A STUDY PROJECT

ON

NANOTECHNOLOGY
FOR SUSTAINABLE
FUTURE

DURING MAY-JUNE 2009 AT IISc BANGALORE

Submitted By
ANUP MAHESH SAVALE
KVPY Reg. No. 1071213
2nd yr Integrated M.S.,
IISER, Pune.

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Anup Mahesh Savale has

successfully completed the summer project on the topic
“Nanotechnology for sustainable future”, under my
guidance during May-June 2009.

Dr. P Balachandra
Principal Research Scientist

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMNE
NT

It is my honour to express my gratitude and sincere thanks to Dr. P.

Balachandra, Principal Research Scientist, Department of
Management Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore for
giving me an opportunity to pursue my summer project under his
valuable guidance.
I further want to extend my gratitude to the Chairman,
Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Science for
granting me the library and the computer facilities in the department
which greatly helped me in grasping some valuable knowledge under
my belt.
Last but not the least; I want to thank my parents for their
immense love, faith and moral support at each and every instant of my
life.

Anup Mahesh Savale

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 CONTENTS
Introduction 5
Nanotechnology- A bird’s eye view 6

1 An insight into the global problems 8

2 Nanotechnology: A key to energy crisis 10

2.1 Advancements in fossil fuels 10
2.2 Advancements in Li batteries 11
2.3 Applications in Renewable energy utilization 12
2.3.1 Electricity generation with solar energy 13
2.3.2 Hydrogen production with solar energy 14
2.3.3 Solid state hydrogen storage 16
2.3.4 Utilization of hydrogen with fuel cells 19

3 Nanotechnology: A step towards better environment 21

3.1 Water purification 22
3.1.1 Ceramic membranes 22
3.1.2 Nanocatalysts 23
3.1.3 Iron remediation 24

4 Barriers to the nanotechnology advancements 25

4.1 Nano-hazards 26
4.2 Nano-regulation 27

5 Conclusion 29

References
Bibliography
Internet sources

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INTRODUCTION
In the present world, everyone one of us wants to improve our own
living standards in the society and simultaneously wants to have a
greener habitat. We crave to earn more money but still wish to have a
hygienic environment. Basically, what we desire is nothing but
sustainability. As such, sustainability can be defined as “Improving
the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of
supporting eco-systems”. Crudely speaking, when all the three
societal, environmental and economical factors are considered for
development, we are directing to sustainable development.
Efforts have been made to handle all the three factors effectively
by science and technological research, efficient management skills
and also by some law amendments i.e. introducing some new rules
and regulations along with relaxing others. None of these have
completely succeeded in giving hopes of a sustainable tomorrow. But
advancements in the field of ‘nanotechnology’ have given all of us the
hope of a better tomorrow. Nanotechnology is continuously being
portrayed as a force that will help to materialize ultimate solutions to
today’s economical and technological problems. To put into words
the power of nanotechnology the following citation is the best.
‘Never before has any civilization had the unique opportunity to
enhance human performance on the scale that we will face in the
future. The convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnology,
information technology, and cognitive science (NBIC) is creating a
set of powerful tools that have the potential to significantly enhance
human performance as well as transform society, science, economics,
and human evolution.’[1]

NANOTECHNOLOGY- A BIRD’S EYE VIEW

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The naive and direct answer to the frequently posed question “what
exactly is Nanotechnology?” is to say that it is a technology
concerning processes which are relevant to physics, chemistry and
biology taking place at a length scale of one divided by 100 million of
a metre. Maybe a little bit more enlightening although equally naive is
to say that nanotechnology is the art of producing little devices and
machines, somewhat at the molecular scale [2]. However the
scientific definition which I admit may be slightly involved for a non-
specialized person is to say that nanotechnology is a technology
applied in the grey area between classical mechanics and quantum
mechanics.
Classical mechanics is the mechanics governing the motion of
all the objects we can see with our naked eye. This is a mechanics
which obeys deterministic laws and which we can control to a very
far extent. For example, falling of an apple; if we know the height
from which the apple fell, we can find the time after which it will
reach the ground and also the speed at that very time. By contrast,
quantum mechanics which is the mechanics controlling the motion of
things like the electron, the proton, the neutron and the like is
completely probabilistic [I]. We know nothing about the motion of the
electron except that there is a probability that the electron may be here
or there. Even crazier than this, if we know the exact location of an
electron, it is impossible to know its speed, and if we know the exact
speed of the electron it is impossible to know its exact location. This
is well stated as the ‘Heisenberg uncertainty principle’. The question
then which poses itself is ‘when does a classical object like an apple
or so changes its nature to a quantum object like an electron?’
Somewhere between these two scales these changes happen, but this
does not happen suddenly. There is a grey area between these two
scales which is neither classical nor quantum. Theoretical physicists
call it the mesoscopic system [3]. This is what is called by non-
physicists the nanoworld. A nanosystem is therefore something which
is sufficiently small that we could not see with our naked eye and not

6
even with an ordinary microscope [3]. However it is sufficiently
larger than an electron so that we can control it in principle if we have
a very fine tool to manipulate the system.
Approaching nanotechnology from another point of view,
namely that of industrial production, we can say that the majority of
our industrial products are so far bulk industry or bulk production. To
produce a wooden chair, we take a large trunk of a tree and cut it
down to smaller sizes and fit these pieces together until we produce a
chair. However nature operates in a very different way. To produce
the trunk of a tree, nature grows a tree. It starts with a very small seed.
This seed has all the information needed to grow a tree. In
nanotechnology, we are trying partially to imitate nature and to build
things starting with atoms. So we have moved now from the
traditional bulk industry which is wasteful and accompanied by a
great deal of pollution to the atomic scale industry which we call
nanotechnology [II].
Nanotechnology has immense potential. In fact, nanotechnology
discoveries are currently causing a domino effect of innovation across
nearly every science and engineering field. As more and more
technologists learn the fundamentals of nanotechnology, and more
unusual nanoscale properties are understood, more powerful uses are
being imagined. Perhaps the most globally exciting nano application
is in the area of energy. Humanity’s future prosperity and energy
availability, as well as the quality of the global environment, is the
most important area that will be affected by nano applications.

1. AN INSIGHT INTO THE GLOBAL PROBLEMS

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Prior to the deep investigation of the technological road of ‘nano’ to
the much desired sustainable environment, I would like to first state
the problems which humanity faces today, which have to be sought
out at any cost to reach to the pleasing future.

TABLE-1*

Ranking Problem
1 Energy
2 Clean Water
3 Food
4 Environment
5 Population
6 Disease
7 War/Terrorism
8 Poverty
9 Education
10 Land
(*Source: Williams, 2006)

Table 1 shows the top ten problems in front of humanity today.

As we can see energy tops the list. To justify energy crisis as the
biggest problem, I would just ask this question “What would happen
if quantities of inexpensive, environmentally friendly, and widely
available energy were in abundant supply?” As to everyone’s
agreement the answer is that it would solve a lot of society’s material
problems. Solving the problem of energy, deals with the problems of
war, poverty and land issues to an extent. Another big problem is the
availability of clean water. There’s a lot of water on this planet (over
70 percent of the Earth’s surface, in fact), but it’s salty and not always
accessible. Solving this problem and energy crisis solves the problem
of food as there’s a lot of arable land (land fit for cultivation) in the
world, but we don’t have water to irrigate crops and energy to provide

8
clean water everywhere. Simultaneously, solving the above problems
can take care of the population explosion and certainly can fulfil
needs of all the people.
Another important hurdle in our path is pollution and other
environmental problems. Noticeably, a lot of our environmental
problems result from the kind of energy we use, now mostly fossil
fuels, like oil, natural gas, and coal, but also wood and animal waste
for heating or cooking. These fuels produce a lot of CO2, soot, and
other atmospheric contaminants that pollute the air and are a major
cause of global warming [III].
Thus, to get the pleasure of a sustainable environment, we have
to overcome the hurdles of energy crisis and environmental problems.
Since, nanomaterials have several intriguing properties that may be
exploited for technological applications; hopes of many are tied with
them.

2. NANOTECHNOLOGY: A KEY TO ENERGY CRISIS

2.1 Advancements in Fossil Fuels

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Today about 80% of global energy use is ingrained in chemical
energy stored in fossil fuel reserves. With the increase in global
requirements of fossil fuels and our failure in keeping in pace with the
energy needs of the world; has made it necessary to maximize the
profits from the available resources. Hence, improvement in the
performance of both gas and diesel engines is needed. To enable the
production of more super ultra-low emission vehicles, higher quality
fuels are needed. This requires advances in catalyst technology to:
• Improve catalyst reactivity, selectivity, and yield.
• Optimize and reduce active species loading levels.
• Improve catalyst durability and stability under exposure to the
operating environment.
• Reduce reliance on precious-metal-based and corrosive
catalysts.
• Produce lower cost, less energy-intensive and more
environmentally friendly catalysts. ( *source: www.nano.gov)
In essence, catalytic processes are nanoscale because reactions take
place on the surface. An interesting property of some particular
nanomaterials is their unusually high chemical reactivity. This has led
to the widespread use of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles as
commercial catalysts in the chemical and petrochemical industries.
Metal nanoparticles are also currently employed within catalytic
converters in automobiles as three-way catalysts. Three-way catalysts
catalyze the following three reactions:
• Oxidation of unburned hydrocarbons
• Oxidation of CO
• Reduction of nitrogen oxides
Envirox, Cerium oxide containing nanoparticle is studied a lot and
it has been recognised for some time that cerium oxide could give a
cleaner burning fuel. It increases fuel efficiency only by 5% or so.
Currently research is going on to search for other nanoparticles that
can be used as catalysts. But the main problem faced is that until

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nanoparticles could be manufactured, the catalyst simply settles down
to the bottom of the gas tank. Nanoparticles are small enough to stay
in solution.

2.2 Advancements in Li Batteries

Ultra-capacitors and various batteries are getting benefitted from
moving to the nanoscale. Breakthroughs in the performance of
thermoelectrics have already occurred as a result of advancements at
the nanoscale. Lithium ion batteries have now become ubiquitous due
to their high voltage (3.6V), high energy density and long life cycle
(>1000 cycles) relative to other battery types, such as Ni-Cd, Ag-Zn,
Ni-hydride and lead acid batteries. Applications are widespread in
portable consumer electronics, including notebook computers, cellular
telephones, MP3 players and camcorders. Like other batteries, Li ion
batteries are composed of a cathode and anode separated by an
electrolyte. Significant research efforts have been undertaken to find
new materials for cathode, anode and electrolyte to improve the life
cycle and increase the energy density of the Li ion battery. Many of
these efforts have involved the development of nanomaterials, in large
part due to their higher internal surface area [4].
Nanomaterials that have been proposed as an anode material in
Li ion batteries are mainly metal nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and
nano-composites that combine these two materials. High Li capacity
has been obtained for numerous elements, including Ag, Sn, Al, Si,
Sb, Bi and Pb, as an alternative to graphite [5]. Some of the widely
studied lithium storage materials are Sn nanoparticles and Si
nanoparticles, both of which have high storage capacity arising from
the stoichiometry Li22Sn5 and Li22Si5 respectively.

2.3 Applications in Renewable Energy Utilization

Due to excessive increase in the energy demands and the lack of
potential of current energy sources to fulfil it, has brought a pressing

11
need for alternative energy sources that are both renewable and
environmentally benign. Among a limited number of options, solar
energy represents an important renewable energy resource that can be
directly converted into electricity using photovoltaic (PV) devices.
Solar radiation is also a renewable energy for splitting water to
produce hydrogen, which is regarded as the cleanest transportation
fuel. The oxidation of hydrogen through the use of fuel cells generates
electricity, where water constitutes the only emission. Fuel cells
represent an effective and practical approach to convert hydrogen
produced from solar and other sources into electricity. While solar
energy is virtually inexhaustible, it is limited in the amount of the
energy that can be converted and stored for practical utilization at a
given time. In order for solar energy to be the major contributor to the
generation of electricity and clean transportation fuel (hydrogen), the
efficiencies of PV and solar water-splitting devices need to be
improved. Likewise, high performance fuel cells as well as high
capacity hydrogen-storage materials have to be realized, in order for
hydrogen to become the primary fuel for transportation systems.
Technological breakthroughs and revolutionary developments
are needed in order to achieve effective conversion, storage, and
utilization of renewable energy resources. Nanotechnology,
particularly the developments of nanoscale materials and structures,
including the methods to create them, offers a new paradigm for
realizing the goals of renewable energy research.

2.3.1 ELECTRICITY GENERATION WITH SOLAR ENERGY

Harvesting energy from sunlight using PV technology has been
considered an essential pathway to energy sustainability. Typically, a
photo-voltage is generated when light-induced excess charge carriers
in a semiconductor are separated in space, so the process is
determined by the fundamental properties of light absorption and
carrier transport of the semiconductor material. A PV device, or solar

12
cell, converts absorbed photons directly into electrical charges that are
used to energize an external circuit. Large scale manufacturing of
these devices would enable a significant fraction of future energy
needs to be supplied by solar energy. Current production of PV
devices is dominated by a p-n junction type, single crystalline and
polycrystalline silicon modules termed as ‘first-generation’
technology and occupy 90% of the current market. While the ‘second
generation’ technologies based on CdS, CdTe and other types of
multiple semiconductor layers are still under development, nano-
structured ‘third generation’ PV technologies have gained much
attention due to their potential of achieving competitive cost/
efficiency ratios [6].
One class of nano-structured PV devices that may have
significant benefits at a low cost alternative to conventional p-n
junction type modules is the dye- sensitized solar cells (DSSC), also
known as Gratzel cell. Central to DSSC is a nano-structured network
of a wide band gap semiconductor, usually TiO2 (titanium dioxide),
which is covered with a monolayer of organic dye molecules.
Deposited on a transparent conductive oxide layer and in contact with
a redox electrolyte or an organic hole-conductor, the TiO2,
nanomaterial offers a large surface area for the adsorption of light-
harvesting molecules. While pure TiO2, absorbs light only in the UV
region, when modified with dye molecules it can absorb light in the
visible wavelengths. In addition, synthesis and modification of
various types of TiO2 nanomaterials have attracted significant
attention recently due to the improvement of material processing
techniques. For instance, ordered mesoporous TiO2 nanocrystalline
film improves the solar conversion efficiency by about 50% compared
to that of traditional films of same thickness made from randomly
oriented nanocrystals [7]. Other than nanocrystals, TiO2 nanotube-
based DSSCs are found to display higher efficiency, possibly due to
increase of electron density in nanotube electrodes.

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 Various elements have been used as dopants to modify the
physical properties of TiO2 nanostructures and extend optical
absorption into the visible region. For example, it was found that TiO2
nanocrystals can take up to 8% of nitrogen atoms into the lattice,
compared to 2% in thin films and micro-scale TiO2 powders [8]. Such
doped nanomaterials absorb well into the visible spectrum of light as
compared to the pure TiO2 material that only absorbs in the UV
region. Additionally, the photo-current due to visible light at moderate
bias is increased to about 200 times or so compared to the case when
pure TiO2 electrodes are used [9].
Different from DSSCs, semiconductor quantum dots (QDs)
based solar cells represent another category of nano-structured PV
devices. Significant progress is being made in forming 3-D arrays of
QDs. Hybrid solar cells consisting of QDs and organic
semiconductors polymers have also been reported, for example, with
CdSe QDs embedded in a hole-conducting polymer (MEH-PPV)
[10].Although the conversion efficiency of hybrid QD solar cells is
relatively low, improvements are being made over time to time.

2.3.2 HYDROGEN PRODUCTION WITH SOLAR ENERGY

Besides direct generation of electricity using PV devices, another path
of utilizing solar energy, especially for energy supply to the
transportation systems, is the production of hydrogen by splitting
water. Solar-driven water splitting through the use of photo-
electrochemical (PEC) cells has many attractive features over other
hydrogen production approaches; both the energy source and the
reactive medium (water) are renewable and readily available, and the
resultant fuel product (hydrogen) as well as the emissions (water)
from the utilization of the fuel is environmentally benign.
TiO2 nanomaterials represent the most important semiconductor
catalysts for splitting water and producing hydrogen. When TiO2

14
absorbs light with energy larger than its band gap, electrons and holes
are generated in the conduction and valence bands, respectively. The
photo-generated electrons and holes induce redox reactions- water
molecules are reduced by the electrons to form H2 and oxidized by the
holes to form O2, leading to overall water splitting. The width of the
band gap and the potentials of the conduction and valence bands are
critical to the efficiency of solar water splitting. The bottom level of
the conduction band has to be more negative than the reduction
potential of H+/H2 (0 V vs. normal hydrogen electrode), while the top
level of the valence band has to be more positive than the oxidation
potential of O2/H2O (1.23V). The photo-catalytic characteristics of
TiO2 are strongly affected by the surface properties, such as surface
states, surface chemical groups, surface area, and active reaction sites,
as well as charge separation mobility, and lifetime of photo-generated
carriers [11].
Well-dispersed metal nanoparticles can act as mini-
photocathode trapping electrons, while addition of carbonate salts to
Pt-loaded TiO2 suspensions yields efficient water splitting. A bare n-
TiO2 nanocrystalline film electrode is actually unstable during water-
splitting reactions under illumination, but its stability could be
significantly improved when covered with Mn2O3. The overvoltage
for the evolution of oxygen is of the order 0.6eV for n-TiO2 electrodes
loaded with RuO2. The morphology of TiO2 nanomaterials affects
their photo-catalytic activities. Highly ordered TiO2 nanotube arrays
are actually found out to be able to efficiently decompose water under
UV irradiation [12].The nanotube wall thickness is actually
considered to be a key factor influencing the magnitude of the photo-
anodic response and the overall efficiency of the water-splitting
reaction.
In order to improve the efficiency of solar water splitting by
semiconductor nanostructures, it is also necessary to shift the
wavelength of light absorption away from UV (2% of sunlight) to
the visible range of the solar spectrum. A variety of dopants have

15
been employed to modify the optical properties of TiO2 nanomaterial
for solar hydrogen production. Water splitting is induced with visible
light in colloidal solutions of Cr-doped TiO2 nanoparticles deposited
with ultrafine Pt or RuO2. Br and Cl co-doped nanocrystalline TiO2
with the absorption edge shift to a lower energy region displays
higher efficiency for water splitting than pure TiO2.
Composite nanostructured semiconductors have also been
developed for visible-light water-splitting. A self-driven system for a
water-splitting reaction under illumination was achieved with the
combination of single crystal p –SiC and nanocrystalline n-TiO2
photo-electrodes [13]. A nanocomposite polycrystalline Si/ doped
TiO2 solar water-splitting structure was proposed for high efficiency
and low cost by combining the advantages of Si and doped TiO2. An
n-Si electrode with surface alkylation and metal nanoparticle coating
offers an efficient and stable PV characteristic, and TiO2 doped with
other elements, such as nitrogen and sulphur, could induce water
photo-oxidation (oxygen photo evolution) by visible light
illumination. A high solar-to-chemical conversion efficiency of more
than 10% was predicted for such a system [14].

2.3.3 SOLID-STATE HYDROGEN STORAGE

Among the various alternative energy strategies is the building of an
energy infrastructure that uses hydrogen as the primary energy carrier.
The energy produced by the Sun can be converted, stored, and
distributed in the form of hydrogen. A major challenge to realizing
hydrogen economy is the development of high capacity and safe
hydrogen-storage materials. In general, hydrogen may be stored in the
form of pressurized gas, liquefied hydrogen, or can be chemically or
physically bonded to a suitable solid-state material. Of the three
hydrogen-storage approaches, solid-state storage has the highest
volumetric density of hydrogen. While gaseous and liquid state
storage requires extremely high pressure or low temperature, solid

16
state hydrogen-storage materials could store hydrogen at near-ambient
temperatures and pressures. Particularly for transportation
applications, storing pressurized or liquefied hydrogen requires a
large footprint container that is not only a safety concern but also
easily takes up a significant fraction of space in the vehicle.
Therefore, solid-state storage is potentially the most convenient and
the safest method for storing and distributing hydrogen for
transportation systems.
The use of nanostructured solid-state materials serves multiple
functions; they improve the kinetics by increasing the diffusivity,
reducing the reaction distance, and increasing the reaction surface
area. The fundamental mechanisms for solid-state hydrogen storage in
nanomaterials include chemisorption and physisorption [11].
Chemisorption starts with dissociation of hydrogen molecules and
chemical bonding of the hydrogen atoms by integration in the lattice
of a solid material, e.g. metal hydrides. This process inherently
involves large enthalpy changes and normally requires high operation
temperature and a catalyst for fast hydrogen uptake and release. In
contrast, physisorption mainly involves the adsorption of hydrogen
molecules on the surface of nanomaterials through weak
intermolecular forces- the van der Waals interaction. As a
consequence, the force is less material specific compared to the case
of chemisorption. Since the Van der Waals forces between the
hydrogen molecule and the surface is in the lower kJ mol-1 range, it is
necessary to apply low temperatures to achieve a sufficient amount of
adsorbed hydrogen. Nevertheless, release of physiosorbed hydrogen
can be fast because of the weak molecular forces.
The ideal material for hydrogen storage would achieve a
compromise between having the hydrogen too weakly bonded to the
storage material, resulting in a low storage capacity at room
temperature and too strong a bonding, thus requiring high
temperatures to release the hydrogen. Solid-state nanomaterials
currently being investigated for hydrogen storage include carbon

17
nanomaterials, metal-organic frameworks, and nanocrystalline metal
and complex hydrides, among others.
Physisorption of hydrogen molecules in nanostructured
materials has been explored extensively; examples include various
forms of carbon, clathrates, and metal-organic frameworks.
Significant storage capacity was initially reported for hydrogen
storage using carbon nanotubes [15]. Later investigations suggested
that desorption of hydrogen appear to originate from Ti alloy particles
introduced during the ultrasonic treatment rather than from the CNTs.
For hydrogen chemisorption, the most studied materials are
metal hydrides and related complex hydrides. Small hydrogen atoms
can readily enter the interstitials of many metals and alloys to form
hydrides. Since a high weight fraction of hydrogen in the solid-state
hydrogen-storage materials are required for practical transportation
system applications, research to enhance the hydrogen capacity in
metal hydrides has been focussed on those based on light weight
elements such as magnesium.
A complete class of nanostructured all-inorganic materials, the
nanoporous metal inorganic (oxide) networks, for solid-state
hydrogen storage has been developed. The nanoporous metal-
inorganic materials have a linked 3-D network of M: SiO2 and similar
nanostructures that include a monolayer or nanoparticles of
metal/alloys (denoted M), implemented into a nanoporous oxide
network. Current research is focussed on the particular nanoparticles
of M which provides maximum storage capacity for solid-state
hydrogen.

2.3.4 UTILIZATION OF HYDROGEN WITH FUEL CELLS

One effective way to use chemical energy stored in hydrogen is to
directly convert it into electricity through the use of a fuel cell. Fuel
cells harness the chemical energy of hydrogen to generate electricity

18
without combustion and pollution. The development of fuel cells as a
clean, environmentally friendly energy source is widely anticipated.
The use of hydrogen as a fuel is particularly attractive, since the main
product produced would be water, with effectively zero emissions.
Even the economical use of other hydrocarbon fuels beyond petrol,
diesel and CNG may have global benefits, as this may reduce the
demands for hydrocarbon fuels.
Fuel cells operate by converting chemical potential energy
directly into a current or voltage by coupling an electrochemical
oxidation reaction with an electrochemical reduction reaction. There
are numerous number of fuel-cells formed till date. Some of them are:
proton exchange membrane, direct methanol, molten carbonate,
phosphoric acid and solid oxide fuel cells.
High-temperature fuel cells such as molten carbonate, solid
oxide and phosphoric acid fuel cells have recently been employed for
several applications, particularly those where waste heat can be
employed to reach and maintain the operating temperature. For e.g.
waste heat is widely generated throughout industrial chemical plants,
sometimes making fuel cells an economical energy source. At the
operating temperature of these fuel cells, the anode and cathode
reactions are typically fairly facile, making the use of electrocatalysts,
which are often in the form of nanoparticles, unnecessary. In addition,
nanomaterials may subject to grain growth, sintering, dissolution and
other unwanted chemical reactions at high temperature.
On the other hand, nanomaterials are much more compatible
with low temperature fuel cells, which are needed for many
transportation and consumer applications where intermittent operation
is typical and power requirements are relatively modest. The most
common low temperature fuel cells are the polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and the direct methanol fuel cell
(DMFC), where the following reactions occur:
Anode (PEMFC): H2  2H+ + 2e-

19
Anode (DMFC): CH3OH + H2O  CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-
Cathode (PEMFC and DMFC): O2 + 4H+ + 4e-  2H2O
When considering the use of nanomaterials in fuel cells, many
observers would first consider the use of nanoparticle catalysts in both
anode and cathode. Hydrogen reduction takes place at the anode of a
PEMFC. This process is most facile due to its simple reaction
mechanism and Pt nanoparticles are widely used as electrocatalysts
for this reaction. The main problem is that Pt catalysts can be easily
poisoned by trace CO in the H2 fuel, and so far the best performance
has been attained by PtRu bimetallic nanoparticle catalysts, preferably
with a 1:1 ratio of Pt: Ru, that facilitate CO desorption. Ternary and
quaternary catalysts have also been widely investigated in laboratories
[IV]. The methanol reduction at anode of DMFC and O2 reduction at
cathode of both DMFC and PEMFC, involve more complex
mechanisms and multi-step electron transfer, making electrocatalysts
more difficult. O2 Reduction is most facile on Pt nanoparticle
catalysts, and the use of Pt alloys with transition metals such as Co,
Cr, Ti and Zr has been thoroughly investigated. Similarly, methanol
oxidation has been widely studied on Pt nanoparticle catalysts alloyed
with a wide variety of different transition metals, including Ru, Os
and Sn. Given that the expensive Pt catalyst contributes significantly
to the overall fuel cell cost, non-Pt catalyst materials are also under
intensive investigation for both PMFCs and DMFCs [16]. However,
Pt and its alloys in nanoparticle form remain the best catalysts for the
reactions in low-temperature fuel cells. [IV]
In addition to this, carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibres have
been widely investigated for possible application into the catalyst
supports for the operating PEMFCs and DMFCs [17]. The main
improvement that is envisioned is increased utilization for the Pt
catalyst supported on carbon nanotubes. Currently, for long term
usage and better commercialization of both PEMFCs and DMFCs,

20
catalyst agglomeration, catalyst dissolution and carbon corrosion are
the primary barriers from which the researchers want to get rid of.

3. NANOTECHNOLOGY: A STEP TOWARDS BETTER

ENVIRONMENT
Environment is one of the pillars of sustainability. We all have to take
care of it. It is our responsibility to keep it clean and healthy.
Sometimes it seems that the ills of the environment are too big to
handle. Some people give up in the face of these looming giant
problems. However, nanotechnologists believe that this difficult task
can be accomplished with the help of nanotechnology. The design and
manipulation of atomic and molecular scale materials offers great
possibilities for environmental cleanup. Unique properties of new
nanoscale materials can produce advances in cleaner energy
production, energy efficiency, water treatment, and environmental
remediation. Researchers are trying to determine how different kinds
of environmental contaminants bind to or could be transported with
nanomaterials through groundwater systems or how cell
interactions/toxicity might occur.

3.1 Water Purification

As the population of the world is increasing at a rapid pace we require
greater volumes of potable water for both drinking and agriculture
purpose. Thus, the needs for better purification methods have become
particularly important. The use of nanomaterials may offer big
improvements to existing water purification techniques and materials
and may well bring about new ones. Furthermore, nanomaterials have
the potential supplying water treatment and purification in remote
areas where electricity is not available.
Engineered nanomaterials are a new class of materials, relatively
unknown to most environmental engineers and water treatment
workers. However, this is changing. With more and more research on
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safe, improved, low-cost, and efficient ways to treat water, general
water treatment methods will begin to change, too.

3.1.1 CERAMIC MEMBRANES

Membranes and filters of all sizes are used to separate various

compounds and chemicals. Depending on their properties, they have
greater or lesser success. In ultrafiltration, pressure pushes against one
side of an ultrafiltration membrane, forcing water and low molecular
weight compounds through its pores. Larger molecules and suspended
solids move across the membrane, getting more concentrated as they
are blocked because of their larger size.
Centre for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology
(CBEN) researchers at Rice University have developed a reactive
membrane from iron oxide ceramic membranes (ferroxanes). Due to
iron’s unique chemistry, these reactive membranes provide a platform
for removing contaminants and organic waste from water and
cleaning them up. Ferroxane materials have even been found to
decompose the contaminant benzoic acid [III].
When using aluminium oxide ceramic membranes (alumoxanes)
as the ceramic nanomembrane material, membrane thickness, pore
size scattering, permeability, and surface chemistry can be altered by
changing the first layering of alumoxane particles. Membrane thermal
properties can be changed to create a range of pore sizes.
Nanostructured ceramic membranes treat and purify water both
actively and passively. Ceramic membranes could be placed inline
within conventional treatment systems for final cleaning of polluted
water and air.

3.1.2 NANO CATALYSTS

Although nanofiltration membranes are important in water
purification, nanoparticles either in solution or attached to membranes
can help ensure that pollutants chemically degrade and don’t just

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travel somewhere else. Nano-catalysts are currently being studied for
their environmental applications. Catalytic treatments can lower
polluted water treatment costs by making it possible for purification
methods to be specifically designed to treat chemicals at a particular
site.
Dr. Daniel R. Strongin, chemistry professor at Temple
University in Philadelphia, has used protein structures to design and
assemble metal oxide nanoparticles that could be used in
environmental remediation. By using nanoparticles made from
biological components as nanocatalysts, Strongin and others have
been looking at how nanoparticles may be used in environmental
remediation (cleaning up polluted areas). Reactions that would make
polluting metals clump or separate out of solution so they aren’t
transported downstream or soak into groundwater are also studied
[III].

3.1.3 IRON REMEDIATION

Wei-Xian Zhang of Pennsylvania’s Lehigh University has shown the
potential of iron nanoscale powder that is able to clean up soil and
groundwater previously contaminated by industrial pollutants.
Iron, one of the most abundant metals on Earth, thus might prove to
be the cleaning agent of various contaminated industrial sites,
underground storage tank leakages, landfills, and abandoned mines.
The answer seems to come from the fact that iron oxidizes easily and
forms rust. However, when metallic iron oxidizes around
contaminants such as trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, dioxins,
or PCBs, these organic molecules are broken down into simple, far
less toxic carbon compounds. Similarly, with toxic heavy metals such
as lead, nickel, mercury, or even uranium, oxidizing iron reduces
them to an insoluble form that is locked within the soil, rather than
being mobile, so they could become part of the food chain and their
impacts could be more widespread. Since iron has no known toxic

23
effect and is plentiful in rocks, soil, water, and nearly everything on
the planet, several companies now use a ground iron powder to clean
up their industrial wastes before releasing them into the environment.
This is great for new wastes, but wastes that have already soaked into
the soil and water must be taken care of as well. Here we use the
nanoscale iron particles which are 10 to 1000 times more reactive
than commonly used iron powders. Smaller size also gives nano-iron
a much larger surface area, allowing it to be mixed into slurry and
pumped straight into the centre of a contaminated site, like a giant
injection. Upon arrival, the particles flow along with the groundwater,
decontaminating the environment as they go [IV].
Iron particles are not changed by soil acidity, temperature, or
nutrient levels. Their size (1–100 nm in diameter and 10–1000 times
smaller than most bacteria) allows them to move between soil
particles. Laboratory and field tests have shown that nanoscale iron
particles treatment drops contaminant levels around the injection well
within a day or two and nearly eliminates them within a few weeks,
bringing the treated area back into compliance with federal
groundwater quality standards [V]. Results have also indicated that
the nanoscale iron stays active in the soil for six to eight weeks before
the nanoscale particles become dispersed completely in the
groundwater and become less concentrated than naturally occurring
iron. This method is also a lot cheaper than digging up contaminated
soil and treating it a little at a time, as has been done in the past at
highly polluted sites.

4. BARRIERS TO THE NANOTECHNOLOGY

ADVANCEMENTS
“Technology cuts both ways” is a phrase commonly associated to
almost every technology. Nanotechnology is not an exception to this.
Signs of nanotechnology’s continuing maturation abound. Most
experts focus on the continuing surge in nanotechnology research and
development (R&D). Perhaps most surprising is the fact that
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nanotechnology commercialization is moving forward at a lightning
speed. Thousands of tons of nanomaterials are already being produced
each year. The nanomaterials now being manufactured, marketed and
purchased are inevitably finding their way into the natural
environment. Entry can occur accidentally or intentionally over the
course of a nanomaterials lifecycle, during manufacturing,
transportation, use, recycle, or disposal. The current wave of nano-
products includes an inordinate number of sunscreens, cosmetics, and
other personal care products, as the personal care industry is the
leading sector in the manufacturing and marketing of nano-products.
These products enter the environment via the household waste
streams and other nanomaterials, such as those used in electronics,
fuel cells, and tires, will be worn off or leak out over a period of use
or after product disposal. Still other nanomaterials will reach the
environment through landfills or other methods of disposal (e.g.
residual sunscreens or cosmetics in containers). Finally, some
nanomaterials may be introduced deliberately into the natural
environment for environmental remediation purposes. For example, I
have earlier indicated that iron nanoparticles could be used to clean up
contaminated soil by neutralizing contaminants (e.g. DDT and
dioxin). As many industries involved in nanotechnology expand, and
increase in number and variety of nano-enhanced products available;
both industrial and domestic nano-waste will also logically increase in
quantity [VI].
4.1 Nano-Hazards
Humans and animals have been encountering naturally
occurring nanomaterials for millions of years. Nature produces some
nanoparticles, like salt nanocrystals found in ocean air or carbon
nanoparticles emitted from fire. Thus, one could feel that there is no
danger as such in the nanoscale. However, it is only recently that
scientists have developed the techniques for synthesizing and
characterizing many new materials with at least one dimension on the
nanoscale. The concern is that nanomaterials now in development are

25
different than anything that exists in nature. The materials engineered
or manufactured to the nanoscale can exhibit different fundamental
physical, biological and chemical properties from bulk materials of
the same substance. Just as the size and physics properties of
engineered nanoparticles can give them exciting properties, those
same new properties- tiny size, high surface area/volume ratio; high
reactivity- can also create unique and unpredictable human health and
environmental risks. Swiss insurance giant Swiss Re noted that:
‘Never have before the risk and opportunities of new technology been
as closely linked as they are in nanotechnology. It is precisely those
characteristic which make nanoparticles so valuable that give rise to
concern regarding hazards to human beings and environment
alike.’[VI]
These new properties create numerous human health risks. For
starters, due to their size, nanoparticles have unprecedented mobility:
they are more easily taken up by the human body and can cross
biological membranes, cells, tissues and organs more efficiently than
larger particles. Once in the blood stream, nanomaterials can circulate
throughout the body and can be taken up by the organs and tissues,
including the brain, kidney, liver, heart, bone marrow, spleen and
nervous system. When inhaled, they reach all regions of the
respiratory tract, and can move out of it via different pathways and
mechanisms. When in contact with the skin, there is an evidence of
penetration of the dermis and subsequent translocation via the lymph
nodes .When ingested, systematic uptake can occur [V].
Second, the change in the physicochemical and structural
properties of engineered nanoparticles can also be responsible for a
number of material interactions that can lead to toxicological effects.
Once inside the cells, they can interfere with the cell signalling, cause
structural damage and cause harmful damage to DNA. There is a
dependant relationship between size and surface area and nanoparticle
toxicity; as particles are engineered smaller on the nanoscale, they are

26
more likely to be toxic [V]. Many relatively inert and stable chemicals
(e.g. carbon) pose toxic risk in their nanoscale form.

4.2 Nano-Regulation
Due to over publicity and hype of the term ‘nano’, everyone is having
an eye on the advancements in nanotechnology. Nanotechnology
though being touted as the future solution for almost all our
technological requirements, has to be assessed carefully and with
regard to safety, health and environmental issues so that we do not
repeat the mistakes made in the past with regards to asbestos and
CFCs. [18]
However, there is no universal assessment of nanotechnology’s
risks or of its hazards and opportunities. Nano-products, materials,
applications and devices are governed today within the existing
framework of statutes, laws, regulations and policies. The main
question is whether current regulatory controls are adequate to meet
the many concerns posed by the ability of nanotechnology to create
products whose structures, devices and systems have novel properties
and structures because of their size. This question still remains
unanswered [VI]. Yet, the most pressing issue may be not in the
creation of new, but in the enforcement of old, regulations on the
industries that create and process these new materials.
Advocating for regulation of nanotechnological innovation with
yet uncertain and inconclusive demonstrated risks, without clearly
understanding how the regulatory system are designed to work,
dilutes the very purpose for which they were intended while
simultaneously impairing the progress of transformative, disruptive,
emerging, converging or enabling technologies [VI].
How can one regulate something that cannot be seen, and that is
not even here yet? Even more, why impose such an unnecessary
restraint on its advance and choke the very opportunities

27
nanotechnology may present? Ultimately, will promulgating
regulation diminish that alleged risks, produce different risks, deprive
the end users of expected benefits, or simply silence the political
reaction of the nano-twisting activists?
To reduce uncertainties and ensure a sustainable introduction of
nanotechnology, efforts must be made to establish a common
discussion platform that facilitates an open dialogue on risk analysis,
risk management, and acceptable options for risk transfer.

5. CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that nanotechnology-enabled environmental
remediation and renewable energy technologies are starting to scale
up dramatically. As they become mature and cost effective in the
decades to come, we will have a greener environment and then
eventually renewable energy could replace the traditional,
environmentally unfriendly, fossil fuels; thus providing us a
sustainable environment to live in.
However, these developments are only at the beginning stage
and the insecurity that is connected with the production of these new
materials currently outweigh their possible advantages. The optimal
commercial use of nanotechnology is crucially dependent on cross-
disciplinary dialogue, which should address the full scope of the two
sides of the risk: potential hazards and inherent opportunities. As
unexpected losses can destroy economic investments, far-sighted
thinking is necessary. I personally, think that the principal prerequisite
for successful risk assessment in a technology as multifaceted as
nanotechnology is finding a harmony among the industry
representatives, policy makers, and research institutes concerned. It is
one that must extend across national borders, regulatory
discrepancies, and different perceptions of risks and benefits.
28
 Summing up, Nanotechnology is a field where neither the
probability nor the extent of potential benefits and losses can be
calculated precisely. To analyse these benefits and to measure those
against their possible losses along with providing a crystal clear
picture before everyone still seems to be a huge challenge in front of
us.

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BOOKS:
I. Ball P. (1994) Designing the molecular world, New Jersey:
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II. Foster LE. (2006) Nanotechnology, New York: Prentice Hall.
III. Williams L. (2007). Nanotechnology Demystified, Tata
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 IV.Krug HF (2008). Nanotechnology: Environmental aspects
Vol.2, John Wiley and sons.
V. Kumar C. (2006). Nanomaterials-Toxicity, Health and
Environmental Issues, John Wiley and sons.
VI.Cameron NMS, Mitchell M.E., (2007) Nanoscale: Issues and
perspectives for the Nano Century, John Wiley and sons.

INTERNET REFERENCES:
1. Wikipedia: www.wikipedia.org
2. National Nanotechnology Initiative: http://www.nano.gov
3. Nano Science and Technology Institute: http://www.nsti.org
4. EnvironmentalChemistry.com site on periodic table:
http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/periodic/Pb.html
5. National Institute of Standards and Technology:
http://www.nist.gov
6. Environmental Protection Agency Nanotechnology page:
http://es.epa.gov/ncer/nano
7. National Centre for Environmental Research:
http://es.epa.gov/ncer/publications/nano/index.html
8. Department of Energy, “Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy”: http://www.eere.energy.gov
9. Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and
Technology at Rice University: http://www.cnst.rice.edu
10. Small Times news: http://www.smalltimes.com

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