MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): BE ABLE TO

AFFIRMATIVE USE: Used to talk about ability in the present, future, and past. It is very similar in meaning to the Modals CAN and COULD. FORM: [SUBJECT + BE(present/past/future) + ABLE TO + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "He worked hard and was able to pass the exam." "Mary broke her leg just two months ago but she's already able to walk again." "She needs time to decide, but she'll be able to give you an answer tomorrow." NEGATIVE USE: Used to talk about inability or failure to do something in the past, present, or future. FORM: [SUBJECT + BE (present/past/future) + NOT + ABLE TO + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "The store was closed, so I wasn't able to buy the book." "Sorry, we won't be able to fix your car until next week." QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS USE: Used to ask questions about ability in the present, past, and future. YES/NO QUESTIONS FORM: [Q: BE (all tenses) + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?] [A: Yes, + SUBJECT + BE. No, + SUBJECT + BE NOT.] EXAMPLES: "Were you able to buy that book for me?" "Yes I was. Here it is!" WH-QUESTIONS FORM: About the SUBJECT of the sentence [WH-WORD + BE ABLE TO+ VERB...?] About the REST of the sentence [WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?] EXAMPLES: "Who was able to finish their homework on time?" "When will you be able to pay back the loan?" "We'll be able to pay you next month."

GERUNDS: AS OBJECTS USE: The object of the verb is normally a noun or a pronoun. The objects of some verbs, however, can be GERUNDS. These verbs include: ENJOY, ALLOW, LIKE, FINISH, HATE, LOVE, and PREFER. EXAMPLES: "Eric loves collecting comic books." "Sandy prefers buying only fresh meat and vegetables." "She enjoys meeting new people." "John dislikes going to big parties." "We do not allow smoking in our office." "I hate getting lost in foreign cities."

GERUNDS: AFTER PREPOSITIONS USE: A preposition is normally followed by a noun or a pronoun. If it is followed by a verb, the verb is a GERUND. EXAMPLES: "Mary left without saying goodbye." "James had an accident after drinking too much." "Always lock the door before going to bed." "He read the newspaper while having breakfast."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): MUST USE: Used to talk about a strong necessity, obligation, or duty to do something. There is often very little difference between MUST and HAVE TO. In formal, written English, MUST is used for public notices about official rules and regulations. MUST can also be used to express a strong opinion about a situation based on existing facts or circumstances. AFFIRMATIVE FORM: [SUBJECT + MUST + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "I have a terrible toothache; I must go to the dentist." "We must try to help Nicky; she's our oldest friend." "All workers must wear safety helmets in work areas!" "Jack must be on his way. There was no one home when I called his apartment." NEGATIVE USE: In both formal and informal English we use the negative form MUST NOT (often shortened to MUSTN'T) to talk about something which is wrong or forbidden. Note that this is not the same as the negative form of HAVE TO, which only means that something is not necessary. FORM: [SUBJECT + MUST + NOT (MUSTN'T) + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "You mustn't pull the dog's tail, dear; he'll bite you." "We mustn't forget to pay back that loan." "Workers must not smoke in work areas!" QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS USE: Used to ask whether something is necessary or obligatory. The interrogative form of HAVE TO has the same meaning and is more common. YES/NO QUESTIONS FORM: [Q: MUST + SUBJECT + VERB...?] [A: Yes, + SUBJECT + MUST No, + SUBJECT + NEEDN'T] EXAMPLE: "Must I go to school today, Mom?" "Yes, you must." WH-QUESTIONS FORM: About the SUBJECT of the sentence: [Wh-Word + MUST + VERB...?] ABOUT REST OF SENTENCE: [WH-WORD + MUST + SUBJECT + VERB...?] EXAMPLES: "What must happen before we can leave?"

"When must you take the test?" "Next Friday."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): HAD TO

AFFIRMATIVE USE: Used to talk about necessity, obligation, and duty in the past. HAD TO is the past form of both HAVE TO and MUST. FORM: [SUBJECT + HAD TO + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "I had to stay up all night to write this paper!" "We had to run to catch the train." NEGATIVE USE: Used to talk about something that was not necessary or not obligatory in the past. FORM: [SUBJECT + DID NOT (DIDN'T) + HAVE TO + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "Monday was a holiday, so I didn't have to go to work." "I didn't have to study Latin in high school." QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS USE: Used to ask questions about duties and obligations in the past. YES/NO QUESTIONS [Q: DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?] [A: Yes, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + DID. No, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + DIDN'T]

EXAMPLE: "Did you have to borrow money to buy the car?" "Yes, we did." WH-QUESTIONS About the SUBJECT of the sentence: [WH-WORD + HAS/HAD/HAD TO+ VERB...?] About the REST of the sentence: [WH-WORD + DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?] EXAMPLES: "Who had to wash the car this week?" "What did you have to do to get the loan?" "I had to fill out a form for the bank."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): MUST NOT/DON'T HAVE TO USE: While MUST and HAVE TO have similar meanings in the affirmative, they cannot be used interchangeably in the negative. MUST NOT (MUSTN'T) is used to show that something is prohibited or forbidden. DON'T HAVE TO means "it's not necessary to do something". EXAMPLES: "You mustn't run in here; this is a hospital." "You don't have to run; the bus is waiting for you."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): SHOULD AFFIRMATIVE USE: Used to talk about a duty or obligation which is much weaker than MUST or HAVE TO. It is also used to give somebody advice. FORM: [SUBJECT + SHOULD + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "You should study for your test tonight instead of watching TV." (duty) "I'm terribly tired." "You should work less!" (advice) NEGATIVE USE: We can use SHOULD NOT (SHOULDN'T) as a weaker form of MUSTN'T, to warn people or advise them not to do something. FORM: [SUBJECT + SHOULD NOT (SHOULDN'T) + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "You shouldn't eat so much candy. It'll make you fat!" "You shouldn't throw candy wrappers on the street. Put them in the trash can instead." QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS USE: Used to ask whether something is necessary, right, or useful, or to ask people for advice. YES/NO QUESTIONS FORM: [Q: Should + SUBJECT + VERB...?] [A: Yes, + SUBJECT + SHOULD No, + SUBJECT + SHOULDN'T] EXAMPLE: "Should I answer Peter's letter?" "Yes, you should!" WH-QUESTIONS FORM: About the SUBJECT of the sentence [WH-WORD + SHOULD + VERB...?] About the REST of the sentence [WH-WORD + SHOULD + SUBJECT + VERB...?] EXAMPLES: "Who should bring the drinks?" "Where should we go to buy the local pottery?" "Well, don't go to the big tourist shops. You should go to the small shops in the villages."

INFINITIVES: AFTER VERBS USE: When two verbs in the same clause have the same subject, the second acts as the object of the first. Depending on the first verb, the second may be in the infinitive form. FORM: [SUBJECT + VERB 1 + (NOT) + Infinitive...] EXAMPLE: "Tina decided to study Russian." There are two main groups of verbs which can be followed by an Infinitive: SUBJECT'S ATTITUDE: Agree, Choose, Decide, Hope, Offer, Promise, Refuse, etc. EXAMPLES: "Patrick agreed to cook dinner." "Jane chose to stay at home." "We decided not to buy a new house." "I hope to win first prize next year." SUBJECT'S ABILITY: Attempt, Fail, Learn, Manage, Try, Be able to, etc. EXAMPLES: "Ben attempted to start the car." "Anne failed to finish her paper on time." "We learned to ski when we were on vacation."

GERUNDS: AFTER VERBS USE: GERUNDS are used as the object of most transitive verbs, instead of a noun or pronoun. In some cases an object-verb takes the infinitive form, but normally it is a Gerund. Note that a Gerund can also follow "BE". FORM: [SUBJECT + VERB + GERUND] EXAMPLES: "Smith admitted stealing the jewels, but denied killing the security guard." "I avoid arguing with my boss." "Frank enjoys watching horror movies." "We must finish painting this wall today." "I can't imagine eating snails." "Cats don't like swimming." "Do you mind waiting for me?" "Sam remembers meeting you last year."

PAST PROGRESSIVE - vs. PAST SIMPLE USE: We use the Past Simple to talk about a completed action in the past. We use the Past Progressive to talk about an action that continued over a period of time in the past. We can also use the Past Simple and the Past Progressive together in the same sentence, to show that one short action or event happened during a longer action or event. If we mention the shorter action first, we usually join the two parts of the sentence together with WHILE. EXAMPLES: "Tom arrived while we were talking about him." "She came in while I was doing my homework." If we mention the longer action first, we usually join the two parts of the sentence together with WHEN. EXAMPLES: "We were talking about Tom when he arrived." "I was doing my homework when she came in."

ADVERBS: COMPARISON USE: Used to compare two subjects performing the same action. The comparative and superlative forms of most adverbs are made in the same way as long adjectives: COMPARATIVE FORM: [SUBJECT 1 + VERB + MORE + Adverb + THAN + SUBJECT 2 (+DOES/CAN etc)...] EXAMPLES: "I can sing more beautifully than you (can)." "Ted writes more slowly than Brenda (does)." SUPERLATIVE FORM: [SUBJECT 1 + VERB + THE MOST + Adverb (OF ALL)] EXAMPLES: "Of all the students in her class, Sarah does her homeworkthemost carefully." "Jimmy behaves the most childishly of anyone in the class." Adverbs which have the same base form as adjectives also have the same comparative and superlative forms. These are constructed by adding-er (for the comparative) and -est (for the superlative) to the base form. EXAMPLES: "Fred can run faster than Martin can, but Sharon runs the fastest." "My wife got up earlier than I did this morning, but our daughter got up the earliest." IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES and SUPERLATIVE FORMS There are also a small number of irregular comparative and superlative forms of adverbs: Base form WELL BADLY LITTLE MUCH Comparative BETTER WORSE LESS MORE Superlative THE BEST THE WORST THE LEAST THE MOST

ADVERBS: FORMATION Most adverbs are formed by adding "-ly" to the end of an adjective: clear/clearly, wonderful/wonderfully, clever/cleverly, stupid/stupidly, interesting/interestingly, close/closely, dangerous/dangerously, bad/badly. If an adjective already ends in "-ly" (e.g. FRIENDLY, LONELY) it cannot be made into an adverb. In this case, we have to make an adverbial phrase. EXAMPLES: "She spoke to me in a friendly way." "He sat there looking lonely." In a few cases, the adverb is exactly the same as its corresponding adjective: EARLY, LATE, FAST, HARD, LEFT, RIGHT, WRONG, HIGH, LONG. EXAMPLES: "I'm afraid the train will leave late." "He runs very fast." "Why do you work so hard?" "Turn right at the next corner!" The adverb form of the adjective GOOD is WELL. "Michael is a very good cook. He makes cakes particularly well."

FUTURE: WILL and GOING TO WILL USE: WILL is used to express a subjective opinion, or to express a decision, a promise,a belief, or a threat, etc. about the future. This is why WILL often follows expressions like "I hope...", "Do you think...", etc. EXAMPLE: "Do you think she will like these flowers?" FORM: Affirmative: [SUBJECT + WILL + VERB...] NOTE: We often shorten WILL to "-'ll" and pronounce it together with the subject. EXAMPLE: "I think he will (he'll) fix the car tomorrow." Negative: [SUBJECT + WILL + NOT + VERB...] NOTE: We often shorten WILL NOT to "WON'T". EXAMPLE: "I'm afraid we won't finish the job today." QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS YES/NO QUESTIONS USE: In the interrogative form, WILL often introduces a request. FORM: [Q: WILL + SUBJECT + VERB...?] [A: Yes, + SUBJECT + WILL No, + SUBJECT + WILL NOT(WON'T).] EXAMPLES: "Will you open the window, please?" "Yes, of course I will." "Will you buy me an ice cream, please?" "No, I won't!" WH-QUESTIONS FORM: Questions about the subject of the sentence: [Q: WHO/WHAT + WILL + VERB...?] EXAMPLE: "Who'll be there tonight?" "Liz will go for sure. And maybe Tom will be there too." Questions about the rest of the sentence: [Q: Wh-word + WILL + SUBJECT + VERB...?] EXAMPLE: "When will we get home tonight?" "I think we'll get home at around 10." GOING TO

USE: GOING TO is used to talk about definite, objective facts and plans in the future. EXAMPLE: "Look at those clouds! It's going to rain!" FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE [SUBJECT + BE + GOING TO + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "I'm going to study Chinese History next semester." "Look out! That car's going to hit us!" NEGATIVE [SUBJECT + BE + NOT + GOING TO + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "We aren't going to make a profit this year." "I know I'm not going to pass this exam!" QUESTIONS and ANSWERS YES/NO QUESTIONS [Q: BE + SUBJECT + GOING TO + VERB...?] [A: Yes, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + BE.] or: [No, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + BE + NOT.] EXAMPLE: "Is this train going to arrive on time?" "No, it isn't. It's going to be late." WH-QUESTIONS Questions about the subject of the sentence: [Q: WHO/WHAT + BE + GOING TO + VERB...] EXAMPLE: "Who's going to finish this?" "I am."

Questions about the rest of the sentence: [Q: WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + GOING TO + VERB...?] [A: Affirmative sentence with GOING TO.] EXAMPLE: "Who are you going to vote for?" "I'm going to vote for Tom Baxter." NOTE: We often find both WILL and GOING TO in the same conversation.In the following dialogue, the patient wants a definite answer to his question,but the nurse replies with only a promise: "Is this injection going to hurt?" "Don't worry, it will only hurt a little and it won't takelong!"

UTURE: SIMPLE PRESENT USE: We sometimes use the Simple Present (see Basic 2) to talk about 'definite' future actions and events that are already fixed or arranged on an official timetable. EXAMPLES: "The President leaves for Japan on Monday." "When does the next bus arrive?"

USE: We often use the Present Progressive (see Basic 1) to talk about plans and decisions for the near future. It is most commonly used with verbs expressing movement (e.g. arrive, come, go, leave, sail, visit, etc.) EXAMPLES: "I'm leaving early today; I have a headache." "Are you visiting your mother tonight?" "I'm not waiting any longer; he's half an hour late already!"

INFINITIVES: AFTER ADJECTIVES USE: Used to say how somebody thinks or feels about an action or event. FORM: [SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE + TO + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "Mike was very surprised to see Ted with Laura." "We were delighted to see Fred at the party."

INFINITIVES: AFTER VERB + OBJECT USE: When there are two verbs with different subjects in the same clause, the second is sometimes an Infinitive. This structure is often used to talk about the first subject's attitude towards or influence on the second subject. FORM: [SUBJECT 1 + VERB 1 + SUBJECT 2 + Infinitive] EXAMPLES: "I told Maggie to write that letter last week." "The teacher allowed the students to go home early." "Fred asked me to lend him some money." "I expected them to answer my letter immediately." "They invited Sarah to go on vacation with them." "We'd like you to work with us." "I need you to sign this paper, please." "The general ordered his men to retreat." "Janet paid the mechanic to fix her car." "David reminded her to feed the cat." "Mary teaches people to read." "The boss told me to work harder." "Angela wants Paul to marry her."

GERUNDS: AS SUBJECTS USE: A GERUND can act as the subject of any verb, instead of a noun or pronoun. We often use Gerunds in this way to make generalizations. The Gerund can stand alone, be followed by a complement (i.e. an object or an adverbial) or by an adverbial clause. FORM: [GERUND + (Complement/Adverb Clause) + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "Smoking is dangerous." "Eating always makes me sleepy." "Smoking cigars is very dangerous." (with Complement) "Playing football makes me thirsty." (with Complement) "Smoking when you are in a crowded room is inconsiderate." (with Adverbial Clause) "Not brushing your teeth before you go to bed is bad for your teeth." (with Adverbial Clause)

ADVERBS: ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY USE: Used to talk about how often or how rarely something happens. The most important adverbs of frequency are ALWAYS, GENERALLY, NORMALLY, USUALLY, FREQUENTLY, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, EVER, OCCASIONALLY, SELDOM, RARELY, and NEVER. FORM: Adverbs of frequency normally come immediately before the verb in affirmative sentences, but after the verb "BE". In negative sentences, adverbs of frequency normally come immediately after the word NOT. In questions, adverbs of frequency normally come immediately after the subject. AFFIRMATIVE [ADVERB + VERB] EXAMPLE: "I always drink champagne with my supper." [BE + ADVERB] EXAMPLE: "Peter is sometimes late for lessons." NEGATIVE [NOT + ADVERB] EXAMPLES: "We don't often go to the theater." "My sister isn't usually so quiet." QUESTIONS [SUBJECT + ADVERB] EXAMPLES: "What do you usually have for breakfast?" "Do you always eat a sandwich for lunch?" "Are you ever going to finish that book?" "We sometimes take the car and sometimes walk." "Bill is rarely late." "Jessica doesn't ever call me at work." "Why don't Pam and Jim ever speak to Michael?"

GERUNDS: GERUND OR INFINITIVE USE: Several verbs can be followed by either GERUNDS or INFINITIVES. In some cases, such as REMEMBER, FORGET, STOP, and USE, this changes the meaning of the sentence completely. FORM + MEANING: [REMEMBER/FORGET + GERUND - memories of the past] EXAMPLES: "I remember seeing the Beatles in 1970." "I'll never forget meeting you in Rome last year." FORM + MEANING: [REMEMBER/FORGET + INFINITIVE - actions in the future] EXAMPLES: "I'll remember to give him the message tomorrow." "Don't forget to feed the chickens this evening!" FORM + MEANING: [STOP + GERUND - to finish or abandon an action] EXAMPLE: "We stopped dancing because we were tired." FORM + MEANING: [STOP + INFINITIVE - to start a new action] EXAMPLE: "I stopped to tie my shoelace." FORM + MEANING: [TRY + GERUND - to experiment; to perform an action to see what the result will be.] EXAMPLE: "If you want to make perfect tea, try heating the pot with some boiling water before putting in the tea." FORM + MEANING: [TRY + INFINITIVE - to attempt something; to find out whether it is possible] EXAMPLE: "I tried to stroke the cat, but she ran away before I could touch her." FORM + MEANING: [LIKE + GERUND - to enjoy something] EXAMPLES: "I like eating chocolate." "I like reading novels." FORM + MEANING: [LIKE + INFINITIVE - to think that something is wise, right, or enjoyable] EXAMPLES: "I like to brush my teeth after meals." "I like to answer business letters immediately." Note the difference between USE TO + INFINITIVE and BE/GET USED TO + GERUND:

FORM + MEANING: [USED TO (past) + INFINITIVE - refers to a past habit or state which has now stopped or changed] EXAMPLES: "I used to smoke 50 cigarettes a day, before I stopped." "We used to live in Washington; now we live in Montreal." "My father used to have brown hair, but now he is bald." FORM + MEANING: [BE or GET USED TO + GERUND - means to consider something normal or become accustomed to something] EXAMPLES: "I'm used to driving on the left now, but when I first came to Britain it felt very strange!" "I can't get used to being a grandmother; I feel so old!" "Don't worry; you'll get used to having grandchildren." With some verbs (e.g. START, BEGIN, CONTINUE), it makes very little difference whether they are followed by GERUND or an INFINITIVE, although one form may be slightly more common than the other. In the following examples the more common form comes first. EXAMPLES: "We started traveling/to travel at 6 o'clock." "Pat began swimming/to swim when she was six." "Joe continued writing/to write to me for years."

IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS USE: These are used to talk about time, place, weather, and other conditions in expressions where the verb "BE" has no real subject. FORM: [IT + BE + Time expression/adjective + REST] EXAMPLES: "It's 1 o'clock in Miami when it's 7 o'clock in Rome." "It's warm and sunny today in Washington." "It's too late to get tickets for the 4 o'clock show." "It's time to start cooking dinner." "Come and swim; it's lovely in the water!" "It's very dusty up in our attic."

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE: STATEMENTS, Q and A USE: To talk about actions or states which began in the past and are still relevant in the present. The Present Perfect is often used with expressions starting with FOR and SINCE, to talk about actions or states which began in the past and are true up until the present time. It is also used with the adverbs JUST, ALREADY, and YET to talk about actions or events which took place at an indefinite time in the past. The Present Perfect is also used to talk about recent actions or events ("news"). FORM: The Present Perfect is made up of HAVE/HAS and the Past Participle (the third form of the verb [V3]). AFFIRMATIVE [SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (just/already) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]... (for/since...)] EXAMPLES: "I've lived here for two years." "You've already lost one key. I can't believe you can't find the second." "Whose package is this? It's been here since 4 p.m." "We've already met them." "They're not hungry. They've just eaten their dinner." NOTE: In positive sentences, JUST and ALREADY usually go immediately before the past participle. Phrases with FOR and SINCE go at the end of the sentence. NEGATIVE [SUBJECT + HAVE NOT/HAVEN'T + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..] HAS NOT/HASN'T EXAMPLES: "I haven't met her yet." "It hasn't begun to rain yet." "We haven't had lunch yet." "You haven't said a word for 2 hours." "They haven't finished their breakfast." NOTE: In negative sentences, YET and phrases with FOR and SINCE usually go at the end of the sentence. YES/NO QUESTIONS [HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT +...PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]] EXAMPLES: "Have you already finished your work?" "Has she finished painting the room?" WH-QUESTIONS

WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SUBJECT [WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS +...PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]] EXAMPLE: "Who has just eaten the candy?" WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE REST OF THE SENTENCE [WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT +...PAST PARTICIPLE (V3)]

EXAMPLES: "Where has he put my coat?" "What have you done with the money?" NOTE: In questions, JUST and ALREADY usually go before the Past Participle [V3]; YET and phrases with FOR and SINCE usually go at the end of the sentence. CONTRAST WITH OTHER TENSES USE: We use the Present Perfect to talk about actions or events that happened during a period which in some way includes or is connected to the present, when the exact time is not given. EXAMPLE: "Peter Parker has written five books." The "period" in this sentence is Parker's life. By using the Present Perfect, we show that he is still alive and still writing books. BUT "John Craig wrote five books." In this case, the Past Simple is used, showing that the "period" is finished, probably because Craig is dead. We also use the Present Perfect to talk about recent actions or events which are "news" to the listener, often with the adverbs JUST and ALREADY and YET in negative sentences and questions. EXAMPLES: "The results have just come in; and here they are..." "I don't want to go to that movie: I've already seen it." "Have you typed that letter yet?" NOTE: In American English, the simple past form is often used: "The election results just came in: here they are..." "I don't want to go to that movie; I already saw it." "Did you type that letter yet?" We often use the Present Perfect with certain expressions: FOR or SINCE We can use FOR or SINCE at the beginning of the time expression. If we say how long the action or state lasted, we use FOR: "...for ten minutes." "...for twenty years." "...for two centuries." "...for a very long time." etc. If we say when the action or state began, we use SINCE, followed by the time or another expression which indicates the time: "...since 2 o'clock." "...since last Monday." "...since 1975." "...since the end of the war." "...since I was a baby." etc. HOW LONG We start a question to ask about the duration of an activity or state with HOW LONG: EXAMPLES: "How long have you had that sweater?" "About six months."

"How long have you been an actor?" "Since I left school." EVER If we want to know if something has happened, but not when, we often put the adverb EVER before the verb in the question. EXAMPLES: "Have you ever eaten octopus?" "Yes, I have." "Have you ever been in an accident?" "No, I haven't." JUST, ALREADY or YET JUST (=a short time ago), ALREADY (=before now) and YET (=before/until now) are used in Present Perfect sentences that talk about recent actions or events ("news"). JUST and ALREADY usually go immediately before the third form of the verb and YET is often used at the end of a negative sentence or question. EXAMPLES: "I have already seen that movie. Let's stay home!" "But I haven't seen it yet!" "Here we are at the Indy 500 with Mike Rhodes. Mike, have you ever driven in an Indy race?" "No, I haven't. But I've been a race driver in Europe for ten years." "Well, Good Luck to you!"

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE USE: To talk about a continuous or repeated action which began in the past and continues up to the present, or which finished very recently and still has an effect. We do not normally use the Present Perfect Progressive with stative verbs (TO HAVE RED HAIR, TO BE HAPPY/ILL/TIRED, TO KNOW THE ANSWER, etc.). EXAMPLES: "Betty and Joe have been working all night: they're exhausted!" "Ted, I've been telling you to make your bed for two hours!" FORM: AFFIRMATIVE [SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + BEEN + VERB+ing ] EXAMPLES: "I've been sitting here for an hour." "She's been hiding in the garage." NEGATIVE [SUBJECT + HAS/HAVE + NOT + BEEN + VERB+ing...] HASN'T/HAVEN'T EXAMPLES: "You have not (haven't) been working all week." "He has not (hasn't) been living here very long." NOTE: The expressions FOR and SINCE are used with the Present Perfect Progressive in the same way as with the Present Perfect Simple. EXAMPLES: "They have been studying French for three years." "She has been living here since 1987."

THE PASSIVE: FORM - WITH OR WITHOUT AGENT USE: To talk about actions or events in which the agent, or the "doer" of the action, is obvious, unknown or unimportant, or to emphasize the action, the results of the action, or the receiver of the action. The Passive is also used to stress a process or event. FORM: ["BE" + Past Participle [V3]] NOTE: The verb "BE" varies according to the tense of the sentence. It can take any form, including progressives. EXAMPLES: "The castle was built in 1543." "It has been rebuilt twice since then." (Agent unknown/unimportant) "English is spoken here." (Agent is obvious or understood) "The game is played until there are no more players on the field." (Process is stressed) NOTE: We can include the agent after the verb in a Passive sentence, using the preposition BY. EXAMPLES: "My lunch was stolen by a gorilla from the circus!" "The new hospital is going to be opened by the Queen herself." AFFIRMATIVE/NEGATIVE

PRESENT/PAST SIMPLE [OBJECT + Present/Past Form of BE (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by SUBJECT)...] EXAMPLES: "English is spoken here." "These socks weren't made in Japan." PRESENT/PAST PROGRESSIVE [OBJECT + Present/Past Form of BE (NOT) + BEING + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by SUBJECT)] EXAMPLES: "The house is being painted (by John)." "Our car wasn't being used yesterday." PRESENT PERFECT [OBJECT + HAVE (NOT)/HAS (NOT) + BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by SUBJECT)] EXAMPLES: "The house has been rented (by Bob Tell)." "We haven't been invited to the party." YES/NO QUESTIONS [BE/HAVE + SUBJECT (BE) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLES: "Was the letter sent?" (SIMPLE) "Is it being ordered?" (PROGRESSIVE) "Have they been asked?" (PERFECT) WH-QUESTIONS [WH-WORD + BE/HAVE + (SUBJECT) (BE) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...] EXAMPLES: "Who was told about this?" "When was John invited to the wedding?" "Where was it being shown?" "Why has Bill been fired? OTHER EXAMPLES: "The car wasn't being repaired when we arrived." "The election results have just been announced." "George has been caught by the police." "Are we going to be invited to Joe's party?" "Why has Betty been arrested?" "Who was that movie made by? "It was made by DeMille, I think."

RELATIVE CLAUSES: OBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSES USE: When the subject of the verb in the relative clause is not the same as the noun we are talking about. FORM: These relative clauses begin with relative pronouns: WHO (for people) WHOM (in very formal English) WHICH (for animals or things), THAT (for people, animals, or things and for the words EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, or ANYTHING) We can choose to leave out the relative pronoun if it is not the subject of the verb in the relative clause, except when the relative clause begins with a preposition (in formal English), or if it follows a comma. [...NOUN + (RELATIVE PRONOUN) + SENTENCE...] EXAMPLES: "Frederick is the man (who/that/whom) I work with." "Here's the book (which/that) you lent me." "Tell me everything (that) you remember." If there is a preposition at the beginning of the relative clause we must use the relative pronouns WHOM or WHICH unless we move the prepositionto the end of the clause. EXAMPLES: "The lady with whom you were dancing is my wife." OR "The lady (that) you were dancing with is my wife." "The company for which you work is responsible for your pension." OR "The company (that) you work for is responsible for your pension." We can also replace IN WHICH,AT WHICH, and ON WHICH by WHERE or WHEN. EXAMPLES: "That's the house where Shakespeare lived." "1492 was the year when Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic."

RELATIVE CLAUSES: SUBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSES USE: When the subject of the verb in the relative clause is the same as the noun we are talking about. FORM: These Relative Clauses begin with relative pronouns: WHO (for people), WHICH (for animals or things), THAT (for people, animals, or things; for the words EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, or ANYTHING). [...NOUN + RELATIVE PRONOUN + VERB...] EXAMPLES: "He's the man who/that wrote this book." "Let's see the movie which/that won the prize." "I've forgotten everything that happened." "Bill's the man who called me last night." "Where is the factory that makes those chairs?" Remember that the relative clause always contains a verb.

RELATIVE CLAUSES: WITH OR WITHOUT RELATIVE PRONOUNS We can choose to leave out the relative pronoun if it is not the subject of the verb in the relative clause, except when the relative clause begins with a preposition (in formal English), or if it follows a comma. EXAMPLES: That's the man I spoke to. BUT That's the man to whom I spoke.

THE PASSIVE: INDIRECT FORM Some verbs, such as GIVE, ASK, TELL, OFFER, PROMISE, SEND, SHOW, TEACH, and PAY, can have two objects: one DIRECT and one INDIRECT. Either the direct object or the indirect object can become the subject in a passive sentence: "My grandmother gave me a watch for my birthday." "The watch was given to me for my birthday." (direct object) "I was given the watch for my birthday." (indirect object)

PRESENT PERFECT: CONTRAST WITH OTHER TENSES USE: Unlike the Present Perfect, the Simple Past or Past Progressive are used to talk about an action or event which happened during a period that does not include the present. EXAMPLES: "Have you seen Pat this week?" "No, but I saw her last week." "Have you talked to Sharon?" "No. I haven't talked to her since she came back from France." Sometimes, a conversation begins in the Present Perfect and continues in the Simple Past: when the first question ["Have you ever...?" or "How long have you...?"] covers a long period (including the present), while the rest of the conversation deals with a particular action or event in the past. EXAMPLES: "Have you ever been to New York?" "Yes, I have. I went in 1989. I loved it." "How long have you had that car?" "We've had it for five years." "How much did you pay for it?" "Not much, but we had to do a lot of work on it..."

THE PASSIVE: MODALS

USE: To express various degrees of possibility, probability and obligation, in the passive. We can use all the Modals WILL, MUST, HAVE TO, CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, NEED, SHOULD with "BE" and the Past Participle [V3] of the original verb. AFFIRMATIVE/NEGATIVE [OBJECT + MODAL (NOT) + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]... (by SUBJECT)] EXAMPLES: "The project can't be finished on time." "We will be met at 8 p.m. (by Mr. Sills)." YES/NO QUESTIONS [MODAL + SUBJECT + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...] EXAMPLES: "Should Tina be invited to the party?" "Must it be done by 7 p.m.?" WH-QUESTIONS [WH-WORD + MODAL + (SUBJECT) + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]] EXAMPLES: "Where can it be seen?" "When will she be told about her brother?" "What may be eaten?" OTHER EXAMPLES: OBLIGATION / NECESSITY "The doctor's instructions must be followed exactly." "The police have sealed that door; it mustn't be opened." "The bridge was badly damaged, so it had to berepaired." "I can fix your watch for you; it needn't betaken to the watchmaker." "Private cars shouldn't be allowed to enter the city center." POSSIBILITY / PROBABILITY "On a clear day, the mountains can be seen from the top of this building." "Ten years ago, objects like this could be bought for a few dollars." "Mike's taking a big risk: he could be sent to prison if someone checks that signature." "Smith has been a very unsuccessful mayor; he may not bere-elected next year."

CLAUSES: NOUN CLAUSES USE: Used to talk about a piece of information which we have, don't have, or would like to have. FORM: [MAIN CLAUSE + CONJUNCTION + NOUN CLAUSE.] EXAMPLES: "I have no idea where the castle is." "I wonder who that girl is." "I'm sure that Klaus is Austrian." PROVIDING INFORMATION If the speaker is providing information, he/she will use an expression like "Iknow...", "I'm sure...", "I think...", "I expect..." and either the conjunction THAT or Wh-Question words.

EXAMPLES: "I know that he loves me." "I am not sure where Mary went." Notice that the word THAT is often omitted. "I'm sure (that) Mike will arrive later." Notice that the Wh-Question words are not followed by the normal question form. "I know when he is going to arrive." ASKING FOR INFORMATION - with IF and WHETHER If the information requested is unknown, we use an expression like "I don't know...", "I've no idea...", "I can't imagine...", "I wonder..."together with IF or WHETHER. EXAMPLES: "Do you know if John is at home?" "No, I don't know whether he is at home or at work." "I wonder if Bill has cleaned the kitchen." ASKING FOR INFORMATION - with WH-QUESTION WORDS If the speaker wants to find out some information, he or she will often use an expression like "Do you know...", "Can you tell me..." or "Iwonder...", etc. followed by the appropriate Wh-Question word. The noun clause does not take the normal question form. EXAMPLES: "Excuse me, can you tell me what time it is?" "Can you tell me which bus goes to Maine?" "Do you know whose book this is?" "I wonder where my new sweater is." GIVING INFORMATION - with WH-QUESTION WORDS If the information is the answer to a Wh-Question, the appropriate Wh-Question word becomes the conjunction: WHEN, WHERE, WHY, HOW, WHO, WHAT, WHICH,WHOSE, HOW MUCH, and HOW MANY. The noun clause does not take the normal question form. EXAMPLES: "I have no idea when the letter will arrive." "I can't imagine where Mary's husband is."

"I don't know why Pat said that to you." "I've no idea how we can solve this problem."

CLAUSES: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES USE: Used to talk about the action or event mentioned in the main clause. We can use an ADVERBIAL CLAUSE to explain an action, to say when it happens or how long it lasts, or to set conditions for it. The adverbial clause is introduced by a conjunction which defines its function. FORM: [MAIN CLAUSE + CONJUNCTION + ADVERBIAL CLAUSE] EXAMPLES: "Jack went home because he was tired." "Pat will buy a new sweater when she gets paid." "Jeff gets angry if you criticize him." Note that the main clause normally comes first in the sentence. However, we sometimes put the ADVERBIAL CLAUSE first if we want to emphasize it. EXAMPLES: "As soon as he arrives, you must give him the letter." "Until Jackie pays me, I can't lend you any money." ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF EXPLANATION USE: Used to explain the state, action, or event mentioned in the main clause by reference to another state, action, or event. Different conjunctions can be used for this. We use BECAUSE to give the reason for a state, action, or event. We also use BECAUSE and SO THAT to express the purpose or intention of an action. EXAMPLES: "I'm tired because I didn't sleep last night." (reason) "Mike lent Jenny his car because she wanted to visit her mother." (purpose) "Vera opened the cage door so that the bird could get out." (purpose) ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME USE: Used to say when the state, action, or event in the main clause happens, or how long it lasts, through reference to another state, action, or event. Different conjunctions can be used for this purpose. NOTE: In adverbial clauses of time we do not use the WILL or GOING TO future verb forms, even if we are talking about a future time. WHEN and AS SOON AS - if the event in the adverbial clause happens earlier. EXAMPLES: "The soldiers will come home when the war ends." "John opened the package as soon as it arrived." WHEN, WHILE - if the two events happen at the same time. EXAMPLES: "I saw Pavarotti when he got off the plane in L.A." "Fred phoned me while I was having lunch." BEFORE, UNTIL - if the event in the main clause happens before the event in the adverbial clause. BEFORE is used if there is a time gap between the events.

EXAMPLES: "I have to finish school before I can get a job." "I waited at the bus stop until the bus arrived." ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONDITION USE: Used to express the conditions between the main clause and the adverbial clause. Notice that we do not use the WILL or GOING TO forms in these adverbial clauses. IF - to express the conditions under which the state, action, or event in the main clause will happen. EXAMPLES: "Flowers die if you don't give them enough water." "I'll visit you tomorrow if I have time." UNLESS - to express the conditions under which the state, action, or event in the main clause does not happen. EXAMPLES: "We'll have the meeting at 1 a.m. unless it's canceled." "I'll be late for school unless you take me, Mom." ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF CONTRAST USE: Used to express a contrast between the main clause and the adverbial clause. ALTHOUGH - to express a contrast or contradiction between two states, actions, or events. In this case, we usually separate the clauses with a comma. EXAMPLES: "I feel that I know you very well, although we've nevermet before." "He couldn't speak English, although he said he was American.

CLAUSES USE: When a sentence contains more than one finite verb (i.e. verb with its own subject),it is divided into CLAUSES. Each clause contains a subject and a verb. The first clause in a sentence is usually the MAIN CLAUSE, the others are SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.Two common types of SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are NOUN CLAUSES and ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. EXAMPLES: "I think that your new dress is beautiful." "Why don't you call when you're late?" "I have to go home after I finish work." NOUN CLAUSES USE: A NOUN CLAUSE usually provides or asks for information about a person or an object that is introduced in the main clause. EXAMPLES: "I think that your sister is lovely!" "I don't know who she is." Notice that the Wh-Question words are not followed by the normal question form. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES USE: An ADVERBIAL CLAUSE usually contains information about the verb in the main clause.Often it explains the main clause or tells when it happens. EXAMPLES: "He drank water because he was thirsty." "She spoke slowly so that I could understand." "I always worry when my kids come home late."