13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011

A23_442

Conceptual design of brake disc applied to hybrid electric vehicles

A.B. Rocha* University of Sao Paulo Sao Carlos, SP, Brazil
Abstract This work presents the development of the informational and conceptual design to disc brakes to applications in hybrid electric vehicles. The development of cleaner and higher efficiency vehicles depends on the analysis and optimization of the performance characteristics and driving conditions, in this case focusing on braking system. In this way is proposed the informational design allows the identification of the specific user requirements for a brake system. Through unfold of the user requirements it was possible identify technical conflicts and the components involved with them. From these components were identify a set of variables that can affect the temperature on the brake pad during the braking process. The results were validated with the technical literature (on viewpoint of machine design) and the first optimization method implemented (Finite difference method) was compared with commercial technical program.
Keywords: design methodology; brake disc; brake pad; heat distribution; optimization; hybrid vehicles.

Z.C. Silveira University of Sao Paulo Sao Carlos, SP, Brazil These two systems can be combined in series and parallel. In a series hybrid a combustion engine turns a generator that powers the batteries and/or directly the electric motor and there is no mechanical coupling between the two types of motors [2]. In case of parallel hybrid the vehicle is propelled by the combustion engine, the electric motor or both together, and the electric motor can work as a generator when are not used for traction (can be made by gearbox, Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) and automatic transmission) to change the batteries. According to CNT (National Confederation of Transport in Brazil (2002) apud Hodel (2009) [3] the participation of highway, railway and navigation systems in the Brazilian to portage is significantly different when compared to other continental countries. In the Brazil, there is an excessive concentration on highway transport. The break system is fundamental to the driving, stability and safety of the vehicle. In this work is proposed the conceptual design for disk brakes considering future applications in HEV where was developed a program for calculating of disc and drum brakes using the machine element approach. Inside of this program was made a routine for the optimization of heat distribution on the brake pad during the activating process.

1 Introduction
The environmental issues as well as the reduction of the pollutant emission have lead to alternatives approaches to the energy generation mainly in the automotive industry. This scenery is reinforced by increase of the personal mobility and commercial and collective transport increasingly adopted in modern society. The recent studies indicate that the emissions of internal combustion engines contribute strongly in the air pollution. Besides, the extensive use of oil creates an international reliance due to its limited availability which generates increases in the price and sometimes politics conflicts. Therefore, new approaches to obtain power energy and feasible technologies clear and more efficient are essential in the current demand automotive. These technologies should minimize the oil use and the Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) are design alternative to urban vehicles in the cities whose have high density population. The energy storage in batteries usually offers little autonomy and time of recharging. To the HEV an internal combustion engine connected to a generator (Primary Source) eliminates the problem of autonomy and recharge of the pure electric vehicles and there is a Secondary Source that is the battery and electric motor [1]. ____________________________________
*

2. Review
2.1 Design methodology The processes of design and its development involve multidimensional activities that can be described considering different approach such as: labor psychology, systematic process and organizational view [4]. The design process acts as an intersection area where cognitive and technological activities are unfold as knowledge obtained from natural sciences, engineering, design, economy, marketing, psychology and sustainability [4]. Design is a wide concept, but in the engineering process it is necessary integrate its activities inside of product and design planning [5]. These activities include, for example, market research, the product design, use and ergonomics of the functions, the manufacturing, the maintenance and distribution plans and the defuse or disposal of the product. Pahl et al. (2005) emphasize the recent recognition of the importance of the design methodology or theory of design in the conception or update of a product, that can be understood as machine elements, equipment, consumer demand or a system. These designs can vary in relation to the approach: alternative, adaptive or innovative designs.

silveira@sc.usp.br branquinho@sc.usp.br 1 13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011.

13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011

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Standards such as the VDI 2221, 2222 e 2223 (1985) and guidelines suggest in ASME publications (1986) indicate the importance of the informational and conceptual phases in the design development. In the publications of the ASME in Mechanical Engineering were made recommendations and guidelines to the teaching and research in the area. In the technical literature, there are some suggestions about systematic techniques to the design activities or strategies to find design solutions [4]; [5]; [6].The systematic approach allows that to each phase or specific activity in the design process, it will have an analysis process and the subsequent synthesis process orientation the decision choice and expecting conflicts technical. The informational design phase deal with data about the consumers satisfaction, price, bench marketing, for example, are traduced in small phrases. The information enclosed in these phrases is converted during the conceptual and preliminary phases gradually in numerical results. 2.2 Brakes overview The break system is the fundamental item to safety of vehicles. The break must provide a capacity of decelerate over and over that its capacity of acceleration. A brake is a device used to bring a moving system to rest, to slow its peed or to control it to a certain value under varying conditions. The design function of the brake is to turn mechanical energy into heat. The design of brakes and clutches is subjected to uncertainties in the value of the coefficients of friction. Brakes and clutches are all similar, but different from other machine element, in that they are tribological systems where the friction is intended to be high [7].The material choice with adequate coefficient of friction and low wear is directly related with useful life of the brake and safety system of the vehicle. A critical consideration in the design of a brake or clutch is temperature of the material. When a brake is activated, one high friction material slides over another with a large normal force. The large amounts of energy created must be dissipated into mainly in heat. If the components became too hot, their performance and life can be severely reduced. A thrust disk has its axis of rotation perpendicular to the contacting surfaces. The design procedure is obtain the axial force P necessary to produce a specific Torque (T) and the resulting contact pressure (p) and wear depth (). There are two approaches to analyze brakes: uniform pressure model and uniform wear model. 2.2.1 Uniform Pressure Model This hypothesis is assumed to brakes considering external rigid disks, precision manufacturing precision and early life, without wear. Considering a normal force actuating in the infinitesimal element of radius (dr):
2

dF = (2dr ) p

(1)

Where, p is the uniform pressure in the interface. The global or axial coupling normal force between drive and conduct disk actuating in the element area is:

F = 2prdr = p (ro ri )
2 2 ri

r0

(2)

So, the total Torque (T) can be development across of all interfaces, considering N friction interfaces will be:

2 3 3 T = p (r0 ri ) N 3
2.2.2 Uniform Wear Model

(3)

Considering the hypothesis of uniform wear the rate of the wear is proportional of work rate (eq. 4). In the surface thrust of a brake or clutch the velocity is proportional to radius, because the initial wear is higher in the region of the external radius. This condition implies wear uniform rate with constraint showed by eq. (4) and (4a):

W = pV = cons tan te
V = rW

(4) (4a)

Where, W is the wear rate; P is the pressure developed and V is the tangential velocity. The maximum pressure (pmax) should occur in the minor radius (ri), showed by eq. (5):

K = pmax ri
and,

(5)

p = pmax

ri r

(6)

The maximum pressure allowed is related to choice of the material of the brake pad or canvas. So, the axial force (F) is the integral of actuating force in the ring, from equation (6):

F = 2prdr = pmax
ri ri

r0

r0

r0 rdr = 2ri pmax (r0 ri ) (7) ri

The torque by number of contact surfaces is obtained by equation (8).

r r T = F 0 i N 2
2.2.3 Energy and Heat Dissipation There are two types of brake activation systems [8]:

(8)

13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011

A23_442

- Few times short duration brake activation (heat generated is absorbed by material mass near to the wear interface). The equation based on heat capacity is given by equation (9):

=
Where,

Hf CW
2

infinity must be redefined as very small and large numbers respectively on the computer. These conditions are relative and machine-dependent. Arora (1989) presents a conceptual flow diagram for the interactive design optimization process given by Fig.1:

(9)

Hf =

Ed J e wop = J 2 J

(10)

Je = inertia moment of polar mass of rotating brake drum/disc; op = operational angular velocity of brake drum/disc; J = mechanical equivalent of heat; C = specific heat; W = weight of mass absorbs by heat.

- Constant brake activation or long time brake activation. In this case it is applied the Newton Law of heat dissipation to estimate the increase of temperature.

( s a ) =

Hf k1 As
(11)

Fig. 1. Interactive optimum design process (Adapted from [9]).

s = surface temperature of the brake device; a = ambient temperature; As = exposed surface area of the brake device; k1 = modified global coefficient of heat transfer. For failure modes of adhesive wear and / or abrasive, it is possible estimate the depth of normal wear of the friction surfaces of brake lining (depth of wear and tear) (dn):

The numerical optimization techniques offer advantage of computer automation capabilities through a set of mathematical methods. A function of a single variables is represented as f(x), a function of n independent variables x , x ,, xn in written as:
1 2

f ( x ) = f (x 1 , x 2 , , x n )

(13)

n= kw ( pV )

(12)

In order to solve a problem these are many functions of vector variables. To distinguish between functions, subscripts can be used. Thus the written as:

i th function will be

kw = constant of the pair of materials; p = contact pressure; V = relative speed of sliding between the line and the disc. 2.3 Numerical Methods in Engineering Design According to Arora (1989) [9] most numerical methods for design optimization involve considerable repetitive calculations. The new design methodology is characterized by the phase model and analyze. From the conceptual design numerical methods can be used to generate virtual models to optimize the system or machine elements. An optimization algorithm involves a limiting process, be used same parameters go to zero or infinity as the optimum design is approved. The limiting process can never be satisfied exactly on a computer and quantities such as zero and
3

g i ( x ) = g i ( x1 , x2 ,...xn )

(14)

If these are m functions gi(x), i=1 to m, these will be represented in the vector form:

g ( x ) = [g1 ( x ), g 2 ( x )...g m ( x )]

(15)

Considering the function are continuous and at least twice continuously differentiable. A function f(x) of n variables is called continuous at a point x* if for any > 0 , then is a > 0 such that:
f (x ) f x * <

( )

(16)

13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011

A23_442

Whenever

f (x ) f x *

( )<

thus for all points x in

Generating the following equations:

a small neighborhood of the point x* , a change in the function value from x* to x is small when the function is continuous. A continuous function need not be differentiable. Twice continuous differentiability of a function implies that it is not differentiable two times but also it is second derivative is continuous. Finally, it is necessary formulating the design problem, from conceptual design phase, where the forces, displacement and heat flux are defined for example, or the definition of structural failure. Following, the parameters are chosen to describe the design of a system which is called design variables. If the specified values do not satisfy all constraints of the problem, the design is not feasible. If the constraints are satisfied the design is called feasible or usable [9]. A feasible design may not be the best, but it is suitable for specific applications. 2.4 Finite Difference Method The method consists of generating a mesh on the surface of two-dimensional study, where x is equal to y. The condition of steady state was used in order to find the critical temperature after long periods of braking. The mesh is generated based on [10] as illustrated in Fig. 2:

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

(24) In this numerical method it is possible to obtain the temperature at each node of the mesh generated which can outline the profile of the surface temperature in the point special interest. 3. Development of the methodology based on QFD and functional modeling and optimization 3.1 Disc Brake Case Study Due to its size and geometry, the disc brake is considered as design option to the brake system in hybrid vehicles. It was made a reverse engineering to obtain the dimensions and locations of components of brake system components. The Fig. 2(a) and 2(b) present the dismantling, measure and generation of the profile of the wheel. In the Fig. 3 is presented the virtual model of the wheel and brake system.

Fig. 2. Mesh for Finite Elements.

The internal nodes are obtained as: Tm,n+1 + Tm,n-1 + Tm+1,n + Tm-1,n 4.Tm,n = 0 Node on a flat surface with convection: (2.Tm-1,n + Tm,n+1 + Tm,n-1 ) + (2.h.x.T/k) 2.[ (h.x/k) + 2 ].T m,n = 0 (17)

Fig. 2 (a) Dismantling of the wheel and; (b) measure of its profile.

(18)

Nodes in a vertex with external convection are obtained as: (Tm,n-1 + Tm-1,n) + (2.h.x.T/k) 2.[ (h.x/k) + 1 ].T m,n = 0
Fig. 3. Virtual Model (CAD) of the assembly wheel and brake system. 4

(19)

13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011

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From these data will be possible to investigate the feasible design configurations considering the work envelope that will include the positions of the electric batteries. 3.2 Informational Design 3.2.1 Preliminary QFD Deployment)

(Quality

Function

Initially it was applied a Brainstorming using a sample of 10 drivers of passenger car which age in the range of 20-40 years old. Urban use only was considered to this preliminary study. It was considered a low cost car with average price of the U$ 16,200.00. These data were used to definition of users requirement and is presented by Fig. 4:

1) Various levels of height adjustment x pressure efficient of the hydraulic system; 2) Various levels of height adjustment x reliability of the mechanical system; 3) higher technology to improvement of brake system x various levels of height adjustment and pressure; 4) Uniform braking during deceleration x higher technology to improvement of brake system. 3.2.2 Functional Tree The functional tree is an approach where the design functions (using the construct verb + substantive) are joined with components and conversely. The focuses of this work is applied QFD (House quality) to the brake system and identify the components that are related to user and technical requirements [4]. So, was made a simple functional tree (Fig. 5), which were identified the main subsystems of a brake disc system.

Fig. 5 Functional analysis preliminary of brake system (brake disc).

Fig.4. First house of QFD: brake system to passenger car.

From the Brainstorming information and research on technical literature was made the first matrix of the QFD methodology whose objective is traduce the users requirement to technical characteristics. Using this technique it is possible to anticipate technical conflicts from roof of the matrix and to identify the users requirements with great importance. Analyzing the matrix it was identified on user viewpoint three requirements with more importance: Be reliable (24%); short breaking distance (19%) and Stop in the shortest time possible (17%). These requirements were translated on technical viewpoint as: better material for the brake system and tires (21%); higher technology to improvement of brake system (20%) and more efficiency during the braking process (14%). In the roof of matrix were identifying four technical conflicts:

Each subsystem primary of the function tree can be open out to many components. The high level of complexity for the functional analysis of a brake system can include: thermal analysis of the some components, dynamic analysis, modal analysis, reliability and endurance analysis and design analysis. Adopting the design analysis were considered the brake pad and disc components to initial study due the information obtained from house of quality of QFD where the following characteristics were identified: better material for the brake system and tires and more efficiency during the braking process. These two characteristics are indicated in the functional tree as: brake pad and disc which are related to potential and kinetic energy during the displacement of the urban vehicle and the heat transference between the material of the brake pad and disc. The design function of the brake pad is providing friction during the braking process of vehicle with safety during its useful life. The failure modes of the components can be: premature wear due the misalignment during the assembly or choice inadequately of the material and the natural wear. These conditions lead to reduction of the efficiency to braking system. The loss of friction and the vitrification process are elevation in the work temperature contributing likewise to reduction of the efficiency to brake. The design function of the disc is to reduce the kinetic energy of the wheels [3]. Its failure modes are: vitrification and warp which cause is the high temperature during the brake process.
5

13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011

A23_442

3.2.3 Problem Formulation (Energy, Torque and angular velocity) When the rotating elements of a machine act in the braking process, the kinetic energy from rotating movement must be absorbed by brake. This mechanical energy transforms into heat during each braking process. The torque capacity depends on material friction coefficient and working normal pressure. The brake system efficiency and reliability are conditioned to material capability of resistance and dissipation of heat. If heat generation is quicker than it be dissipated, there is a severe increase of temperature in the brake pad and disc. Considering two inertial systems connected through a brake it is possible to obtain a simplified mathematical model to braking process. The inertia moments I1 and I2 have initial angular velocities 1 and 2. During the brake system activation, both the angular velocities change until became equal, considering that the two axes are rigid and have constant torque. The total amount of energy dissipated during braking process is obtained integrating the equation 25:

4. Implementations and results The preliminary results of this work are: program based on machine elements for calculation of disc and drum brake. Based on technical literature are obtained parameters as: coupling forces, activating torque from variations of the radii and contact angles of the piston /canvas with the friction material. The program structure is given by Fig.6.

E=

(1 2 ) 2 I1.I 2 . 2 ( I1 + I 2 )

(25)

One can see that the dissipated energy is proportional to square of the difference between velocities being torque independent. So, it is possible to deduce to equation for braking process, considering the variable with sub-index 1 as rotating axle of the system and the variable with sub-index 2 as axle fixed. This way is assumed the following conditions: 2 = 0 T = Constant I2 Considering the system is fixed, rotating only by bending the material used.

Fig. 6 - Structure of program based on design to friction brake calculation.

E = lim

.I (1 2 ) 2 I1 .I 2 = 1 1 . I 2 2 ( I1 + I 2 ) 2

(26)

The rotor temperature of the steel-coating interface is associated to the material being fundamental to friction and wear conditions. In this interface occurs the change of mechanical energy into heat dissipation lead some regions of the brake pad/disc to high temperatures. The temperature of brake pad material determines the wear mode and the lubricant film in the surface influence the variation of friction coefficient. The temperature equilibrium is related with input heat (proportional to vehicle weight, initial velocity and the number of braking) and the amount of heat dissipated. The lost of heat occurs through heat conduction to brake system, as well as by heat convection and radiation to neighborhood.

In the first version of program the user has two design brake options: drum brake (with brake shoe) and disc brake. The calculation to disc brake considers the pressure and wear uniform hypothesis. On the project chosen by the smaller and linear torque with the variation of friction was implemented an optimization routine based on the finite difference method. The initial objective (based on result of QFD) is investigate the heat dissipation by conduction and convection, during acceleration and braking process of the vehicle for subsequent control with battery electric and internal combustion engine. In order that present the variables used in the program developed to design and optimization of brake disc is showed in the Fig. 7 a view simplified of parameters of input and output where are considered: input (radii variations, friction coefficients, normal pressure); output (torque, energy and heat dissipation) and control variables as example: inertia, weight, response time, maximum force.

13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011

A23_442

The Fig. 10 presents the results obtained by program PDETool package MATLAB . The results of the Fig. 11 show the results obtained by difference finite method implemented inside of the program development to brake design.

Fig. 7. Input and output parameters on optimization routine.

The system based on finite differences is being simulated tests, as seen in Figs. 8 and 9 in order to simulate the temperature increase within the brake pad, considering the properties of the materials used and the ambient conditions. The Fig. 8 presents the interface of the program in development where after calculation the coupling force and torque considering the geometry of disc brake, based on pressure and wear uniform hypothesis, the user can choose the optimization option to determine in function of type of material, the regions of brake pad with critical temperatures.

Fig. 10. Temperature gradient on brake pad obtained by PDETool (Matlab program ).

Fig. 11. Temperature gradient on brake pad obtained by implementation of Finite Difference Method.

Small numerical differences were found between the method implemented and the existing method, which will not affect the analysis of the final result because the critical temperature was almost the same in both cases. The approximate error between implemented method and commercial program was 3.3%. 5. Conclusions The braking and energy storage processes compose an important technical question to obtain better performance for hybrid vehicles, avoiding the loss of energy as heat and making the process of safer and more efficient braking using for example regenerative systems as flywheel. Despite of the traditional theory about mechanical brakes on viewpoint of machine element, there is not open program to calculation of the forces, torques in function of geometry and material characteristics as well as optimization methods to use in research or didactic. The use of techniques based on design methodology can be lead technical approaches with more innovation and improvement of present characteristics. In this work, the informational design allows the identification of the specific user requirements for a brake system. Through unfold of the user requirements it was
7

Fig. 8. Finite Difference Method - Graphical Interface.

Hence the Fig. 9 shows the analyzed section of the brake pad, providing the temperature at each point of the cross section.

Fig. 9 - Section on brake pad.

13th World Congress in Mechanism and Machine Science, Guanajuato, Mxico, 19-25 June, 2011

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possible identify technical conflicts and the components involved with them. From these components were identify a set of variables that can affect the temperature on the brake pad during the braking process. The results were validated with the technical literature (on viewpoint of machine design) and the first optimization method implemented (Finite difference method) was compared with routine PDETool (Matlab Program). As continuity of the work is been implemented the Simulated Annealing, a heuristic method [11] to refine the results obtained to Finite Difference Method improvement the calculation of time to heating and cooling pads and brake disc. The configuration of brake system in the envelope (useful volume) inside of the wheel will be improvement considering a hybrid passenger car. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank CPFL for supporting this work. References
[1] Hofman, T.; van Druten, R.M.; Hoeskstra, D.; Steinbuch,

M. Optimal Design of energy storage systems for hybrid vehicle drivetrains. Vehicle Power and Propulsion, IEEEConference, 5 pages. 7-9, Sept. 2005. [2] Souza, R.B. de.; Dedini, F.G. A discussion over the energy storage capacity for hybrid electric vehicles. 20th International Congress of Mechanical Engineering, Cobem 2009. Gramado, RS, Brazil. 2009. [3] Hodel, M. Anlise comparativa entre ensaios controlados e aplicaes reais de pastilhas de freios de caminhes. Dissertao de mestrado, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecnica, Universidade Estadual de Campinas. 2009. (in Portuguese) [4] Pahl, G.; Beitz, W. Engineering Design: A systematic approach. 2th Edition. Springer-Verlag: Great Britain. 2005. [5] Back, N. Metodologia de Projetos Industriais. Editora: Guanabara Dois. 1983. [6] Baxter, M. Product design. Nelson Thornes Ltda: United Kingdom. 2002. [7] Norton, R. L. Machine Design: An integrated approach. 2th Edition. Prentice-Hall. ISBN-13: 978-0130177063. 2000. [8] Smith Neto, P. Apontamentos de aula: Freios. Pontfica Universidade Catlica, Minas Gerais, Brasil. 2006. [9] Arora, J. S. Introduction to optimum design. McGrawHill Book Company. ISBN-13: 978-0070024618. 1989. [10] Incropera, F. P.; DeWitt, D. P. Fundamental of heat and mass transfer. 5th Edition: John & Wiley Sons. Inc. 2002. [11] Buttewitsch, S.; Assis, E.G.; Steffen, V. Empirical Model building optimum design of rotating machinery. 17th International Congress of Mechanical Engineering Cobem 2003. So Paulo SP. 2003.