Literature Review

for

Capstone Project: Developing a Web-based Solution for Successful Learning

March 2, 2013 Kathy Mitchell

There is a great deal of scholarly research on primary education involving children in kindergarten. The research strives to ascertain an understanding of how children learn and develop. In coming up with a solution to the learning challenges that young children face, I have been researching the studies that have been done in the field of education and comparing that to the classroom observations. I am using a Montessori classroom for my Capstone project. Montessori classrooms offer more work activities and use individual group instruction and concrete materials. (Kayili, 2014). Montessori education is self-directed learning, favoring a constructivist approach where the role of the teacher is to guide and challenge the learning process, but maintain a safe distance which allows for the child to direct their own learning. Montessori favors an approach which gives each child the ability to self-educate, self-direct, regulate motivation, and learn to think about what they learning. Early childhood research suggests that working memory and attention control contribute to successful development during the preschool years, which can have a substantial impact on a child's academic success in later years. For my capstone project, I will be observing and assessing the learning behaviors of children between the ages of 3 and 6 years old and their ability to retain information and apply it to their ongoing learning and development. From birth to three years, children mentally absorb the environment as they register sensorial impressions. (Goddard, 2013). Sensorial impressions are feelings that help the child engage their five senses (taste, touch, smell, hear, and feel). This education is not an exercise to sharpen the senses, but to allow a child to use his or her senses to understand what he or she sees. (Montessori Mom, 2012). When a child has the ability to retain their sensorial impressions, they have a strong chance of retaining more information as they continue further in their 2

development. Conversely, if a child is unable to remember information, they will have a difficult time keeping up with the learning environment and moving forward in their class. Scholarly research suggests that Working memory is known to play an important role in many cognitive processes and to be a key factor in their development. (Noel, 2009). Developmental research suggests that the preschool years represent a critical period for the development of the mental processes that support effective, goal-oriented approaches to learning, particularly working memory and attention control. (Welsh, Nix, et. al., 2010). In the article, by Kayili, which examines the Montessori method, Lev Vygotsky, a writer and psychologist who focused on child development and education, had a theory that children can be taught to think independently about how to solve problems. Learning to read requires the use of working memory. It requires the use of our senses, our ability to relate the incoming information in light of what came before, thinking through and making connections, and storing the information efficiently for effective use. I found the following theories in my research: Zone of Proximal Development: According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers." Parents and teachers can foster learning by providing educational opportunities that lie within a child's zone of proximal development. (Vygotsky, 1987). Sociocultural Theory: Through this interaction, children learn gradually and continuously from parent and teachers. This learning, however, can vary from one culture to the next. It is important

to note that Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the dynamic nature of this interaction. Society doesn't just impact people; people also impact their society. (Vygotsky, 1897) Inner discipline, according to Montessori, is the childs ability to concentrate, work with constant effort, bring order the mind, respect others as well as the environment, achieve contentment, and live in peace (Montessori, 1995). Research in children's memory suggests that both verbal and imagery modes of representation can underlie the efficient relational encoding of concrete-stimuli (Pressley, 1977; Reese, 1977). However, research suggests that visual imagery is a more hospitable mode for the storage of concrete information than verbal. Children who are developing their memory are more likely to retain information and instruction better where there is a visual explanation or example. Since the solution I am coming up with may be a song to assist the children in their memory, the most interesting piece of research I found that resonated with me is the article, A Comparison of Bible Verse Memorization Using Traditional by Corrie Elizabeth Noll. The article shares research that was conducted in order to assess a childs ability to retain information through song. In the experiment, students were introduced to new verses put to song at the beginning of each week. The students memorized the verse to song over the course of the week and then recited it at the end of the week. A final test was given six weeks following the memorization of the final verse. The students were tested on all three verses to song at this time. After the results were analyzed, the researcher concluded that the memorization of verses to song had significant effect on the long-term retention of Bible verses. Therefore, the researcher rejects the null hypothesis that stated there is no difference between the two methods. The researcher suggests that more research needs to be done in this area relating to the research to have more effect on how verses are memorized in school classrooms. 4

Mnemonic instruction is a memory enhancing strategy designed to improve the storage and retrieval of information from long term memory. Use of effective mnemonic devices, such as the popular favorite: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally which teaches multiplication and subtraction for older kids, may also work for kindergarten children. Research supports the idea that singing may enhance the memorization process. Integrated picture mnemonics were effective in teaching kindergarten students to learn letter-sound associations. If you use the visual style, you prefer using images, pictures, colors, and maps to organize information and communicate with others. You can easily visualize objects, plans and outcomes in your mind's eye. You also have a good spatial sense, which gives you a good sense of direction. You can easily find your way around using maps, and you rarely get lost. There is a large volume of data substantiating that young children remember paired associations better if they are shown interactive pictures containing the referents of the paired items. Integrated pictures were effective because they linked two otherwise unconnected items in memory. The shapes of letters included in pictures reminded learners of previously seen pictures with shapes whose names began with the relevant letter sound. (White, 2006). If you are a visual learner, use images, pictures, color and other visual media to help you learn. Incorporate much imagery into your visualizations. You may find that visualization comes easily to you. This also means that you may have to make your visualizations stand out more. This makes sure new material is obvious among all the other visual images you have floating around inside your head. Use color, layout, and spatial organization in your associations, and use many 'visual words' in your assertions. Examples include see, picture, perspective, visual, and map. 5

Systems diagrams can help you visualize the links between parts of a system, for example major engine parts or the principle of sailing in equilibrium. Replace words with pictures, and use color to highlight major and minor links. The visual journey or story technique helps you memorize content that isn't easy to 'see.' The visual story approach for memorizing procedures is a good example of this. Peg words and events come easily to you, however you need to spend some time learning at least the first ten peg words. Afterwards, your ability to visualize helps you peg content quickly. The swish technique for changing behaviors also works well for you, as it relies on visualization. Learning letter-name and letter-sound relationships are not easy for all beginning readers. This difficulty may be caused by letter names not always corresponding with the letter sound. There have been several research studies that demonstrate how children use their knowledge of letter names to inform them of the letter sound. The overriding results from the study indicate those students in the treatment or embedded picture mnemonic training group performed significantly better than the control or disassociated picture mnemonic group on learning letter names. Including an embedded picture mnemonic training component to classroom alphabet instruction may offer an alternate memory strategy to those students struggling to remember letter names through repetitive drills. (White, 2006). Mnemonics (especially through son), are a good strategy for organizing and/or encoding information. According to the research, it is also believed to be the reason for the significant differences in retaining information and being able to recite what they have been taught in a clear way that demonstrates a level of mastery. The solution I will come up with will be used to strengthen long-term retention. 6

References

Davis, B. R., & Kee, D. W. (1978). Children's Recognition Memory: An Analysis of Haptic, Visual and Verbal Presentation Effects. de Graaff, S., Verhoeven, L., Bosman, A. T., & Hasselman, F. (2007). Integrated pictorial mnemonics and stimulus fading: Teaching kindergartners letter sounds. British Journal Of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 519-539. doi:10.1348/000709906X160011. Kayili, G., & Ari, R. (2011). Examination of the Effects of the Montessori Method on Preschool Children's Readiness to Primary Education. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 11(4), 2104-2109. Kee, D. W., & And, O. (1979). Developmental Changes in the Effects of Presentation Mode on the Storage and Retrieval of Noun Pairs in Children's Recognition Memory. Noll, C. (2003, July 1). A Comparison of Bible Verse Memorization Using Traditional Techniques versus Using Song. Pressley, M. (1983). Mnemonic Mediator Retrieval at Testing by Preschool and Kindergarten Children. Child Development, 54(2), 474. Roemer, K. L. (2012). Montessori Education: A New Era?. Montessori Life, 24(4), 4-5. Vygotsky, L.S. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (original work published in 1934). Vygotsky, L.S. (1987). Thinking and speech. (N. Minick. Trans.). New York: Plenum Press.

Welsh, J. A., Nix, R. L., Blair, C., Bierman, K. L., & Nelson, K. E. (2010). The Development of Cognitive Skills and Gains in Academic School Readiness for Children from Low-Income Families. Journal Of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 43-53. White, T. (2006). The effects of mnemonics on letter recognition and letter sound acquisition of at-risk kindergarten students.