures satisfaction of (3.1). Fig. 3.4 is in essence fully equivalent to the control system of a DC motor shown in Fig. 1.2. Speed controller output is the stator q-axis current reference; the same applies to Fig. 1.2 where the output of the speed controller is the armature current reference (scaling between torque reference and armature current reference in Fig. 1.2 can be included in the speed controller parameters in the same way as it was done in Fig. 3.4). The second branch of the control system in Fig. 3.4 sets the constant stator d-axis current reference that will provide operation with constant rotor flux; it corresponds to the excitation winding current setting in a DC machine. The important difference between Figs. 1.2 and 3.4 is that in the case of the DC machine there is no need for any kind of co-ordinate transformation. The commutator ensures that torque and flux control are inherently decoupled. In an induction machine decoupled control of rotor flux and torque results in the rotor flux oriented reference frame. Hence the control system operates in that reference frame. As the machine has to be supplied with physical phase currents, it is necessary to perform co-ordinate transformation in order to relate the fictitious d-q axis currents with physical phase currents. Thus the co-ordinate transformation in an induction motor control system performs the role of the commutator in a DC machine control. The co-ordinate transformation requires knowledge of the rotor flux space vector instantaneous position. The methods of calculating the position of the rotor flux space vector will be elaborated in Section 3.3. It should be noted that the co-ordinate transformation in Figs. 3.3 and 3.4 is shown as a two-step transformation (blocks exp j re and 2/3). These two blocks describe the transformation from d-q axis reference frame to the phase reference frame, described as a single transformation step in (2.23).
To summarise the discussion so far. Model of a rotor flux oriented current-fed induction machine fully resembles the model of a separately excited DC machine. However, since the stator current d-q axis components are fictitious currents, it is necessary to convert these current references (created by the control system) into the actual phase current references using a co-ordinate transformation. The
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equations that constitute the model of a current-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine are (3.4), (3.7) and (3.8):
r + Tr
d r = Lmids dt
( r ) r Tr = Lmiqs
Te =
3 2
(3.9)
Lm Lr
r iqs
The control system creates stator d-q axis current references on the basis of these equations. The coordinate transformation is governed by (2.23),
ia = ids cos r iqs sin r ib = ids cos( r 2 / 3) iqs sin( r 2 / 3)
* ic * * * * * *
(3.10)
* ids
cos( r 4
* / 3) iqs
sin( r 4 / 3)
and it requires knowledge of the instantaneous rotor flux spatial position angle. Its calculation is discussed in Section 3.3, since it does not depend on whether the machine is current-fed or voltage-fed.
3.2.2.
Voltage fed induction machine
If the machine can not be treated as being current-fed, voltage-fed case results and stator voltage equation of (2.36) has to be considered as well. It is important to note that the equations (3.9), that describe rotor flux oriented current-fed induction machine, remain to be valid and constitute now one part of the model, rather than the complete model. The final goal remains orientation of stator current space vector along rotor flux space vector, however the appropriate stator voltage space vector which enables achievement of the goal has to be determined. In other words, stator voltage space vector has to have such a magnitude and has to be put in such a position that resulting stator current space vector attains exactly the magnitude and position with respect to rotor flux space vector that are needed to realise decoupled flux and torque control; i.e., stator current space vector is controlled indirectly by direct control of stator voltage space vector. Current control remains to be present inside the drive control structure. However, in contrast to the case of the current-fed induction machine, where current control was performed using the phase currents and it was therefore possible to regard CRPWM as an ideal current source, current control is now performed using d-q axis stator current components. The ultimate outputs of the control system are now stator phase voltage references, rather than stator current references. Since current control is performed in the rotating reference frame, it is necessary to transform measured stator phase currents into d-q axis components. Two co-ordinate transformations are therefore now required: one transforms stator d-q axis voltage references into phase voltage references, while the other one (inverse one) transforms measured phase currents into their d-q axis components. The overall complexity of the control system is therefore significantly higher than the case is with a current-fed induction machine. The reason why the concept of voltage-fed machine, with current control in rotating reference frame, is frequently applied is that it is extremely well suited for pure digital realisation (in contrast to the case of the current-fed machine, that is usually built using combined digital-analogue realisation; current control is usually analogue, while the remainder of the control system is digital). Stator flux space vector can be given from flux linkage equations of (2.36), under the conditions of rotor flux orientation (3.2)-(3.3), as
=
s
Lm r + Ls i s Lr
(3.11)
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where = 1 L2 m / ( Ls Lr ) is the total leakage coefficient. Substitution of (3.11) into stator voltage equation of (2.36) and resolution into d-q components gives stator voltage d-q axis equations in the reference frame fixed to the rotor flux:
vds = Rsids + Ls vqs = Rsiqs + Ls dids Lm d r + r Lsiqs dt Lr dt diqs dt + r Lm r + r Lsids Lr
(3.12)
If the stator transient time constant Ts' = Ts = Ls / Rs is introduced, Eqs. (3.11) become
i ds + Ts
'
di ds dt di qs dt
= =
1 Rs 1 Rs
v ds
d r dt 1
Rs 1 + r 1 Rs 1 + r
+ r Ts i qs
'
(3.13)
' i qs + Ts
v qs r
' r r Ts i ds
Equations (3.13) show that d- and q-axis components of stator voltage and stator current are not decoupled. In order words, each of the two voltage components is a function of both stator current components. If the decoupled control of stator d- and q-axis currents is to be achieved, it is necessary to introduce appropriate decoupling circuit in the control system. If the output variables of current controllers are defined as
vds = Rs ids + Ts
' '
dids dt
v qs = Rs iqs + Ts
'
'
diqs dt
(3.14)
* * required reference values of axis voltages v ds and v qs are obtained as
* ' vds = vds + ed
* ' vqs = vqs + eq
(3.15)
where auxiliary variables ed and eq are calculated as

ed = Rs 1 1 d r dt r Ts iqs
'
Rs 1 + r 1 1
(3.16)
r + r Ts ids
'
eq = Rs r
Rs 1 + r
Equations (3.16) describe decoupling circuit which has to be introduced into the control system of a voltage-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine, if decoupled flux and torque control is to be achieved. Decoupling circuit is shown in Fig. 3.5. Block diagram of a voltage-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine is given in Fig. 3.6. Application of voltage-type source enables almost the same quality of the dynamic response as is obtainable with current source, provided that decoupling circuit is included in the control system. The quantities required in the decoupling circuit of Fig. 3.5 (rotor flux magnitude and rotor flux angular velocity) have to be estimated together with the rotor flux position, using either principles of indirect or direct rotor flux oriented control. The signals needed in the decoupling circuit are either measured or commanded quantities, in accordance with the applied orientation method. Term d r /dt is usually neglected in Eq. (3.16), as for operation in the constant flux region it should anyway be equal to zero. This simplifies Eqs. (3.16) since they become
ed = r Lsiqs eq = r Ls r Lm
(3.17)
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 49 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v'ds v* ds
Ls 1 1+r 1 1+r Ls
i qs
Voltage-fed
r
rotor flux oriented
induction machine
ds
v'qs
v* qs
Fig. 3.5 - Decoupling circuit of a voltage-fed induction machine with rotor flux oriented control (note that the required rotor flux amplitude and angular velocity values are obtained either from measurements or using reference values, as discussed in Section 3.3).
r* 1/Lm
ids*
ids PI ed
vds* 2
va*
vb* Decoupling circuit, Fig. 3.5 * Speed c. iqs* iqs PI r estimation ia ids
jr jr
e
eq vqs* 3 vc*
2 ib 3 ic
iqs
Fig. 3.6 - Voltage-fed induction machine with rotor flux oriented control aimed at operation in the base speed region only.
It is possible to omit decoupling circuit from the control system, without significant influence on dynamic response, if the sampling frequency and inverter switching frequency are high enough, usually above at least 1 kHz. If the inverter switching frequency is under 1 kHz, decoupling circuit should be included. However, application of decoupling circuit enables improvement of dynamics even at inverter switching frequency above 1 kHz. At higher switching frequencies current controllers are capable of suppressing interaction between d- and q-axis and decoupling circuit is in most cases omitted. A good feature of a voltage-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine is reduced sensitivity to rotor parameter variation, compared to a current-fed machine. To summarise the discussion of the rotor flux oriented voltage-fed induction machine. Stator voltage d-q axis references are built as sums of the outputs of the current controllers (that operate in the rotating reference frame) and the so-called decoupling voltages (that take rather simple form if rotor flux is
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regarded as constant). Equations derived for the current-fed machine remain to be valid. Two coordinate transformations are required: one transforms stator voltage d-q axis references into phase voltage references, while the other one transforms measured phase currents into d-q axis components. Hence the equations that are relevant for a voltage-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine are the following:
* ' vds = vds + ed * ' vqs = vqs + eq
ed = rLs iqs
eq = r
Ls Lm
r + Tr
d r = Lmids dt
( r ) r Tr = Lmiqs
Te =
3 2
Lm Lr
r iqs
(3.18)
v a = vds cos r vqs sin r vb = vds cos( r 2 / 3) vqs sin( r 2 / 3) v c = vds cos( r 4 / 3) vqs sin( r 4 / 3)
ids = ( 2 / 3)(i a cos r + ib cos( r 2 / 3) + i c cos( r 4 / 3)) iqs = (2 / 3)(ia sin r + ib sin( r 2 / 3) + ic sin( r 4 / 3))
* * * * * *
It should be noted that the control system in both the voltage fed and current fed drive processes DC quantities (see discussion in Sub-section 2.4.1.) and that it fully corresponds to the one met in DC machines. The principal difference is the need for co-ordinate transformation in the case of an induction machine.
3.3. ESTIMATION OF MAGNITUDE AND POSITION OF ROTOR FLUX SPACE VECTOR
3.3.1. Methods for direct rotor flux oriented control
If the decoupled flux and torque control is to be achieved, it is absolutely necessary to know instantaneous position of the rotor flux space vector, because the stator current space vector has to be orientated with respect to the rotor flux space vector. Estimation method suggested at the earliest stage of vector control development applies convenient induction machine model and measured values of stator currents and air gap flux (main, magnetising flux). Hall sensors are utilised for assessment of main flux components. Stator phase currents are measured and converted into alfa-beta components using (2.27),
is = (2 / 3)(ia 0.5ib 0.5ic ) i s = (2 / 3)( ib 3 / 2 + ic 3 / 2)
(3.19)
while Hall sensors directly provide main flux components in the stationary reference frame, m , m (two fixed sensors are used in the air-gap of the machine, displaced by 90 degrees). Magnitude and
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position of the rotor flux space vector can then be obtained from flux linkage equations (2.21), taking into account that
m = Lmim
im = is + ir
m = Lmim
im = is + ir
(3.20)
and that
r = Lr ir + m = Lr (im is ) + m r = L r i r + m = L r ( i m i s ) + m
(3.21)
according to the following equations

r = (1 + r ) m Lr is
2 r = 2 r + r
r = (1 + r ) m Lris
cos r = r r sin r = r r
(3.22)
where r = Lr / Lm . Torque (2.19) can be given as a function of the measured variables,

Te = 3 2 P mi s mis
(3.23)
Calculation of magnitude and position of the rotor flux space vector using the measured stator currents and air gap flux is illustrated in Fig. 3.7 (output related to the rotor flux position is given as cos and sin function of this angle; note that that is exactly the form required by the co-ordinate transformation block exp( j r ) ). This estimation procedure will be called m is estimation further on.
m r r
ia ib ic 3 2 Lr sinr Lr cosr
1+r
1+r
Fig. 3.7 - Calculation of rotor flux space vector from sensed stator currents and main flux.
An important feature of the m is estimator is that acquisition of rotor speed or position signal is not needed for the estimation procedure. This enables realisation of a cheaper drive with still very good quality of dynamic response. Due to the numerous shortcomings experienced in application of Hall sensors for flux measurement this method of rotor flux position estimation is of historical rather than practical value. The second rotor flux space vector estimation method asks for measurement of stator voltages and stator currents. If the stator phase currents and voltages are sensed and transformed into two-phase stationary reference frame, magnitude and position of the rotor flux space vector can be calculated either by means of analogue or digital circuitry. Model of an induction machine in stationary reference frame, (2.24)-(2.26), together with flux linkage equations (2.21), suggests the following procedure:
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 52 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------is = (2 / 3)(ia 0.5ib 0.5ic ) i s = (2 / 3)( ib 3 / 2 + ic 3 / 2) vs = ( 2 / 3)(v a 0.5vb 0.5v c ) v s = ( 2 / 3)( v b 3 / 2 + v c 3 / 2)
(3.19)
(3.24)
s = s =
( vs Rs is ) dt
(v
Rs i s dt
(3.25)
Ls Lr Lm Ls Lr Lm
r = (1 + r ) s r = (1 + r ) s
2 r = 2 r + r
is
(3.26)
i s sin r = r / r
cos r = r / r
Equation for torque calculation (3.23) remains unchanged,

Te = 3 2 P mi s mis
(3.23)
Block diagram of the estimator which relies on sensed stator currents and voltages, vs is estimator, is shown in Fig. 3.8. The most pronounced shortcoming of the vs is method is that integration is involved, according to (3.25). This restricts practical implementations of the estimator to drives which are not aimed for operation at zero speed. Typical limit is frequency value of 3 Hz. Comparative analysis of vs is and m is estimators reveals that their behaviour is practically identical at frequencies above 10 Hz, while at lower frequencies m is estimator is advantageous and can be used down to the frequency of 0.5 Hz. Typical applications of vs is estimator are correlated to drives where speed and position sensors are to be avoided. It should be noted that vs is estimator does not necessarily ask for voltage measurement, because the output voltages of a transistor inverter can be reconstructed from the driving signals of power semiconductor switches and measured DC link voltage.
3 va vb vc 2
vs vs Rs is Rs
1+r 1+r
r r
cosr LsLr/Lm LsLr/Lm sinr
ia ib ic
3 2 i s
Fig. 3.8 - Rotor flux space vector estimation process involving measured stator currents and voltages.
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The most frequently utilised method of rotor flux space vector estimation asks for measurement of stator currents and rotor speed or position (it will be denoted as is estimator). The main reasons for such a widespread application of this scheme are that there is no need for special construction or modification of the machine, integration is avoided and estimation is operational at zero speed. It is customarily used in the vector control system illustrated in Fig. 3.6, where current control is performed in rotational reference frame and the machine is either treated as being voltage-fed, or it is assumed to be current-fed and decoupling circuit is omitted. Current control in rotating co-ordinates normally leads to fully digital realisation of the vector control, in contrast to the scheme shown in Figs. 3.3-3.4 where current controllers operate in stationary frame of reference and realisation is usually combined analogue-digital. Estimation of rotor flux space vector by means of measured stator currents and rotor speed (position) utilises model (3.9) of an induction machine in the rotor flux oriented reference frame. Consequently, values of measured stator currents have to be transformed from stationary to rotational, rotor flux oriented, reference frame using
ids = ( 2 / 3)(i a cos r + ib cos( r 2 / 3) + i c cos( r 4 / 3)) iqs = (2 / 3)(ia sin r + ib sin( r 2 / 3) + ic sin( r 4 / 3))
(3.27)
Equations (3.9)
r + Tr
d r = Lmids dt
( r ) r Tr = Lmiqs
Te = 3 2 P Lm Lr
(3.9)
r iqs
can be rewritten as
ids = r + Tr d r dt / Lm
sl = Lm iqs
( Tr r )
(3.28)
Spatial position of the rotor flux space vector is determined with

r =
( sl + ) dt
3 Lm P riqs 2 Lr
(3.29)
while torque estimation can be done by the aid of (3.9)

Te =
(3.9)
The most frequent outlook of the estimator is given in upper part of the Fig. 3.9, where it is shown as an integral part of the drive of Fig. 3.3. Superscript e denotes all the quantities that are the estimates of actual variables. There are some other realisations, with minor modifications which do not affect the fundamental operating principles of the scheme. Estimation of rotor flux space vector, out of the measured stator currents and rotor speed, can be performed in stationary reference frame as well. In this case there is no need for transformation of measured currents from stationary to rotational reference frame. However, the equations that have to be used are much more complicated and this method is rarely applied in practice. Furthermore, if current controllers operate in rotational reference frame, Fig. 3.6, measured stator currents have to be transformed from stationary to rotational reference frame anyway and it is far simpler to apply estimator structure depicted in Fig. 3.9. All the three estimators discussed so far are used for direct field orientation, since measured electromagnetic variables are involved in the process of rotor flux position calculation.
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 54 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Tr
sl
e
Lm e r
1/(1+sTr) ids
e
is 2
j r
e
ia ib
iqs e Lm
is 3
ic
r
1/s Te _
e
Lm/Lr
3P/2
r r
iqs* PI jr _ r
e e e
*
PI _
T e*
is* 2 e
ia* C R
ia
ib* P ib IM is* 3 ic* W ic

M
Field r* weak
PI
ids*
Fig. 3.9 - Rotor flux space vector estimation by means of measured stator currents and rotor speed (position).
3.3.2. Indirect (feed-forward) estimation of rotor flux position
Vector control can be achieved by indirect orientation as well, where position of rotor flux space vector is estimated again on the grounds of induction machine model in rotor flux oriented reference frame. In order to achieve orientation it is theoretically necessary to measure only rotor speed or position. Indirect vector controlled induction machine is conventionally fed from current-regulated PWM inverter and current control is performed in the stationary reference frame. Indirect orientation principle follows directly from (3.9) and is described with
iqs =
* *
2 Te Lr 3 P r Lm 1 Lm
* *
ids =
r + Tr
*
d r dt
(3.30)
* sl
Lm iqs Tr r
* ( sl *
(3.31)
r =
+ ) dt
Indirect method of calculating the rotor flux position is illustrated in Fig. 3.10, where asterisk denotes once more reference quantities. Prevailing applications are for drives which require operation in the base speed range only. Consequently, only operation in the constant flux region is needed and the scheme can be further simplified. Such a drive is shown in Fig. 3.11, where due to * * * r = const ., ids = r / Lm is a constant as well. Torque command (or stator q-axis current command) is obtained as output from the speed controller. Indirect vector control has gained enormous popularity in practical realisations as the overall control system complexity is significantly reduced compared to direct orientation methods.
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*
r
T T*
e
s
2 3P
1 L L
i*
ds
m r
* qs *
Lm L
r
sl
Fig. 3.10 - Principle of indirect vector control of a current-fed induction machine.
Speed contr.
T* e
K1 K2
i* qs j e r
i* s
ia *
* ib
i* ds
i* s r
* ic
C R P W M
ia ib ic
IM
K1 =
2 Lr 1 * 3 P L2 m ids
K2 =
1 * Tr ids
Fig. 3.11 - Current-fed induction machine with indirect vector control.
Indirect field oriented control may be applied in conjunction with voltage-fed induction machine as well. One possible implementation is shown in Fig. 3.12, where although measured d-q axis currents are available in rotational reference frame, commanded values are used for achieving both decoupling and rotor flux oriented control. Note that Fig. 3.12 is essentially the same as Fig. 3.6. The only difference is that the calculation of rotor flux position and the decoupling terms are now explicitly shown. As the rotor flux space vector can not be measured, all estimation methods inevitably make use of an appropriate induction machine model to carry out necessary calculations and provide an estimate of rotor flux space vector. The crucial information is the one regarding the position of the rotor flux space vector, because stator current vector will be placed at exactly required position only if the rotor flux position is accurately known. The other estimator outputs, e.g. estimates of torque and rotor flux magnitude, may or may not be required, depending on the structure of the control system. Induction machine models, applied in the estimation process, are constant parameter models. Actual machine parameters are subject to variation and will predominantly vary due to operating temperature variation (resistances) and due to saturation of flux paths (magnetising inductance and leakage inductances). Consequently, accuracy of all the estimation schemes depends on parameter variations in the machine. Different estimators are influenced by different parameters in different manner. The most frequently applied method of rotor flux oriented control, indirect feed-forward method, is not affected by variation of the stator parameters since these are not involved in the control system. However, its operation is strongly affected by variation in the rotor resistance, that will inevitably vary as operating temperature in the machine changes. In addition, especially in the field-weakening region, this scheme is affected by variation in the magnetising inductance as well.
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i* ds * r i* qs i* ds i ds * i* qs
P+I
Ls
L s P+I
vds '
v* ds
v* s
VOLTAGE
vqs '
v* qs
j r v s
*
SOURCE PWM INVERTER
INDUCTION MACHINE
i qs
P+I
ia
2
e
1 Tr i * ds
* sl * r
-j r
3
ib ic
Fig. 3.12 - Indirect (feed-forward) voltage fed rotor flux oriented induction machine.
3.4.
PERFORMANCE OF A ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED INDUCTION MACHINE
Some characteristic simulation and experimental results are given in this Section, that illustrate behaviour of rotor flux oriented induction machines. Current-fed indirect rotor flux oriented machine is discussed at all times. Both the scheme of Fig. 3.11 with indirect vector control and the scheme of Fig. 3.9 with direct vector control are under consideration. Consider at first the scheme of Fig. 3.9. Simulation results are presented in what follows. Rated rotor flux reference is applied at time instant zero. Speed reference and the load torque are equal to zero. Once when the rotor flux is established, a speed reference is applied. The simulation results are given in Fig. 3.13. As can be seen from Fig. 3.13, the initial excitation of the machine follows exponential law. When the flux settles and speed command is applied, actual speed follows reference speed with a very small delay, caused by inertia of the drive. Torque rises almost instantaneously and reaches the maximum value determined by the imposed limit and hence the stator current is in the limit as well. Note that rotor flux remains constant during the torque variation, indicating that flux and torque control are fully decoupled (change of stator q-axis current does not cause any variation in the rotor flux). When the reference speed reaches steady-state value the actual speed overshoots (due to action of the speed controller, which is PI) and hence torque rapidly goes out of the limit, reduces and becomes negative, which means that electric braking operation takes place. Once when the speed settles at the value equal to the reference value, torque falls to zero, because the case shown in Fig. 3.13 is acceleration with zero load torque. Comparison of Fig. 3.13 with Fig. 1.4 shows that the responses are identical: hence the rotor flux orientation control successfully converts an induction machine into its DC machine equivalent. Direct rotor flux oriented current fed induction machine of Fig. 3.9 is simulated again. CRPWM inverter is taken as ideal so that commanded stator phase currents are directly impressed into the motor stator phase windings. Once more, the machine is at first excited with rated rotor flux command. Once when the rotor flux is established in the machine, speed command equal to 40 % of the rated speed is
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applied through a rate-of-change limiter. Load torque equals zero throughout the transients. A steadystate, similar to the one of Fig. 3.13, is established. The subsequent simulation, illustrated in Fig. 3.14, involves so called reversing transient: speed reference is changed from 40 %
torque limit Te 0 r
time
Fig. 3.13 - Dynamic behaviour of current-fed direct rotor flux oriented induction machine: Initial excitation and rapid acceleration in the constant flux region.
1 Rotor flux (Wb) 0.8 0.6
300 200 100
r *
0.4 0.2 0 0
40 30 20
-100 -200 0.05

35 30 25 20 15
0.01
0.02 0.03 Time (s)

e
0.04
Te , T e
10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 Time (s) 0.04 i qs = i qs
e *
ie ds= i ds
10 5 0 -5 0.05
Fig. 3.14 - Reversing transient of the drive of Fig. 3.9.

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Stator current components (A)
Torque (Nm)
Rotor angular speed (rad/s)
to +40% of the rated speed in a ramp-wise manner. Simulation results, summarised in Fig. 3.14, depict rotor flux reference, actual rotor flux and estimated rotor flux (superscript e denotes estimated values), actual and estimated torque, actual and commanded speed, and actual and estimated stator current d-q axis components. Excellent dynamic behaviour is evident. The actual flux in the machine remains constant during the reversing transient, indicating that the variation of the stator q-axis current does not affect the rotor flux. Flux and torque control are therefore fully decoupled. The drive operates for a prolonged period of time in the torque limit (and hence in the current limit as well) during the reversing. Once when the new operating speed is established, torque falls to zero since the reversing is simulated under no-load conditions. As the last simulation example of the scheme of Fig. 3.9, step loading and unloading of the drive is investigated. The drive operates initially in steady-state with zero load torque and with constant value of speed and rotor flux. Step load torque, equal to the rated value, is then at first applied and then removed. Rotor flux and motor torque are shown in Fig. 3.15. Torque build-up is extremely quick. The torque initially overshoots the load torque in order to compensate the speed dip caused by the load torque application. Speed is returned to the previous steady-state value and the motor torque equals load torque until the load torque removal takes place. Torque of the motor quickly goes down and becomes negative for a very short period of time in order to compensate for the increase in the speed caused by the load torque removal. Once when the speed is returned to its previous value, torque becomes equal to zero. Rotor flux remains completely undisturbed during these transients, indicating once more fully decoupled rotor flux and torque control.
Fig. 3.15 - Response of the drive of Fig. 3.9 to step loading and unloading.
Indirect rotor flux oriented induction motor drive of Fig. 3.11 is investigated next. A series of experiments is performed on a commercially available drive (manufactured by Vickers company) and some of these are presented in what follows. However, before depicting the transient behaviour, let us at first illustrate the current waveform in steady-state operation. Fig. 3.16 shows recorded phase current waveform and its spectrum. Obviously, the current is not an ideal sine wave. However, all the higher harmonics are of very high frequency and are situated around multiples of the 10 kHz frequency, which is the switching frequency of the inverter. The CRPWM inverter thus enables approximate satisfaction of the condition (3.1), as already noted in the beginning of this Chapter. Acceleration transient is investigated next. The machine initially operates at 200 rpm. A speed command of 1500 rpm is then applied, under no-load conditions. The motor speed and the phase current are shown in Fig. 3.17. As can be seen, current quickly goes into the limit and stays in the limit until the motor speed approaches the set speed. The speed slightly overshoots the reference, leading to the braking action of the motor. Once when the acceleration transient is over, motor phase current becomes equal to the magnetising current of the machine (i.e., neglecting losses, stator q-axis current is zero and the phase current is equal to the stator d-axis current which is the magnetising current).
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 59 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8 6 4 Current (A) 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 0 0.005 Time (s) 0.01 0.015 0.001 0 100 200 300 400 500 Frequency (Hz) 600 700 800 Current (A) 1 10
0.1
0.01
a. current waveform
10
c. spectrum up to 0.8 kHz
1 Current (A)
Fig. 3.16 - Current waveforms and spectra during no-load operation at 2100 rpm.
0.1
0.01
0.001 0 2 4 6 8 Frequency (kHz) 10 12
b. spectrum up to 12.8 kHz
Fig. 3.17 - Acceleration transient of an indirect rotor flux oriented induction machine.
As the next example, deceleration transient is investigated. The previous steady-state is the one of Fig. 3.17 (1500 rpm) and speed command is now stepped down to 200 rpm. Stator phase current and speed are illustrated in Fig. 3.18. Note that the phase current goes in the limit again, indicating that the motor is developing the maximum permitted torque, but now of negative value (braking action). The speed quickly reduces and once when it becomes equal to the set value, stator current returns to its previous (magnetising current) value. Finally, Fig. 3.19 shows an experimental result obtained again with indirect rotor flux oriented current fed induction machine. Stator d-axis current command is set to 70 % of the rated value so that machine operates with 70 % of the rated flux (the reason for operation with reduced flux is beyond the scope of
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interest here). Speed command equals 600 rpm and is constant. Step loading and later on unloading is applied, with load torque equal to the machines rated torque. Speed response and commanded stator qaxis current are shown in Fig. 3.19. Fast build-up of the torque and consequently very fast recovery of the speed with relatively very small drop and subsequent increase during the transients can be observed in Fig. 3.19.
Fig. 3.18 - Deceleration transient of an indirect rotor flux oriented induction machine.
Fig. 3.19 - Experimentally recorded speed and commanded q-axis current response to step loading and unloading of an indirect rotor flux oriented current fed induction machine.
3.5.
PARAMETER VARIATION EFFECTS IN ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED INDUCTION MACHINES
As is obvious from the considerations of rotor flux oriented control principles, all the methods of rotor flux position estimation, as well as rotor flux amplitude and torque estimation, heavily rely on mathematical model of the induction machine. The model assumes that all the parameters are constant and accurately known. Discrepancy between parameter values utilised in an estimator and actual parameter values in the machine leads to incorrect rotor flux space vector estimation and erroneous orientation of stator current space vector results.
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Fig. 3.20 illustrates the consequence of the incorrect parameter values. Rotor flux position is erroneously estimated and hence the true rotor flux space vector position differs from the one assumed by the control system. There is an error in the orientation angle, meaning that the decoupled rotor flux and torque control is lost. In other words, the actual rotor flux is not aligned with the commanded daxis, so that there is a projection on both the d- and q-axis of the reference frame dictated by the controller.
q-axis
q*-axis
r
d-axis
r* r
d*-axis
re
a-axis
Fig. 3.20 - Error in rotor flux orientation angle leads to the loss of decoupled flux and torque control since the actual rotor flux axis and the axis assumed by the control system do not coincide. Rotor flux estimation by the aid of m is method depends on rotor leakage inductance and on magnetising inductance. Torque estimation is independent of parameter variations, as only measured values enter the equation. If the vs is estimator is utilised, rotor flux calculations are affected by variation in stator resistance, stator and rotor leakage inductance and magnetising inductance. Torque estimation is dependent on stator resistance only. Rotor flux space vector estimation in is scheme is influenced by rotor resistance, rotor leakage inductance and magnetising inductance variation. Torque computation, being a function of estimated rotor flux magnitude, is dependent on the same parameters. Indirect vector controller relies on the same model of an induction machine as the is estimator; therefore the same parameters exhibit influence on the drive behaviour. As is obvious from this short discussion, different parameters will affect operation of the drive in a different manner, depending on the selected flux orientation scheme. The most frequently applied method of rotor flux oriented control is indirect scheme of a current fed machine, which relies on accurate knowledge of magnetising inductance, rotor leakage inductance and rotor resistance. As the rotor leakage inductance enters equations as a term in summation, the other term being magnetising inductance, it is customary to assume that rotor leakage inductance is really a constant parameter. The ratio of rotor leakage inductance to magnetising inductance under rated conditions is from 0.01 for large machines up to 0.1 for small machines. This clearly indicates that magnetising inductance has the dominant influence. Even a 100% change of a rotor leakage inductance in a small machine would cause just a 10% change in the sum, i.e. in rotor inductance. If the main flux saturation is neglected, this being a conventional approach, magnetising inductance is assumed to be constant parameter as well and the only parameter which remains dependent on the operating regime is rotor resistance. Rotor resistance, which is present in the rotor time constant, changes with operating temperature. Discrepancy between actual rotor resistance value and the value employed in indirect vector controller affects torque response in such a way that it becomes oscillatory instead of being instantaneous and an error in actual torque and flux values takes place in steady-state. Static torque
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curve expressed as a function of the stator q-axis current component becomes non-linear and pull-out torque attains finite value. Detailed analysis and discussion of parameter variation effects and means for their compensation is beyond the scope of interest here. Only one illustration is provided, obtained using the experimental system of Fig. 3.11. The machine is initially brought to operate at certain constant speed. For the sake of this experiment the speed control loop is now opened. Stator q-axis current command is taken as an independent input and is applied as an alternating square wave, of rated stator q-axis current value. The parameter that influences the speed response is the rotor time constant. If the value is correctly set, then the motor torque exactly follows the reference and the motor speed response is of triangular wave-form. If the value of the rotor time constant is not correct, the motor torque will not be of a square wave-form, so that the speed response will deviate from the triangular one. Experimentally recorded speed response and the stator q-axis current reference are illustrated in Fig. 3.21 for the correct and an incorrect value of the rotor time constant. This is simultaneously a relatively simple method of rotor time constant identification in indirect vector controlled induction machine. When the rotor time constant in the control system is adjusted to the correct value, speed response is a triangular alternating function.
a) Tr* = Tr n
b) Tr* = 1. 7 Tr n
Fig. 3.21 - Speed response to the alternating square wave q-axis current command for the rated daxis current and open speed loop.
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Summarising the procedure: speed loop is held open, d-axis current command is set to rated and q-axis current command of the alternating square waveform is imposed. If the rotor time constant value in the controller is correctly set, speed response has to be triangular function. Figure 3.21a is valid for the correct (rated) value of the rotor time constant and speed response is a triangular function in this case. However, if the rotor time constant significantly deviates from the correct value (1.7 times rated value in Fig. 3.21b) the speed response is unsatisfactory and far from required triangular waveform.
3.6.
DESIGN OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM FOR AN INDIRECT FEED-FORWARD CURRENT-FED ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED INDUCTION MACHINE
Calculation of all the necessary values, required for indirect rotor flux oriented control, will be illustrated using an example. Consider a three-phase four-pole star connected squirrel-cage induction machine, whose parameters at 50 Hz are
Rs = 10 Rr = 6.3 X s = 13.5 X r = 12.6 X m = 132 .
Rated current and voltage equal 2.1 A and 380 V. The machine is to be operated as an indirect rotor flux oriented current-fed induction machine. Current control is performed with phase current controllers so that actual and reference phase currents can be assumed to be the same for the purpose of calculation. The speed is to be controlled from zero up to its rated value, using a constant, rated value of rotor flux. The rated torque and inertia of the machine are 5.07 Nm and 0.1 kgm2, respectively. It is required to determine all the values needed for realisation of indirect rotor flux oriented control. These are the rated rotor flux, the rated stator d-axis and q-axis currents (all in terms of rms and peak values) and the value of the slip speed for rated torque operation. Next, since the scheme under consideration contains only the speed controller, it is necessary to determine the parameters of the speed PI controller. This is done using the so-called symmetrical optimum method. The time delay due to the inverter and signal processing may be approximated with a first order delay block whose time constant is 0.05 ms (the reasons and the need for this will be explained later). The controller under consideration is the one shown in Fig. 3.10 for the general case of variable rotor flux reference. Since in this example rotor flux reference is kept constant at all times, the overall drive configuration is as shown in Fig. 3.11. The complete indirect vector controller (for variable rotor flux reference case) and its implementation as a part of the indirect feed-forward rotor flux orientation scheme (for the case of constant rotor flux reference) are shown for convenience once more in the upper and the lower part of Fig. 3.22. Constants in the implementation in the lower part of Fig. 3.22 follow * directly from (3.30)-(3.31), taking into account that, due to constant rotor flux reference, r* = Lm ids :
iqs = K1Te
* sl * *
K1 = iqs Te =
* K2 = sl * iqs
2 Lr 1 3P
* Lm r
= 1
2 Lr 1 3 P Lm ids
2 *
* K2 iqs
Lm Tr r
*
(3.32)
Tr ids
On the basis of Fig. 3.22 and (3.32) one concludes that the required values for an indirect vector controller are the rated rotor flux value and constants K1 , K 2 . The inductances of the machine and rotor time constant are needed in (3.32). Note that the stator parameters are not required (although they are given, for the sake of completeness). From given reactances one easily finds the inductances and the rotor time constant:
Lm = X m ( 2 50) = 132 / 100 = 0.42 H Lr = X r ( 2 50) = 12.6 / 100 = 0.04 H Lr = Lm + Lr = 0.46 H Tr = Lr Rr = 0.46 / 6.3 = 73 ms
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r*
Tr Te* 2 3P Lr Lm s 1/Lm
ids*
iqs*
sl*
Lr
r
1/s
r*
1/Lm jr
e
ids*
is* 2
i a* C R
ia
e
*
PI _ K2
e r
ib* P ib W M 3 is* ic* ic
Te* K1
iqs*
sl*
r
1/s
M
mech
P
Fig. 3.22 - Full indirect vector controller and its implementation for the case of constant rotor flux reference operation (base speed region only).
When the machine operates in steady-state under rated operating conditions (index n), then it follows from (3.9) that
Ten = 3 2 P Lm Lr
rn iqsn
rn = Lmidsn sl n = Lm iqsn
( Tr rn )
(3.33)
since r* = rn , TL = Ten , sl = sl n . Furthermore, the stator current has to be equal to its rated value as well. Note however that the given rated current is rms value, while the one obtained from d-q axis currents is the peak value. Hence
i sn = i dsn + i qsn i sn = 2 I sn = 2 x 2.1 = 2.97 A
2 2
(3.34)
As the next step, it is necessary to calculate the rated stator d-q axis current components. Torque equation of (3.33) and stator current equation (3.34) are used for this purpose, since the rated torque value and the rated stator current are known quantities:
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 65 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ten = 3 2 P Lm Lr

2
rn iqsn =
3 2
Lm Lr
idsn iqsn
5.07 = 3
idsniqsn 0.46 iqsn = 4.407 idsn 5.07 = 115 . idsn iqsn
0.42
Substitution into stator current equation (3.34) yields

isn = idsn + iqsn = 2.97 isn = 8.8209 = idsn + iqsn 8.8209 = idsn + 19.42 idsn 8.821idsn = idsn + 19.42 idsn 8.821idsn + 19.42 = 0 x = idsn x 8.821x + 19.42 = 0 x1,2 = 4.59 4.23 idsn1,2 = 2.1426 A 2.057 A
2 2 4 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
The correlation between d-q axis currents yields values of stator q-axis current:
i qsn = 4.407 i dsn i qsn1,2 = 2.0568 A 2.1424 A
One notes that the same two values appear in inverse order as solutions for rated stator d-q axis currents. Normally the correlation idsn < iqsn holds true, so that finally
i dsn = 2.057 A i qsn = 2.1424 A
Once when the stator rated d-q axis currents are known, it becomes possible to determine the rated rotor flux and the constants of (3.32):
K1 = K2 = 2 Lr 1 3P 1
* Tr ids 2 * Lm ids
1 0.46
2
3 0.42 2.057 1
= 0.4226 A / Nm
0.073x2.057
= 5.33 rad / As
rn = Lmidsn = 0.42 x2.057 = 0.864 Wb
The calculated values of the stator d-q axis current components and the rotor flux are the peak values. Corresponding rms values are
rn = 0.864 I dsn = 2.057 I qsn = 2.1424
2 2
2 = 0.61 Wb 2 = 1.4545 A 2 = 1515 A .

2 2
I dsn + I qsn = 1.4545 + 1515 = 2.1 A I sn .
It is now possible to determine the rated angular slip frequency as well. Note however that the slip frequency is a variable, determined by the instantaneous value of the stator q-axis current command. Hence the rated value of the angular slip frequency will exist only when the stator q-axis current command is exactly equal to its rated value. From (3.33)
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sl n = Lm iqsn
( Tr rn ) = iqsn
Tr idsn = 2.1424 / ( 0.073x2.057) = 14.267 rad / s
sl n ( mech ) = sl n / P = 14.267 / 2 = 7.1337 rad / s
Since rated synchronous (mechanical) speed is known (1500 rpm for 50 Hz for a four-pole machine), one may calculate the rated speed of rotation of the machine as well,
nn = 1500 60 2
sl n ( mech) = 1500 30 x7.1337 / = 1431.9 rpm
This completes the necessary calculations related to the machine parameters. What now remains to be done is to design a PI speed controller. In order to perform this task, it is necessary to somehow represent the whole control system and the machine with a simple transfer function diagram. Consider the structure of Fig. 3.22. In this scheme the induction machine can be represented with the block diagram of Fig. 3.2. The resulting complete block diagram is shown in Fig. 3.23.
r*
1/Lm jr
e
ids*
is* 2
ia* C R
ia
ia ib 3 e ic 2 i s iqs Lm Tr sl is jr ids Lm 1 + sTr 1 r
e
*
PI _ K2 Te* K1 is* iqs* 3
ib* P ib W M
3P Lm 2 Lr
Te
P Js TL
ic*
ic
r r
e
1 s
sl*
1/s
Fig. 3.23 - Block diagram of the indirect vector controller and the induction motor.
According to (3.1), reference and actual phase currents can be regarded as being mutually equal. Hence the current controlled PWM inverter can be omitted from the scheme in Fig. 3.23. Furthermore, in the absence of detuning, the estimated and the actual rotor flux position angles are the same (i.e. axes d* and d of Fig. 3.20 coincide). Hence the two co-ordinate transformation blocks exp(jr) and exp(-jr) cancel each other. The same applies to transformation blocks 2/3 and 3/2 in Fig. 3.23. Since stator daxis current reference is constant, rotor flux in the machine is, after initial transient (initial excitation) constant as well. This enables Fig. 3.23 to be simplified to the form shown in Fig. 3.24. Note that the flux channel does not contain a controller. Furthermore, after initial transient (initial excitation) rotor flux is constant and equal to its reference. Hence the upper channel of Fig. 3.24 can be omitted from further consideration. Only the lower channel, in which the speed PI controller is, has to be considered further on. Note that in this channel the constant K1 and the block 3 PLm 2 Lr cancel each other. Thus the transfer function block diagram, required for the design of the speed controller, reduces to the one shown in Fig. 3.25. Figure 3.25 is the final structure of the transfer function block diagram. Only one minor modification is still necessary. Speed PI controller is designed for the response to the input speed command - hence disturbance term (load torque) can be ignored. The resulting structure is the one of Fig. 3.26.
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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 67 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Controller Machine ids* 1/Lm ids = ids* Lm
r*
r = r*
*
PI _
Te* K1
iqs*
iqs = iqs*
3 P Lm
2 Lr Te
TL
mech
P 1/(Js)
Fig. 3.24 - Simplified block diagram of an indirect rotor flux oriented induction machine.
TL * PI Te* = Te
P Js
Fig. 3.25 - Speed control loop.
* PI
Te* = Te
P Js
Fig. 3.26 - Speed control loop with omitted disturbance term.
Recall that the inverter was taken as ideal in the very beginning. However, some delay always occurs in the system due to signal processing and delay in inverter response to the command. These delays are conveniently represented in a somewhat superficial way, by inserting a first order delay block in between the torque command and the actual torque. Hence the transfer function block diagram that is used for the speed controller design takes the final form of Fig. 3.27. Time constant of the first order delay block, Tdelay, is in this example equal to 50 micro-seconds. Transfer function of a PI controller is given with
E Levi, 2001
HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 68 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------G ( s) = K p 1 + 1 sTi = K p 1 + sTi sTi
(3.35)
* PI
Te*
1 1+sTdelay
Te
P Js
Fig. 3.27 - Final structure of the block diagram for the speed controller design.
Parameters that need to be determined are the proportional gain and the integral time constant, Kp and Ti. The transfer function of the process is essentially represented with a first order delay block (representing all the small delays in the system) and a pure integrator (representing mechanical subsystem of the motor). Note that, without the first order delay block (that was artificially added at the end of the transfer function block diagram derivation) the complete indirect rotor flux oriented induction machine is represented with a single, pure integrator block (Fig. 3.26). This means that the complete electro-magnetic part of the motor behaves as an ideal plant that instantaneously responds to the given command (recall that, by definition, torque response is instantaneous in a rotor flux oriented induction machine and is achieved by an appropriate, again instantaneous, change in the stator q-axis current; instantaneous change in the current is possible since ideal current feeding was assumed). Since the complete drive transfer function consists of a first order delay block with very small time constant and a pure integrator block, so-called symmetrical optimum method is used to calculate the parameters of the PI controller (this method is in general used when there is a pure integrator in the plant transfer function; when there is no pure integrator and the plant is represented with first order delay blocks only, another method called modulus optimum is used). Calculation of the parameters of the PI controller depends on the ratio of time constants in the plant transfer function. Let the sum of all the small delays be denoted with (in this case sum of all the small delays equals Tdelay) and let the dominant time constant in the plant transfer function be Tdom. Dominant time constant is here the time constant of the integrator block: Tdom = J/P = 0.1/2 = 0.05 sec. One then looks at the ratio of the dominant time constant to four times the sum of small delays in the system. For the data of this drive, shown in Fig. 3.28, one finds that the ratio of dominant time constant to four times the sum of small time delays is
* Integrator
Kp(1+sTi ) sTi PI
Te*
1 1+0.00005s
Te 0.05s
First order delay block block
Fig. 3.28 - Transfer block diagram for the speed PI controller design, using data of the drive under consideration.
E Levi, 2001
HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 69 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Tdom 4 =
4 50 x10
0.05
6
= 250 >> 1
When this ratio is much larger than one (this is in general always the case in vector controlled drives), the proportional gain and the integral time constant of the speed PI controller are determined with
K p = Tdom 2 Ti = 4
(3.36)
Therefore, for the numerical values of this drive, one gets

Kp = Tdom 2 = 2 50x10
6
Ti = 4 = 4 50 x10
0.05
6
) = 0.0002 s = 0.2 ms
= 500
When the speed controller is designed using symmetrical optimum, an overshoot of 43% will results in the speed response to application of a step speed command. This in general cannot be tolerated and the overshoot is reduced by inserting a smoothing element in the channel of the speed command. The smoothing block is a first order delay block, whose time constant equals four times the sum of small delays in the system. Hence the transfer function of the smoothing element is
G smooth ( s) = 1 1 + ( 4 ) s
(3.37)
and its time constant equals the PI controller integrator time constant, 0.2 ms here. The overshoot in the speed response is reduced, by inserting the smoothing element, to 8.1%. The final outlay of the speed controller part of the drive is shown in Fig. 3.29, both in general form and with the calculated values for the drive under consideration.
Limiter * 1 1+(4)s Reference smoothing Kp(1+sTi ) sTi PI controller Te*
* 1 1+0.0002s Reference smoothing 500(1+0.0002s) 0.0002s PI controller Limiter Te*
Fig. 3.29 - Speed control loop designed using symmetrical optimum: general outlay and specific values for the drive under consideration.
Fig. 3.29 includes, apart from the reference smoothing element and the speed PI controller, one specific control block that has not been discussed so far in any considerable depth. The block is called limiter and it serves the purpose of limiting the output of the speed controller to the maximum permissible value. For the purpose of explaining its role, suppose that the step speed reference, equal to rated (electrical) angular speed of the machine under consideration, is applied from standstill at time instant zero. Rated speed has already been calculated and it corresponds to 299.9 rad/s 300 rad/s. The smoothing element has very small time constant (meaning that its output becomes equal to the input in very short time interval of approximately five times 4, that is 1 ms) and therefore its existence can be neglected for the sake of this discussion. Since the reference speed at the input of the summator equals 300 rad/s, while the actual speed is zero, the speed error equals 300 rad/s. Passing of this speed error through the speed controller whose proportional gain is 500 means that the torque reference at the output of the speed controller initially equals 300 x 500 = 150,000 Nm! Recall that the rated torque is
E Levi, 2001
5.07 Nm. This means that stator q-axis current would initially be required to be equal to approximately 30,000 times its rated value. This obviously must not be allowed since the inverter would be destroyed immediately. The output of the speed controlled must therefore be limited to the maximum permitted torque value, that corresponds to the maximum permitted stator q-axis current value. The maximum permitted stator q-axis current value is determined by the rating of the inverter. Typically in high performance drives, continuous current rating of the inverter would be 100% to 150% of the machines current rating, while the inverter short term (transient rating) may be up to 300% (and rarely higher) of the continuous current rating. Short term means that such a high current can persist during a transient only. Hence the torque would be typically limited to 200% to 300% of the machines rated torque. When the output of the speed controller is smaller than the limiter adjustment, the limiter passes through the torque command (i.e. speed controller output) without affecting its value. If the speed controller output exceeds the limiter adjustment, the limiter gives at the output the adjusted maximum value. Hence the limiter is often represented with the block illustrated in Fig. 3.30.
Te(out) Te(in)* Te(lim)
Te(lim) Te(in) Te(out)*
Fig. 3.30 - Limiter. Adjustment of the limiter for negative and positive inputs is always the same in electric drives. The action of the limiter can be described with If If Te(in)* < Te(lim) then Te(out)* = Te(in)* (3.38a) (3.38b) Te(in)* > Te(lim) then Te(out)* = Te(lim)
where Te(lim) is the limiter adjustment.
3.7.
1.
PROBLEMS
An induction machine has the following parameters (all rotor quantities are referred to the stator): R s = 10 Rr = 6.3 Ls = Lr = 0.04 H Lm = 0.4 H The machine has four poles and rated power and rated speed of 0.75 kW and 1400 rpm, respectively, for the rated 380 V, 50 Hz three-phase supply with a star connected stator winding. (a) Give the complete time domain model of the machine in an arbitrary rotating reference frame in terms of d-q axis variables. (b) Derive the space vector model of the induction machine in an arbitrary reference frame, using the model given in (a) as the starting point. Sketch the dynamic space vector equivalent circuit of an induction machine in the arbitrary reference frame. (c) Derive and calculate the stator phase voltage d-q axis components and the stator phase voltage space vector, if the machine is fed with the sinusoidal phase voltages v a = 2V cos t v b = 2V cos(t 2 / 3) v c = 2V cos(t 4 / 3) of rated rms value and frequency, and the speed of the reference frame is selected as synchronous (daxis of the reference frame aligned with the stator phase voltage space vector). (d) Calculate the stator current space vector and the stator current d-q axis components in the synchronously rotating frame if the machine operates with rated load torque and is fed with the voltages given in (c).
E Levi, 2001
HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 71 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. Using the induction machine complex space vector equations in an arbitrary reference frame as the starting point: (a) specify the conditions that describe rotor flux oriented control and derive a mathematical model of a current-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine. (b) sketch the block diagram of the current-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine and describe its analogy with a separately excited DC machine. (c) draw the general control scheme of a current-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine with the direct type of vector control (include speed, torque, flux and current controllers and provision for fieldweakening) and list possible alternatives for the block calculation of rotor flux vector.
3.
Using the induction machine d-q axis equations in an arbitrary reference frame as the starting point: (a) specify the conditions that describe rotor flux oriented control and derive a mathematical model of a current-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine. (b) draw the general control scheme of a current-fed rotor flux oriented induction machine with the direct type of vector control (include speed, torque, flux and current controllers and provision for fieldweakening) and explain possible alternatives for the block calculation of rotor flux vector. (c) if the rotor flux estimation is done in the stationary reference frame on the basis of measured stator voltages and stator currents, derive the equations of the estimator from the - axis model and present them in the form of a signal-flow diagram.
4.
A three-phase four-pole squirrel-cage induction machine, whose parameters at 50 Hz are R s = 137 . R r = 11 . X s = 153 . X r = 2.5 X m = 44.3 is to be operated as an indirect rotor flux oriented current-fed induction machine. Current control is performed with hysteresis current controllers. The speed is to be controlled from zero up to its rated value, using a constant, rated value of rotor flux. The rated torque and inertia of the machine are 26.526 Nm and 0.2 kgm2, respectively. The rated stator current is 8.42 A rms. (a) Calculate the rated rotor flux, the rated stator d-axis and q-axis currents (all in terms of rms and peak values) and the value of the slip speed for rated torque operation. (b) Sketch the control system of the drive and the block diagram of a rotor flux oriented induction machine. By interfacing the two, show how the scheme used for the speed controller design is arrived at. (c) Determine the parameters of the PI speed controller using the symmetrical optimum method. The time delay due to the inverter and signal processing may be approximated with a first order delay block whose time constant is 0.1 ms.
5.
A three-phase four-pole squirrel-cage induction machine, whose parameters at 50 Hz are R s = 137 . R r = 11 . X s = 153 . X r = 2.5 X m = 44.3 is to be operated as an indirect rotor flux oriented current-fed induction machine. Current control is performed with hysteresis current controllers. The speed is to be controlled from zero up to its rated value, using a constant, rated value of rotor flux. The rated torque and inertia of the machine are 26.526 Nm and 0.05 kgm2, respectively. Rated stator current is 8.42 A rms. (a) Calculate the rated rotor flux, the rated stator d-axis and q-axis currents (all in terms of rms and peak values) and the value of the slip speed for rated torque operation.
E Levi, 2001
HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 72 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(b) Determine the parameters of the speed PI controller using the symmetrical optimum method. The time delay due to the inverter and signal processing may be approximated with a first order delay block whose time constant is 0.005 ms. 6. A three-phase four-pole squirrel-cage induction machine, whose parameters at 50 Hz are R s = 10 Rr = 6.3 X s = 13.5 X r = 12.6 X m = 132 is to be operated as an indirect rotor flux oriented current-fed induction machine. Current control is performed with hysteresis current controllers in the stationary reference frame. The speed is to be controlled from zero up to its rated value, using a constant value of rotor flux, equal to rated value. The rated torque and inertia of the machine are 5.15 Nm and 0.1 kgm2, respectively. The rated current of the machine is 2.1 A. (a) Calculate the rated rotor flux, the rated stator q-axis current and the rated stator d-axis current in terms of rms and peak values. Find the value of the slip speed for rated torque operation. (b) Sketch the control system for the drive. (c) Determine the parameters of the speed PI controller using the symmetrical optimum method. The time delay due to the inverter and signal processing may be approximated as a first order lag with time constant equal to 1 ms. Design the smoothing element for the reference speed channel. Explain the design of the limiter.
E Levi, 2001

Dieukhienmaydien Truyendongdien Chapt3

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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 41 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINES

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 42 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED CONTROL

3.2.1. Current fed induction machine

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 43 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

i.e., it follows that

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 44 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 45 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Calculation of rotor flux vector r r

signals from motor r i* s j e r i* s 3 ia *

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 46 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

From the rotor flux position estimator

ia C e R jr e ib* P ib IM ids* is* 3 ic* W ic 2

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 47 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Voltage fed induction machine

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 48 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

* * required reference values of axis voltages v ds and v qs are obtained as

* ' vds = vds + ed

* ' vqs = vqs + eq

where auxiliary variables ed and eq are calculated as

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 49 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v'ds v* ds

rotor flux oriented

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 50 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.3. ESTIMATION OF MAGNITUDE AND POSITION OF ROTOR FLUX SPACE VECTOR

3.3.1. Methods for direct rotor flux oriented control

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 51 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

according to the following equations

where r = Lr / Lm . Torque (2.19) can be given as a function of the measured variables,

Equation for torque calculation (3.23) remains unchanged,

cosr LsLr/Lm LsLr/Lm sinr

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 53 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Spatial position of the rotor flux space vector is determined with

while torque estimation can be done by the aid of (3.9)

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 54 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ib* P ib IM is* 3 ic* W ic

3.3.2. Indirect (feed-forward) estimation of rotor flux position

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 55 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Fig. 3.10 - Principle of indirect vector control of a current-fed induction machine.

Fig. 3.11 - Current-fed induction machine with indirect vector control.

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 56 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SOURCE PWM INVERTER

PERFORMANCE OF A ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED INDUCTION MACHINE

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 57 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1 Rotor flux (Wb) 0.8 0.6

300 200 100

-100 -200 0.05

0.02 0.03 Time (s)

Fig. 3.14 - Reversing transient of the drive of Fig. 3.9.

Stator current components (A)

Rotor angular speed (rad/s)

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 58 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

c. spectrum up to 0.8 kHz

0.001 0 2 4 6 8 Frequency (kHz) 10 12

b. spectrum up to 12.8 kHz

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 60 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PARAMETER VARIATION EFFECTS IN ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED INDUCTION MACHINES

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 61 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 62 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 63 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 64 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ib* P ib W M 3 is* ic* ic

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 65 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ten = 3 2 P Lm Lr