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Contents

Part A: Theoretical information, pages 3-25 1 2

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Definition of an essay Types of essays The purpose of an essay Presentation Referring to sources Plagiarism Yardsticks of assessment !ercises for "nits 1#2

3 3 6 6 9 18 22 23

Part B: Academic vocabular , argumentation and essa structure, 2!-52 3

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$cademic %oca&ulary $rgumentation $%oiding fallacies !ercises for "nits 3#' The structure of an essay !ercises for "nits )#6

26 26 3' 38 '( '8

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Table 2: the Plan into the "tructure #$-52

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%evising observations and e&ercises 53-5!

Part C: Practice, pages #5- ''( The 3 successive phases prior to the )riting of our essa Phase *
a* $pproaching the essay title &y analysing its key +ords, ')#'6 &* -athering information . interpreting the e%idence of the title +ords, '/#)( !ercises for "nits 8#9, )1 Table ': +athering , *nterpreting -vidence, 52-55 0ore e!ercises, )6 c* 0ind#mapping, )/# 6( d* Dra+ing the ghost of a plan, 61#6/ 0ore e!ercises for "nit 1(, 68

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Phase **, pages !$-15

f* 6tarting your research +ork 7Reading your lecture and seminar notes, reading from &ooks, photocopies, the internet, 8D#R40s9 g* Taking notes from the a&o%e h* -athering information . interpreting e%idence &ased on f* . g* i* 0ind mapping :* Dra+ing the second draft plan

Phase ***, pages !$-15

./*T" ''-'2 k* ;inishing your research +ork l* Taking more notes m* -athering more information . read:usting the interpretation of e%idence n* Read:usting the pre%ious mind mapping acti%ity o* Dra+ing the third draft plan !ercises for "nits 11#12, page /)

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%evising observations and e&ercises, pages 1!-0'

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conomy of +ords and ideas1 +riting +ith style, pages 82#88 !ercises for "nits 1)#16, pages 89#9(

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-rammar, punctuation and courteous language, pages 91#99 !ercises for "nits 1/#18, page 1((

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2ritten e!am essays3 4ral presentation of an essay, pages 1(1#1() a* Timing &* Printed handouts c* 5isual aids d* Rhetorical strategies !ercises, page 1(6

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%evising observations and final e&ercises, pages '(1-''(

+lossar of 2atin )ords, pages '''-''2 342" 53nline 4riting 2abs6, page ''3 Bibliograph , pages ''#-''!

Part A: Theoretical information ./*T" '-2

7efinition of an essa
$n essay is a presentation of your opinion a&out a little &it of a su&:ect, in +hich you use e%idence to support your opinion3 Thus1 it contains opinion 7your o+n and some critics<9 it is &ased on e%idence it does not claim to co%er e%erything in the field3 70ounsey 99 =t may %ary in length from a&out )(( +ords to appro!imate )((( +ords 7>e+is 693

T pes of -ssa
There are se%eral names attached to types of academic essay3 6ome specialists, like D3 83 Perkins 739 and Roger >e+is 71)#2)9 use the follo+ing terms1 descripti%e essays 7accurately descri&e something1 a scene, a person*character, an o&:ect, a theory9 narrati%e or creati%e essays 7may deal +ith an in%ented story or a story from someone<s e!perience93 6uch a type of essay &elongs in the field of creati%e +riting rather than academic +riting3 discussion * analytical essays 7deal +ith you o+n and*or some critics< reasoned, impersonal, detached and logical opinions on a contro%ersial topic9 e!planatory essays 7e!plain a function or a process +ith a description of the e?uipment, materials * ingredients and agents used9 0ost of the essays you ha%e to +rite in the classroom or at home are not narrati%e or creati%e, so the follo+ing selection may &e nearer to your school needs3 Reshuffled and renamed &y Dr3 Derek 6oles 7'#), 2)9, the types of essays may &e more easily remem&ered +hen di%ided into1 */83%9AT*:- -""A;"< These gi%e detailed specialised information a&out a certain topic3 ;or instance, they e!plain ho+ a +aiter in a posh restaurant is supposed to lay a ta&le for t+o people +ho are ne+ly married3 The purpose of an informati%e essay is to gi%e the reader %alua&le information a&out something he*she is keen to kno+3 =n your field of study, a regular type of informati%e essay is1 T=- 2*T-%AT.%- %-:*-43 =t is often used &y students of >iterature in their more ad%anced academic studies +hen, for instance, they ha%e to +rite their final dissertations, in conference papers, in their master<s degree studies, in doctoral theses, in fact, in any thorough research +ork3 The literature re%ie+ is a general sur%ey 7re%ie+9 of other related +orks +ithin a certain topic3 ;or e!ample, a student is interested in +riting a&out the effects of horror stories on readers &et+een 1) and 18 years old in a certain space and period3 The student<s research +ork +ill pro&a&ly start +ith a re%ie+ of important studies done in the past in the same field3 P-%".A"*:- -""A;" try to persuade or con%ince the reader, in most cases, the teacher, that the +riter<s %ie+s and demonstration on a de&ata&le issue are legitimate and su&stantial3 They may also &e called A%+.9-/TAT*:- -""A;", if they de&ate an issue %ery strongly and critically3 C39PA%->C3/T%A"T -""A;" deal +ith the differences and*or similarities &et+een t+o related things 7t+o authors, poems, &ooks, topics, systems, theories, etc93 The compare> contrast essay could &e informati%e or persuasi%e3 There are t+o methods of organising this type of essay1

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the @common featuresA method e!plores a num&er of traits +hich go +ith t+o things 7&ooks, poets, characters, to+ns, etc9 a @differences* similaritiesA method compares and contrasts t+o things &y esta&lishing the superiority of one of them3 76ample 9 The @common featuresA method goes &etter +ith informati%e essays, &ut not necessarily only +ith them3
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The @similarities* differencesA method goes &etter +ith the compare and contrast persuasi%e essay, &ecause this method gi%es you the possi&ility to con%ince the reader that one contrasting unit is superior to the other3 6uppose the issue under discussion in such an essay is atmosphere in the opening pages of Great Expectations and Bleak House, &oth no%els &y 8harles Dickens3 Bere is a possi&le %ersion1

Title 8ompare and contrast the atmosphere in the opening pages of Great Expectations and Bleak House

*ntroduction: the general statement: It may look difficult to state which atmosphere is more intense and more densely symbolic in the opening chapters of the two novels, but it may be argued that the first pages of Cleak Bouse are more elaborate in conveying a powerful atmosphere of universal melancholy, decay and pessimism.

Bod *< "imilarities . Both books start with the description of a grim cold rainy day. C3 !hey both deal with death "#ip$s parents and brothers are dead% in Cleak Bouse, &ickens speaks about the death of the sun' (. In both fragments, the reader$s feeling is one of deep melancholy and apprehension.

**< 7ifferences $3 !he feeling of sadness and loss in the fragment from Cleak Bouse is given a cosmic and biblical dimension, while in -reat !pectations it remains reduced to the perspective of #ip, the little boy. C3 !he symbolism in the opening pages of Cleak Bouse is more overpowering "the book starts with a rewriting of the Book of Genesis in the )ld !estament, !he *ord High (hancellor is indirectly compared with God, etc'. 83 In Cleak Bouse, the author describes a fashionable device of the time, a balloon, in order to impress his readers by the presence of the latest inventions and by offering him+ her ,panoramic- views of loss and confusion.

Conclusion !he atmosphere in the beginning chapters of both novels is .uite impressive in its grimness, but the first pages of Cleak Bouse are more enthralling in that they convey a more powerful feeling of universal loss, confusion, pessimism and apprehension.

Remem&er, though, that most essays in the humanities com&ine informati%e and persuasi%e elements, and that in most cases the student has to in%estigate*re%ie+ past sur%eys on the topic he*she is +riting a&out3

The Purpose of an -ssa

=n general, +riting a good essay helps students control their discourse &y gi%ing a precise ans+er +ith argumentation to an 7implied9 ?uestion3 =n particular, an essay should pro%e that students are a&le to1 read critically and +ith purpose collect rele%ant information and apply it to a gi%en topic analyse, argue and interpret a case connect theory to particular e!amples &e original organise the material in a clear and logical structure 7Bennessy 219

Presentation
7"ni%ersity of 2ar+ick 29 a3 2rite your essay on $' siDe paper, on one side of each page only3 &3 Eum&er all pages3 =t does not matter +here you put the page num&ers 7top right, top middle, &ottom right etc393 =t is also possi&le to +rite the page num&ers +hen you ha%e completely finished your essay and you kno+ ho+ many pages there are in all3 c3 $t the head of the front page, on the right#hand side, +rite your full name 7plus your grade or year of study, nglish $ Ffirst languageG or nglish C Fsecond languageG and your group num&er9, and on the left#hand side of the front page +rite1 the title and the name of the tutor for +hom the essay is +ritten, plus the name of the course or seminar your essay is for3 d3 "se dou&le spacing and lea%e a +ide margin on the left#hand side of each page to allo+ space for the tutor<s +ritten comments3 e3 "se font siDes 7prefera&ly in !imes /ew 0oman91 f3 1( for your name, the teacher<s name, the institution you &elong to, group num&erH 11 or 12 for the te!t itself, 1' 7&old letters9 for su&#headings 7if you +ork +ith them9 16I&old type for the title of your essay 78urrie 13693

$ny corrections you make should &e +ritten a&o%e the +rong +ords, not in the margin3

g3 $%oid introducing pictures +hich ha%e some connection +ith your te!t, &ut +hich are not discussed in your paper3 h3 =f you ha%e to +rite a dissertation 70$ or Diploma paper9, it is ad%isa&le to introduce / B1!0 (! or a r2sum2 at the &eginning of your long essay3 =t is a compact summary of your paper, a&out 1)( to 2(( +ords in +hich you1

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state the main aims of your paper gi%e the conte!t enumerate the issues your paper deals +ith name the methods of in%estigation you ha%e used gi%e your conclusion and its significance

72alliman 2'1, 2'3#'9 $l+ays keep an e!tra copy of your essay3

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8ront page of an essa

font siDe 1(
>ecturer Dr Daniela Cro+n 6eminar of 0edie%al >iterature Da%idescu Daniela, = C 8roatian# nglish, group '

Blablablablabla: bla of Bla

Cla&la&la&la&la, &la&la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, to be demonstrated< Cla, &la, &la, &la, &la &la&la&la&la&la, &la&la, &la, &la, &la, &la3 Cla, &la, , &la, &la, &la, &la, &la3
space for the teacher<s comments

font siDe 16

*n addition to Cla, &la, &la, &la, &la &la, &la&la, &la, la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la3 =o)ever, &la, &la, &la, &la &la, &la&la, &la, &la, &la, &la &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la, &la3
page 1 of ) fonts siDe 11 or 12 dou&le spacing

go to 3iew, Header and 4ooter for this sort of page num&ering, if you +ork on the computer

%eferring to "ources
=t is e!tremely important to indicate the sources of information and ideas in your essay, +hether these are &ooks, articles in :ournals, +e&sites etc, or indeed your teacher<s lectures3 =n the first place this is simply a matter of honestyJ using someone else<s +ork +ithout ackno+ledging them as your source is plagiarism, in other +ords cheating 7see section 6 &elo+93 6econdly, it ena&les anyone +ho reads +hat you ha%e +ritten to check your sources and :udge +hether your use of them is con%incing3 =t is thus an essential part of good scholarly practice3 Thirdly, it allo+s anyone +ho reads your essay to find out important referencing material for his*her o+n research +ork3 $nd finally, recording all your sources is a +ay of demonstrating ho+ much effort you ha%e put into preparing your essay, and so, hopefully, getting the good mark that you deser%eK 4hen do ou not need to refer to a source? Casically there are t+o situations in +hich you do not need to gi%e a source1 19 You are e!pressing your o+n original opinion, and not an idea that you found some+here elseJ 29 You are using information that is common kno+ledge1 for e!ample &asic facts +hich you could find in any reference &ook3 4ther+ise you need to say +here the ideas or information came from3 =t may &e hard +ork keeping a record of all your sources, &ut it is the only +ay to do your task professionally3

The 92A "t le

=n this system 7also kno+n as the author + page style9, sources are indicated in the &ody of the essay &y @in#te!t citationA 7a short reference in parenthesis1 usually the author<s surname and page num&er9, and then fully identified in a list of @2orks 8itedA 7or &i&liography9 at the end3 The follo+ing guidelines, &ased on the 0>$ rules, should ena&le you to refer in a professional +ay to most sources that you are likely to use in preparing your essays3

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2hene%er you ?uote directly from someone else<s +ork, paraphrase someone else<s opinion, or use information that you found in a particular place, you need to identify your source &y in#te!t citation3 =f the source is a &ook or an article in a &ook or :ournal, this is normally done &y gi%ing the author<s surname and the page num&er in parenthesis3 ;or e!ample3 =f you ha%e ?uoted or taken information or ideas from page 161 of Lulia Criggs<s &ook !his 1tage5play 6orld, you should indicated this as follo+s1 The audiences of the pu&lic theatres represented @a social range that took in am&assadors and apprentices, peers, pickpockets and prostitutesA 7Criggs 16193 Eote that the in#te!t citation comes &efore the final punctuation mark, &ut after the close of the in%erted commas3 =f the author is already named in your te!t, then the page num&er alone is sufficient3 ;or e!ample1 $ccording to Lulia Criggs, the location of the theatres outside the +alls of >ondon made them difficult for the city authorities to control 716193 =f you ha%e references to more than one +ork &y the same author, you o&%iously need to distinguish them in your in#te!t citations3 This is usually done &y gi%ing a key+ord from the title3 ;or e!ample1 6ome ha%e argued that this di%erse pu&lic +as an essential precondition for the achie%ements of 6hakespeare 7Criggs, 1tage5play 1619 =f you ha%e references to +orks &y more than one author +ith the same surname, you should distinguish them in in#te!t citations &y their initials3 ;or e!ample1 7L3 Criggs 16193 =f you refer to a +ork &y t+o or three authors, gi%e &oth*all their last names3 ;or e!ample1 7-ent and >le+ellyn )693 =f there are more than three, gi%e the surname of the first author follo+ed &y @et al3A 7>atin1 @and othersA93

;or e!ample1 76mith et al3 )393 =f your source has no named author 7as sometimes happens +ith reference &ooks like encyclopaedias, for e!ample9, you should use the title instead3 Eote3 >ong ?uotations 7more than fi%e lines9 should &e indentedIi3e the margins should &e mo%ed in, as +ith this paragraph3 =n this case you should not use in%erted commas, and the in#te!t citation should come after the final punctuation mark3 7Cut think t+ice &efore you include long ?uotations in an essay1 often it +ould &e &etter to paraphrase the content in your o+n +ords3 $ long ?uotation sho+s you ha%e read something1 a paraphrase sho+s you ha%e understood it39 =f the source you are referring to is actually a ?uotation +ithin a pu&lished source 7for e!ample, you +ant to refer to a ?uotation from another author that you found in Lulia Criggs<s &ook9, then this should &e indicated in the in#te!t citation &y +riting @?td3 inA 7short for @?uoted inA93 ;or e!ample1 The 8atholic priest 2illiam 2eston descri&ed ho+ he sa+ @men, +omen, &oys, girls, rustics, la&ourers and idiotsA arguing a&out the meaning of a Ci&lical te!t at a Puritan gathering in 1)88 7?td3 in Criggs 9/93 Eote1 You should use @?td3 inA only for references to +orks that you ha%en<t actually read, &ut ha%e found ?uoted &y someone else3 Do not use it for references to articles +ithin edited %olumes3 ;or e!ample, if you ha%e referred to something on p3 3/ of the article @>ady liDa&eth Pope1 The Beraldic CodyA &y llen 8hirelstein, +hich is one of se%eral articles &y different authors collected in the &ook 0enaissance Bodies7 !he Human 4igure in English (ulture c. 89:;58<<;, edited &y >ucy -ent and Eigel >le+ellyn, the in#te!t citation should simply &e1 78hirelstein 3/93 =n the 0>$ style, in#te!t citation is used instead of footnotes for references to sources, &ut you can still +rite footnotes +ith o&ser%ations of your o+n3 6ome choose to do this &ecause they do not +ish to &reak the train of thought and the logic of their paragraph, and they consider that their o&ser%ation is important enough to &e mentioned at the foot of the essay page3 6omething like this1 1

43%A" C*T-7 5B*B2*3+%AP=;6

$t the end of your essay you should gi%e a list of all the sources you ha%e referred to &y in#te!t citations, organised in alpha&etical order &y their authors< surnames 7or, if there is no named author, the first +ord of the title, apart from definite and indefinite articles93 =f t+o or more sources ha%e the same author, gi%e the author<s name the first time and thereafter use three dashes and a full stop instead 7###393 Eote1 in the e!amples &elo+, pay particular attention to the punctuationK The e!amples gi%en &elo+ represent the most fre?uently used cases encountered in essay +riting3 You +ill find fuller guidance on ho+ to apply the 0>$ guidelines at a num&er of +e&sites, including the follo+ing1 Mhttp1**+++3english3uiuc3edu*c+s*++orkshop*mlamenu3htmN, Mhttp1**+++3liu3edu*82=6*82P*li&rary*+orkshop*citmla3htmN, Mhttp1**o+l3english3purdue3edu*o+l*resource*))/*(1*N and Mhttp1**li&rary3u++3edu*-"=D 6*0>$8=T 3htmOnetN3 :-%"*3/ A '< A< B33A" a9 ;or the simplest case, a &ook +ith one author, the pattern is1 "urname, 8irst name< Title of Book< Place of publication: PublisherBs name, ;ear ;or e!ample 7t+o &ooks &y the same author91 Criggs, Lulia3 /ight 3isitors7 !he 0ise and 4all of the English Ghost 1tory3 >ondon1 ;a&er, 19// ###3 !his 1tage5play 6orld3 4!ford1 4!ford "P, 1983 7=n hand#+ritten essays, you should use underlining for the title instead of italics39 4ther common cases are1 &9 $ &ook +ith an editor
1

= &elie%e you should indeed make use of this strategy of adding further information in your essay3

Criggs, Patharine, ed3 British 4olk5tales and *egends3 >ondon1 Routledge, 19// c9 $ &ook +ith t+o or three authors*editors1 -ent, >ucy and Eigel >le+ellyn, eds3 0enaissance Bodies7 !he Human 4igure in English (ulture c. 89:;58<<;3 >ondon1 Reaktion, 199( d9 $ &ook +ith more than three authors*editors 8arrithers, 03, et al3 !he (ategory of the #erson7 nthropology, #hilosophy, History3 8am&ridge, 8am&ridge "P, 198)3 e9 $ translation 4%id3 =etamorphoses3 Trans3 $3D3 0el%ille3 4!ford1 4!ford "P, 1986 2hen you refer to literary +orks in translation, you should al+ays identify the translator3 =t is not so important to do so +hen you refer to translated secondary sources 7+orks of criticism etc393 Eote that in your 2orks 8ited list you should not attempt to translate titles, names of pu&lishers etc from Romanian or other languages into nglish1 if you ha%e used the Romanian edition of a &ook, then say so3 f9 Eot the first edition of a &ook -ardner, Belen, ed3 !he =etaphysical #oets3 19)/3 Re%3 ed3 Barmonds+orth1 Penguin, 19/2 =n other +ords, the &ook +as first pu&lished in 19)/, &ut you ha%e used the re%ised edition of 19/23 =t is important to &e clear a&out +hich edition you ha%e used, &ecause a ne+ edition may in%ol%e su&stantial changes to the content of the &ook1 in other +ords, it is no longer the same &ook3 8heck the title page and the &ack of the title page for this information3 4ften there +ill &e an edition num&er, in +hich case you should +rite @2nd ed3A, @3rd ed3A etc3 instead of @Re%3 ed3A3 76ometimes you +ill also find dates on +hich the &ook +as reprinted3 You can ignore these, as reprinting doesn<t in%ol%e any change to the &ook1 it :ust means they ran out of copies and had to print more, or that an old &ook +as printed again, +ithout any ne+ content39 23 A< A%T*C2-", */T%37.CT*3/" etc3 a9 ;or an article in a &ook, the standard pattern is1 "urname, 8irst name< CArticle Title<D Book Title< -d< 8irst name "urname< Place of publication: PublisherBs name, ;ear< pages ;or e!ample1 8hirelstein, llen3 @>ady liDa&eth Pope1 The Beraldic Cody3A 0enaissance Bodies7 !he Human 4igure in English (ulture c. 89:;58<<;3 d3 >ucy -ent and Eigel >le+ellyn3 >ondon1 Reaktion, 199(3 36#)9 4r1 &9 =f you use more than one article from the same &ook, you should gi%e the &ook a full entry in your 2orks 8ited list under its editor<s name3 Then you can gi%e a shorter reference to it 7like an in#te!t citation9 in the entry for each article3 ;or e!ample1 8hirelstein, llen3 @>ady liDa&eth Pope1 The Beraldic Cody3A 0enaissance Bodies7 !he Human 4igure in English (ulture c. 89:;58<<;3 -ent and >le+ellyn 36#)9 -ent, >ucy and Eigel >le+ellyn, ed3 0enaissance Bodies7 !he Human 4igure in English (ulture c. 89:;58<<;3 >ondon1 Reaktion, 199( c9 ;or an article in a :ournal, the standard pattern is "urname, 8irst /ame< CArticle Title<D Journal Title :olume /umber: *ssue 5;ear6: pages ;or e!ample1

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Tange, Banne3 @=n a 2orld of 2ords1 d+in 0organ<s 0ultilingualism3A 1cottish 1tudies 0eview3 )1 1 72(('91 8/#1(( 4ther common cases include1 d9 $ poem or short story in an edited collection or anthology1 Donne, Lohn3 @The ;lea3A >ohn &onne7 Penguin, 19)(3 '8 e9 $n introduction or preface1 Bolland, Peter. =ntroduction3 "P, 199'3 1#11 =idsummer /ight$s &ream3 Cy 2illiam 6hakespeare3 4!ford1 4!ford 1election of his #oetry3 d3 Lohn Bay+ard3 Barmonds+orth1

Eote1 The 2orks 8ited list should only include the sources that you ha%e actually used3 2orks that you ha%e referred to at second hand, using @?td3 inA references in your in#te!t citations, do not appear in the 2orks 8ited list3 3< A< %-88-%*/+ T3 "3.%C-" */ -2-CT%3/*C 83%9 6ources on the =nternet or in other electronic media 7for e!ample 8D#R40s9 should &e identified in your essay in and listed in your 2orks 8ited list in the same +ay as printed &ooks and articles3 C7-%39s =n the case of a 8D#R40, you should normally &e a&le to gi%e the title 7underlined or in italics9, the place of pu&lication, the pu&lisher and the date, the same as for a printed &ook3 The only difference is that you should put @8DA after the title3 Title< C7< Place of Publication: Publisher, ;ear of issue !ample1 !he =iddle ges7 History !hrough rt3 8D3 Dallas1 Qane Pu&lishing, 1996 4-B"*T-" ;or a +e&site, the most important details to record 7if you can find them9 are the name of the author, the title of the article etc 7in in%erted commas9, the o%erall title of the +e&site 7underlined or in italics9 7+rite @Bome PageA if there is no title9, the editor, the date it +as pu&lished or @last updatedA, and the name of any institution sponsoring the +e&site 7for e!ample a uni%ersity93 These should &e follo+ed &y the date on +hich you accessed the site, and the "R> 7+e&site address9 in angle &rackets1 M N3 AuthorBs surname, name< CTitle of articleD< The overall title of the website/ or Home Page if there is no title. 7ate of publication or last updated information 5if an 6< /ame of institution sponsoring the )ebsite 5if an 6< 7ate ou accessed the site E http: >> )))< etc F !ample 7assuming you accessed the sites on 1/th 6eptem&er 2((691 @8hristian 8olouring in Ceo+ulf3A Beowulf in Hypertext3 d3 $nne 6a%age3 0c0aster "ni%ersity ;aculty of Bumanities3 1/ 6ept3 2((6 M http1**+++3humanities3mcmaster3ca*R&eo+ulf*main3htmlN Bulme, Peter3 @0isreading the Postcolonial !empest3A Early =odern (ulture7 n Electronic 1eminar3 =ssue 33 2((33 1/ 6ept3 2((6 M http1**eser%er3org*emc*1#3*hulme3html N */-T-@T C*TAT*3/ $s electronic sources generally do not ha%e page num&ers, it may &e difficult to gi%e in#te!t citations in the usual +ay3 6ometimes you can locate the passage you ha%e referred to &y a paragraph num&er, or the title of a page +ithin a larger +e&site, +hich can then take the place of the page num&er in your in#te!t citation3 =f this is

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not possi&le, then try to a%oid the need for an in#te!t citation altogether &y naming your source clearly in the te!t of the essay3 ;or e!ample1 $ccording to the +e&page @8hristian 8olouring in Ceo+ulfA, )3 allusions to the 8hristian -od ha%e &een identified in the poem3 7Eo in#te!t citation is necessary here3 The sentence already contains enough information to ena&le the reader to identify your source in the 2orks 8ited list, +here you +ill gi%e full details of the +e&site in ?uestion39 #< A< %-88-%*/+ T3 ./P.B2*"=-7 "3.%C-" The unpu&lished sources you are pro&a&ly most likely to use are the lectures you ha%e attended3 =f you take ideas or information from a lecture, this should also &e ackno+ledged in your essay3 =n this case you should gi%e an entry in the 2orks 8ited list as follo+s1 CotteD, 0onica3 >ecture3 "ni%ersity of Cucharest, 2(()

Plagiarism
Cefore ?uoting definitions of plagiarism and penalties from 2estern uni%ersities, here are t+o articles on the topic from "ni%ersity of Cucharest regulations1 http1**+++3uni&uc3ro*uploads ro*36')/*regulament3pdf1 article 2'1 @6tudentul care SncearcT sT promo%eDe pro&ele de e%aluare 7e!amene, %erificTri, proiecte, teste etc9 prin fraudT2 %a fi e!matriculat de cTtre Rector, la propunerea Ciroului 8onsiliului facultTiiA http1**+++3uni&uc3ro*ro*codUeticaUro1 article 61 @Art< !3 3nestitatea Gi corectitudinea intelectualH sunt %alori etice promo%ate cu fermitate de "ni%ersitatea din CucureVti, SntrucWt Sn a&senXa lor, dreptul la proprietate intelectualT Vi e%aluarea corectT a performanXelor studenXilor, cadrelor didactice Vi tuturor celorlalXi anga:aXi ar a%ea de suferit din cauDa unor practici inaccepta&ile precum copiatul, plagiatul, Yfa&ricareaA reDultatelor cercetTrilor, tentati%ele de corupere etc3 &3 #lagiatul, sau SnsuVirea de cTtre un autor a reDultatelor muncii altui autor 7indiferent dacT este %or&a de reproducerea e!actT a unui te!t sau de reformularea unei idei cu ade%Trat originale9, fTrT ca aceste din urmT sT fie menXionat ca sursT a te!tului sau ideii respecti%e, constituie o fraudT intelectualT Vi se sancXioneaDT Sn conformitate cu gra%itatea pe care o preDintT3 c3 4abricarea datelor prin in%entare, impro%iDare, modificare Vi citare de surse false, SncalcT principiul onestitTXii Vi corectitudinii intelectuale, fiind deDa%uatT Vi sancXionatT potri%it gra%itTXii, Sn fiecare caD Sn parte3 d3 !entativele de corupere spre fraud? sunt sancXionate ca Vi fraudele3A The "ni%ersity of 2ar+ick, "P defines plagiarism as follo+s1 @Plagiarism is the a&use of secondary reading in essays3 =t consists of the direct transcription, +ithout ackno+ledgement, of passages, sentences or e%en phrases from someone else<s +riting, +hether pu&lished or not3 =t also refers to the presentation as your o+n of material from a printed or other source +ith only a fe+ changes in +ordingH

Plagiarism and cheating at e!ams are frauds

12

$ll ?uotations from secondary sources must therefore &e ackno+ledged each time they occur3 =t is not enough to include the +ork from +hich they are taken in the &i&liography at the end of the essay, and such inclusion +ill not &e accepted as defence should plagiarism &e alleged3 $ tutor +ho finds plagiarism in an essay +ill impose a penalty of a nil mark for the essay in ?uestion3 This can ha%e serious conse?uences for first#year results3 =n the case of older students the matter may go to a Department Disciplinary committee3 =f plagiarism is detected in one essay, it is likely that other essays &y the student concerned +ill &e e!amined %ery carefully for e%idence of the same offence3 There is nothing +rong +ith using other people<s ideasH The important thing is to kno+ +hat is yours and +hat is not and to communicate this clearly to the reader3 =n this respect, scholarly practiceHis a means of intellectual discipline for oneself and of honest ser%ice to others3 Plagiarism &etrays e%erything a uni%ersity should stand forA 7693

"elf-plagiarism is also possi&le &ut try to a%oid it3 =t appears +hen more or less the same essay, gi%en different titles and slightly reshuffled is presented to different teachers* audiences 7Buff 11193 =t is not the great ?uantity of plagiarised sources +hich &rings a&out the annulment of a student<s paper &ut the minimum presence 7a comple! sentence or a paragraph9 of unassumed sources +hich undoes the @essayA3 Therefore1

3bservation 2

Avoid Plagiarism b :
'<> Putting Iuotation marJs )henever ou give Iuotations and mentioning the source at the end of the paragraph 2<> 9entioning the source at the end of the paragraph )henever ou borro) 5paraphrase6 some criticBs idea 3<> 9entioning the source, even if o)nership of the idea goes to a seminar or course teacher< %emember the 92A convention for referring to unpublished courses< #<> "tarting our sentence )ith (Some) critics say that or !ritics are of the o"inion that if ou Jno) it is not our idea, but ou simpl cannot remember )ho said that, in )hat booJ or article< 5<> /3T cop ing some criticBs )ords changing onl a fe) CparamountD terms liJe

Published critic
@4ne important considerationHA

"mart student
=t is important to considerH =t is rele%ant to considerH 4ne last element +orth mentioningH The character is thinking aboutH3

73

/3T
73 *T

@;inally, it is +orth mentioningHA @The character is thinking ofHA

0y fa%ourite change = ha%e noticed +ith a fe+ students

13

"A9P2- :*

.nacceptable and acceptable paraphrases

;or many students, the most common +ay of dealing +ith an essay is &y com&ining their o+n ideas +ith paraphrasing pu&lished critics< opinions3 Bere is an e!ample ' of unaccepta&le paraphrase 7plagiarism9 and accepta&le paraphrase 7the critic<s idea put into a student<s o+n +ords +ith the source mentioned at the end91

3%*+*/A2 T-@T1 Loyce 2illiams et al3 *i@@ie Borden7 p311

(ase Book of 4amily and (rime in the 8AB;s,

@The rise of industry, the gro+th of cities, and the e!pansion of the population +ere the three great de%elopments of late nineteenth century $merican history3 $s ne+, larger, steam#po+ered factories &ecame a feature of the $merican landscape in the ast, they transformed farm hands into industrial la&orers, and pro%ided :o&s for a rising tide of immigrants3 2ith industry came ur&aniDation the gro+th of large cities 7like ;all Ri%er, 0assachusetts, +here the Cordens li%ed9 +hich &ecame the centers of production as +ell as of commerce and trade3A

ACC-PTAB2- PA%AP=%A"./ACC-PTAB2- PA%AP=%A"->P2A+*A%*"9 The increase of industry, the gro+th of cities, and the e!plosion of the population +ere three large factors of nineteenth century $merica3 $s steam#dri%en companies &ecame more %isi&le in the eastern part of the country, they changed farm hands into factory +orkers and pro%ided :o&s for the large +a%e of immigrants3 2ith industry came the gro+th of large cities like ;all Ri%er +here the Cordens li%ed +hich turned into centers of commerce and trade as +ell as production3 ;all Ri%er, +here the Corden family li%ed, +as typical of northeastern industrial cities of the nineteenth century3 6team#po+ered production had shifted la&or from agriculture to manufacturing, and as immigrants arri%ed in the "6, they found +ork in these ne+ factories3 $s a result, populations gre+, and large ur&an areas arose3 ;all Ri%er +as one of these manufacturing and commercial centers 72illiams 193

P2A+*A%*"9 &ecause1 4nly a fe+ +ords are changed from the original 7see them in red9 The source is not mentioned ACC-PTAB2- &ecause1 The student uses his*her o+n +ords to transmit the information in the original te!t The source is mentioned

'

The e!ample is taken from http1**+++3indiana3edu*R+ts*pampflets*plagiarism3shtml

1'

;or more information on plagiarism, here are more sources you are in%ited to consult1 http1**o+l3english3purdue3edu*o+l*resource*)89*(1 then click on &efining and voiding #lagiarism7 !he 6# 1tatement on Best #ractices http1**+++3plagiarism3org*learningUcenter*typesUofUplagiarism3html http1**+++3indiana3edu*R+ts*pampflets*plagiarism3shtml http1**+++3:iscpas3ac3uk*images*&in*larkhamUplagiarismUte!t3doc http1**+++3:isc3ac3uk*uploadedUdocuments*&rookes3pdf http1**+++3princeton3edu*pr*pu&*integrity*pages*plagiarism3html

1)

;ardsticJs for Assessment of -ssa s

!#$T%$T
6ufficient . rele%ant to issue &eing discussedJ sho+s critical understanding of rele%ant facts . issuesJ some originality in thinking 6ufficient . rele%antJ sho+s good grasp of rele%ant facts . issueJ sho+s &reath of study ################################### as a&o%e, &ut lacking some originality in the a&ility to interpret reading . research

ST&'!T'&%
=ntegrates detail into a coherent +holeJ guides reader through to a reasoned conclusionJ is supported throughout &y appropriate . accurate language Re%eals an attempt to create a coherent +holeJ attempts to guide reader through to a reasoned conclusionJ is rarely affected &y inappropriate or inaccurate language

#verall ()P&%SS(#$
2ork of outstanding ?uality $ %ery good control of nglish

*&+,%

1(* $

2ork of outstanding ?uality $ good control of nglish

9* C

################################### 2ork of pretty good ?uality3 4nly a fe+ mistakes of nglish

########################

8* C

Lust sufficient to co%er the su&:ect &ut has a fe+ irrele%anciesJ satisfactory grasp of rele%ant facts . issuesJ ade?uate reading ################################### as a&o%e &ut there are +eaknesses displayed in understanding the rele%ant issuesJ irrele%ancies impede the argument some+hat

>inks parts together &ut falls short of creating a coherent +holeJ doesn<t al+ays guide reader . doesn<t al+ays ha%e a conclusionJ is +eakened in places &y inappropriate or inaccurate language +hich impairs reader comprehension

-ood, &ut +ith some o&%ious +eaknesses The nglish is pretty good, &ut it needs impro%ing

/* 8

################################### satisfactory, &ut clear +eaknesses Zuite a lot of grammar and spelling mistakes

########################

6* 8 )* D

Doesn<t fully co%er the su&:ect .*or is spoiled &y irrele%ancies . an ina&ility to interpret facts . clarify issues ################################### o&%iously an inade?uate grasp of facts . issuesJ irrele%ant or unsu&stantiated material

6ometimes fail to link parts to each other . sho+s little regard for reader, failing to come to a :ustifia&le conclusionJ is +eakened &y inappropriate inaccurate language on a regular &asisJ comprehension re?uiring e!cessi%e reader effort

Care pass# +eaknesses impair argument . understanding Too many grammar and spelling mistakes ################################### fail# clearly unsatisfactory +ork The nglish is ?uite &ad

########################

'*
and &elo+

=nspired &y Eigel To+nsend<s lectures on assessing students 7199)#/9

16

-&ercises for ./*T" '-2 Progress Iuestions ./*T ' 2hat is an essay[ 2hat types of essays do you kno+[ 2hat is the difference &et+een an informati%e and a persuasi%e*argumentati%e essay[ 2here do compare and contrast essays come into the scheme[ 2hat are the t+o methods a compare and contrast essay should rely on[ ./*T 2 2hat is the purpose of +riting an essay[ Bo+ should your +ritten essay look[ 7front page, num&ering, spacing[9 2hat are the four styles of referring to sources[ 2hat is plagiarism[ Bo+ can you a%oid plagiarism[ 2hat are the yardsticks for mark 1(*$[ 4riting tasJs during class ./*T ' Dra+ the plans of t+o essays1 ssay11 a compare* contrast informati%e essay sho+ing the common features of t+o elements3 Title1 (ompare and (ontrast7 0omanian and British =odern =yths ssay 21 a compare* contrast persuasi%e essay sho+ing the similarities and differences of t+o elements3 Title1 (ompare and (ontrast7 >a@@ =usic and =anele ./*T 2 -i%e in%ented e!amples of &ooks, articles, 8Ds and +e&sites in the four styles of referencing sources3 Bere is the &eginning of a 2nd year student<s essay +hose title is !he Illustration of the concept of nature in >ane Eyre. Cear in mind 6ection / 7Yardsticks for $ssessment of ssays9 and gi%e a mark to it e!plaining your choice in +riting3 =n her reno+n no%el, >ane Eyre, 8harlotte Cronte makes +ide use of nature imagery and comments simultaneously on the human relationship +ith nature, as +ell as human nature3 Throughout the no%el run se%eral themes relating to nature1 among these +e find the image of a stormy seaI Lane sa%es 0r3 Rochester<s life, gi%ing a metaphor in order to illustrate their relationships3 @Till morning da+ned = +as tossed on a &uoyant &ut un?uiet sea,H = thought sometimes = sa+ &eyond its +ild +aters a shore, H and no+ and then a freshening gale, +akened &y hope, &ore my spirit triumphantly to+ards the &ourne1 &ut H a counteracting &reeDe &le+ off land, and continually dro%e me &ack3A The gale is representati%e of all the forces pre%enting Lane<s union to Rochester3 =t is remarka&le that it is this &uoyancy of her relationship that +hich keeps Lane afloat during her time of crisis in the heath1 @2hy do = struggle to retain a %alueless life[ Cecause = kno+, or &elie%e, 0r3 Rochester is li%ing3A 7iscussion ./*T ' a* Read the e!cerpt &elo+ and comment on Eicole 2ard#Lou%e<s opinion of +hat essay +riting means3 Thinking means putting e%erything on the line, taking risks, +riterly risks, finding out +hat the actual odds are, not sheltering &ehind a pretend and in any case fallacious and transparent o&:ecti%ity3 4nly +hen it actually thinks is criticism e%er a form of +ritingH The only +ay in +hich you can &e genuinely stimulated and fed &y discourses you admire or find congenial is if you dare a %oice of your o+n 72ard#Lou%e ?td3 in 6tott 2393

1/

&* Does this opinion come into contradiction +ith the rather strict regulations of academic argument and language to &e used in essay +riting[ 8omment3 ./*T 2 c* 2hat are the ad%antages and the disad%antages of each style of referencing to sources in your field of study[ &* 2hy is it important not to plagiariDe someone<s ideas and theories[ =ome)orJ ./*T ' Read the articles of a television programme maga@ine 7not the programme listingsK93 Try to find out the target audience of this magaDine &y e!amining its articles, themes and ad%ertisements3 ./*T 2 13* 8ompare the definition of an essay on page 3 76ection 19 +ith $le!andru Dragomir<s @definitionA of a Romanian essay 7Dragomir 1/8#1/991 (um se g?teCte un eseu romDnesc1 6e ia o idee 7din grTdina proprie[Icine n#are idei[Isau inspiratT din magaDinele de idei, adicT eseurile occidentale9, se plTmTdeVte cu relaXii pSnT se lTXeVte departe de %reun sens adec%at, se amestecT din gros cu referinXe de profunDimeIBegel, Beidegger 7de preferinXT negSndu#l9, 6aint# !up\ry 7acesta din urmT chiar citit de autori9, -oethe, EietDsche, Pascal etc3, plus unul sau doi autori necunoscuXi 7mai &ine medie%ali cT au nume latineVti9, se priDTreVte Vi cSte un romWn cu nume &un, ca PWr%an, Eeagoe, Eoica, CrWncuVi Vi unde%a, strecurat cu insignifianXT, autorul care a insuflat ideea ]profundT^ a eseului3 6e cufundT totul Sntr#o &aie de stil romWnesc, iscodind cu%inte nTscute moarte Vi fTrT simX al lim&ii, se presarT din &elVug marile legume ca1 demonic, e!taD, mit#mitic, &aroc, eros, asceDT, sim&ol, esenXT, comple!, e!istenXT etc3I cu sau fTrT ma:usculTIVi se aseDoneaDT cu cSte un cu%Snt grecesc sila&isit din &i&liotecT, total inutil fiindcT nici unul din cititori nu Vtie atSta greacT SncSt sT#l corecteDe3 0erge Vi ce%a latinesc, dar nu e aVa de ]adSnc^ picant3 23* "nderstanding plagiarism1 Read the fragment &elo+ taken from a pu&lished source 79ichael Camille< (mage on the %-ge. The )argins of )e-ieval +rt< 2ondon: %eaJtion BooJs, 2((3, pp'#-'09 9 and imagine that the ne!t further e!tracts are from students< essays3 2hich are plagiarised[ 2hy[ 9ichael Camille< (mage on the %-ge. The )argins of )e-ieval +rt. 2ondon: %eaJtion BooJs, 2((3, pp< '#-'0 @During the 0iddle $ges the edges of the kno+n +orld +ere at the same time the limits of representation3 4n the 2orld 0ap F0appa 0undiG the further one mo%es a+ay from the centre#point of Lerusalem, the more deformed and alien things &ecome3 ;rom outside time and space, in the ape! of the page, -od controls all3 The artist has managed to depict monstrous races +hose types deri%e from Pliny and +ho +ere thought to e!ist _at the round earth_s imagined corners_3 Bere +e see H cynocephali 7men +ith eyes in their chests and dog#headed persons9, giants, pygmies and many others3 There is a sciapod too H =n this sense, illuminators +ere often not in%enting monsters &ut depicting creatures they might +ell ha%e assumed e!isted at the limits of -od_s creation3A

8ase 1# 6tudent Cra%a Patratescu1

During the 0iddle $ges the edges of the kno+n +orld +ere HHHHHHHthe limits of representation3 4n the 2orld 0ap F0appa 0undiG the further one mo%es a+ay from the centre#point of Lerusalem, the more deformed and strange things &ecome3 ;rom outside time and space, in the ape! of the page, -od controls all3 The artist has managed to depict monstrous races +ho33 H33 deri%e from Pliny and +ho +ere thought to e!ist _at the round earth_s imagined corners_3 Bere +e see H cynocephali 7men +ith eyes in their chests and dog#headed persons9, giants, pygmies HHHHH33 There is a sciapod too H =n this sense, illuminators +ere often not in%enting monsters &ut depicting creatures they might +ell ha%e assumed e!isted at the limits of -od_s creation3

18

8ase 2# 8ase 2# 53 rry 6hmeckerson =n the 0iddle $ges the margins of our +orld +ere also considered the limits of representation3 4n the 0ap of the 2orld F0appa 0undiG the further one is a+ay from the centre of the map 7Lerusalem9, the more deformed and +eird creatures &ecome3 HHH time and space, on top of the page, -od controls all3 The artist H33managed to depict monstrous races +hose types deri%e from Plinius and +ho +ere &elie%ed to e!ist _at the round earth_s imagined corners_3 There are cynocephali 7men +ith eyes in their chests and dog#headed persons9, giants, pygmies, a sciapod etc3 HH H $ctually, illuminators +ere often not dra+ing monsters &ut HH3 creatures they might H3 ha%e assumed e!isted at the margins of -od_s creation3 8ase 3# 0acEott nuff 0ichael 8amille says that @during the 0iddle $ges the edges of the kno+n +orld +ere at the same time the limits of representation3 4n the 2orld 0ap F0appa 0undiG the further one mo%es a+ay from the centre#point of Lerusalem, the more deformed and alien things &ecome3 ;rom outside time and space, in the ape! of the page, -od controls all3 The artist has managed to depict monstrous races +hose types deri%e from Pliny and +ho +ere thought to e!ist _at the round earth_s imagined corners_3 Bere +e see H cynocephali 7men +ith eyes in their chests and dog#headed persons9, giants, pygmies and many others3 There is a sciapod too H =n this sense, illuminators +ere often not in%enting monsters &ut depicting creatures they might +ell ha%e assumed e!isted at the limits of -od_s creation3A 8ase '# -ee Eeal 8reators< of 0edie%al 2orld 0aps 70appa 0undi9 put into dra+ing the circulating &elief in the epoch according to +hich the further one tra%elled a+ay from the center of the +orld 7the holy city of Lerusalem9 into the unkno+n, the more one came across lands populated &y monsters 7cynocephali, giants, pygmies, sciapods93 The idea of monstrous races +as not necessarily medie%al, it +ent &ack to the Roman ancient naturalist Pliny the lder, and in the 0iddle $ges it com&ined +ith the &elief that e%ery creature 7alien or not9 +as -od<s creation3 $s a result, painters painting strange &eings onto the margins of religious &ooks 7called illuminated manuscripts9 follo+ed the same medie%al tradition of &elie%ing in -od<s ha%ing made them strange not monstrous and ha%ing placed them on the %ery edge of the +orld 78amille 1'93 8ase )# Petre $petrei =n his &ook Image on the Edge7 the =argins of =edieval rt, 0ichael 8amille says that @during the 0iddle $ges the edges of the kno+n +orld +ere at the same time the limits of representation3 4n the 2orld 0ap F0appa 0undiG the further one mo%es a+ay from the centre# point of Lerusalem, the more deformed and alien things &ecome3 ;rom outside time and space, in the ape! of the page, -od controls all3 The artist has managed to depict monstrous races +hose types deri%e from Pliny and +ho +ere thought to e!ist _at the round earth_s imagined corners_3 Bere +e see H cynocephali 7men +ith eyes in their chests and dog#headed persons9, giants, pygmies and many others3 There is a sciapod too H =n this sense, illuminators +ere often not in%enting monsters &ut depicting creatures they might +ell ha%e assumed e!isted at the limits of -od_s creation 71'93A 8ase 6# $nnie 8heatieson 8reators< of 0edie%al 2orld 0aps 70appa 0undi9 put into dra+ing the circulating &elief in the epoch according to +hich the further one tra%elled a+ay from the center of the +orld 7the holy city of Lerusalem9 into the unkno+n, the more one came across lands populated &y monsters 7cynocephali, giants, pygmies, sciapods93 The idea of monstrous races +as not necessarily medie%al, it +ent &ack to the Roman ancient naturalist Pliny the lder 7$D 23# $D /99 and in the 0iddle $ges it com&ined +ith the &elief that e%ery creature 7alien or not9 +as -od<s creation3 $s a result, painters painting strange &eings onto the margins of religious &ooks 7called illuminated manuscripts9 follo+ed the same medie%al tradition of &elie%ing in -od<s ha%ing made them strange not monstrous and ha%ing placed them on the %ery edge of the +orld 3

19

Part B: Academic vocabular and argumentation

./*T 3-#
Academic vocabular
A< :erbs to use )hen referring to an author 2hen you ha%e to argue and analyse some&ody<s opinions and theories, 7some critic<s, no%elist<s, poet<s, dramatist<s +ords9, you are ad%ised to connect yourself to that person<s opinions &y using a certain set of %er&s3 The list &elo+ is a&ridged from Peter >e%in<s &ook 6rite Great EssaysE7 0eading and Essay 6riting for Fndergraduates and !aught #ostgraduates 7/9#8(93
T pe of contribution 4hat verbs to use )hen referring to it

;act Perception ;igure of speech Definition $ssumption Proposition 4pinion 5alue :udgement 8laim Zuestion Reasoning

` found, disco%ered, re%ealed, ascertained, notes, points out thatH ` descri&es, identifies, distinguishes, categoriDesJ as ` sees itH ` regardsH asJ compares H toJ ` suggests that H is likeH ` defines H to mean H ` assumes, postulates, hypothesiDes, con:ectures, that is it for granted that H ` argues, asserts, contends, suggests, hypothesiDes H that if $, then CJ ` supports, is critical of, criticiDes H $ccording to ` HJ ` tells us, says, thinks, suggests, considers, agrees that H J ` disagrees +ith HJ in `<s opinionJ it seems to ` that H To `, H should, ought to HJ to ` H is &eneficial, harmful ` claims that in his* her professional :udgement HJ to ` it must &e, o&%ious that, common sense that H ` asks* ?uestions +hether H ` infers from this e%idence that HJ sho+s from his* her analysis that HJ ` demonstrates ho+ HJ ` concludes that H

B< Arguments @The real su&stance of the academic approach to study means the presentation, analysis and criticism of argumentA 7Pearson and Phelps 1)93 $rguments are part of paragraphs +hich &uild the introduction, the &ody and the conclusion of essays 7see "nits 3#'93 2hether you ha%e to ans+er ?uestions in the classroom or to +rite papers on %arious topics, teachers constantly ask you @to argumentA, @to analyseA, @to critically and logically discuss ideas and argumentsA3 The %oca&ulary used in academic circles represents a set of con%entions +hen dealing +ith &ooks and articles3 This goes &ack to @the classical +orks on logic and argument +ritten &y the -reeks in the ' th and 3rd centuries C83A 7Pearson and Phelps 1)93

2(

B<'< 7efinition =t may &e easier to try and define +hat an argument is &y comparing it +ith +hat it is not3 This comparison is a&ridged from three sources1 cademic 3ocabulary and rgument7 n Introductory Guide &y R3 $3 Pearson and T3 Phelps, p3 1((, 0ulebook for rguments &y $nthony 2eston, pp3 `=#`=== and 6riting rguments7 0hetoric with 0eadings &y Lohn D3 Ramage and Lohn 83 Cean, p3' 9 A/ A%+.9-/T *" $ means of in?uiry, a set of reasons*e%idence, e!planation and defence in support of a %ie+ 72eston9 $ logically crafted +ay to pro%e that some %ie+s are &etter than others 72eston9 $ proposition +hich @sets out a case in an ordered, pu&lic, o&:ecti%e, calm, tolerant +ayA 7Pearson and Phelps9 @$ desire for truth3 =ts goal is to find and promote the &est &elief or course of actionA 7Ramage and Cean9 /3T a dispute, a disagreement or a ?uarrel +ith an interlocutor 7Pearson and Phelps9 A/ A%+.9-/T *"

/3T

/3T some&ody<s statement if one does not gi%e reasons +hy one considers one<s %ie+s to &e correct 72eston9

/3T a pro#con de&ate, if one +ishes :ust to +in a game and does not engage in a truth#seeking in?uiry 7Ramage and Cean9

Bere are thus a fe+ types of arguments and their meaning a&ridged from R3$3 Pearson<s and T3 Phelps<s &ook cademic 3ocabulary and rgument7 n Introductory Guide 716#1/, 31#3', 3/, '9#)1, /)#/691 B<2< T pes of arguments *< 7epending on the form, there are: 7eductive arguments: 7+here the conclusions can &e logically deduced from premises69 $s a rule, deducti%e arguments are &ased on reasoning from the general to the specific3 Deducti%e premises are meant to offer support for the conclusion of an argument and they are thought to &e strong enough to &e @the guarantee of the truth of the conclusionA 7!he Internet Encyclopedia of #hilosophy93 !amples of deducti%e arguments1 '<> s llogism 7+here $ has a C characteristic, and 8 has an $ characteristic, therefore 8 has a C characteristic too93/ 2<> reductio ad absurdum, often used as reductio 7>atin1 @reduction to a&surdityA93 You pro%e that something is true &y sho+ing that denying it takes you to an a&surdity3 8 3<> dilemma 7-reek1 @t+o propositionsA93 =t is an argument +here you do not kno+ +hich of the t+o assertions is true, and you are faced +ith t+o alternati%es that are e!clusi%e and e!hausti%e, that is, either one possi&ility is %alid or another3 =t cannot &e &oth3 9 #<> parado& IAan apparently self#contradictory statement +hich, on closer inspection, is found to contain a truth reconciling the conflicting opposites3A 78uddon, #enguin 63'91(
6

@6tatement or idea Fassumed to &e trueG on +hich reasoning is &asedA 7)xford dvanced *earner$s Encyclopedic &ictionary /(69 / The most famous e!ample of a -reek syllogism is1 ll men " ' are mortal "B', 1ocrates"(' is a man" ', therefore, 1ocrates"(' is mortal"B'. 8 !ample1 Title1 !ravelling in time is impossible. Demonstration1 13 you assume time tra%el is possi&le 23 it means you can go &ack in time and make your father not meet your mother, +hich means you cannot &e &orn3 33 This is a&surd, +hich means that assertion 1 is +rong, therefore time tra%el is impossi&le3 9 !ample1 That country is corrupt3 ither the state cannot do anything 7it is not omnipotent9 or it can do something &ut does not +ant to 7it is not +illing93 1( !ample of parado!1 Bamlet1 @= must &e cruel only to &e kind3A 76hakespeare ?td3 in 8uddon 63)9

21

*nductive arguments: 7arguing from particular facts and o&ser%ations to generalisations9 113 Pay attention to the fact that in inducti%e arguments the conclusion can &e false e%en if the premises may &e true312 These arguments offer you pro&a&ility rather than the logical %alidity gi%en to you &y deducti%e argumentation3

3bservation 3

The difference bet)een a deductive and an inductive argument'3:

*/7.CT*:- A%+.9-/T $s a rule, it goes from the particular to the general $ premise pro%ides @reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion3 Premises are intended only to &e so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is falseA @=nducti%e arguments attempt to conclude +ith pro&a&ilityA !ample1 0y dog has al+ays &een +agging her tail at me +hene%er = utter the +ord @foodA7particular fact93 6he is terri&ly predicta&le 7premise9, therefore, she +ill +ag her tail at me in the future +hene%er = pronounce @foodA 7conclusion93

7-7.CT*:- A%+.9-/T $s a rule, it goes from the general to the specific The premise considered strongly true is a guarantee for a strongly true conclusion or, in other +ords, the conclusion dra+n is the conse?uence of the premises

@Deducti%e arguments attempt to conclude +ith necessityA !ample1 $ll dogs +ag their tail 7ma:or premise93 6heila is a dog 7minor premise9, therefore, she +ags her tail 7conclusion93

**< 7epending on the content, arguments are: -&plicit arguments are the ones this manual deals +ith3 They state a claim +hich is then supported &y logic and e%idence 7+hich &uild the premises9 for the conclusion of the argument to &e dra+n3 76ee the e!amples a&o%e93 =n other +ords, they are part of academic +riting3 *mplicit arguments ha%e different shapes1 poems, photos, short stories, paintings, personal essays, auto&iographical narrati%es, no%els, mo%ies, etc3 $s +ith e!plicit arguments, implicit ones ha%e the same goal1 to persuade the interlocutor*reader*contemplator to share a certain %ie+3 =n other +ords, they are part of creati%e +riting or %isual arts 7Ramage and Cean '#69 B< 3< Argument vocabular :

11

!ample1 =n this &asket&all team, this man is tall, that man is tall, and that man o%er there is also tall, so all men are tall in &asket&all teams3 12 =n the pre%ious e!ample, the conclusion is so rigid that it nears falsehood3 =n &asket&all teams there is a tendency for players to &e tall, &ut some are taller than others, so the concept of tallness should &e redefined3 13 The source for the first t+o differences is !he Internet Encyclopedia of #hilosophy and the one for the third difference is http1**falcon3:mu3edu*Romeara+m*deduction3html

22

Bere are se%eral more terms connected to argumentation and essay +riting +hose precise understanding +ill help you control the making of an essay and your discourse +hen talking of and +riting a critical essay3 assertion is a straightfor+ard 7true or false9 statement 7as a rule made +ithout e%idence9 +hich can &e a component of an argument3 =t is &ased on reasons, information and e%idence3 Types of statements * assertions1 empirical> factual statement I &ased on o&ser%ation, e!perience, fact, measurement 7@=n +inter it is coldA9 logical statement I &ased on logic 7@Eo spinsters are marriedA, @Eo child is an adultA93 a&iom > a&iomatic statement I a %ery self#e%ident or uni%ersally accepted proposition asserted to &e true +ithout ha%ing to pro%e it 7@ =t is a sadly esta&lished fact that some students try aand manage# to cheat on at e!amsA9 normative > evaluative statement I an e%aluation or :udgement in relation to a norm or standard3 =t is a statement that make recommendations, so it contains +ords like @shouldA, @mustA, @ought toA3 7@The pre%ious regime should ha%e &een opposed earlierA9 assumption 5to assume6 is the act of accepting a statement as &eing true, +ithout proof, and from +hich a conclusion can &e dra+n 7@4n the assumption that she has forgotten to come, = can presume* infer that she is a+fully &usyA9 impl 5implicit6 I to strongly suggests the truth or e!istence of a thing not e!pressly asserted 78oncise 4!ford Dictionary93 infer I to deduce or conclude from facts and reasoning 78oncise 4!ford Dictionary93 specious argument I a superficially plausi&le &ut actually +rong argument 1' sophism I an intelligent argument, deli&erately crafted to &e speciously logical and con%incing, &ut ne%ertheless in%alid3 7The use of sophisms is called sophistr +hich is meant to decei%e argumentation e%en +hen appealing to reason and logic9 70erriam#2e&ster 4nline Dictionary9 1)

6o, deducti%e and inducti%e argumentation as +ell as empirical, logical, a!iomatic and e%aluati%e statements should guide you in your scholarly essay +riting strategies3 B< #< Contents of an argument Cefore trying to a%oid errors in logic 7fallacies9, you should learn more a&out the contents and the making of an argument3 =n e%eryday speeches 7pri%ate or pu&lic9, in coffee#&reak argumentation and semi#official rhetoric of essay +riting, people do not necessarily and al+ays speak or +rite in syllogisms, reductio or dilemma arguments3 These are rather a philosopher<s tools3 People 7among +hom sometimes students and teachers themsel%es9 tend to argue differently3 6tephen Toulmin, an nglish philosopher 16, de%eloped a theory +hich e!plains the natural +ay people use argumentation in e%eryday outside#faculty#class life3 This theory is kno+n as !he *ayout of rgument or, in short, !oulmin$s theory. Toulmin noticed that in common argumentation 7pu&lic speeches, in a friendly discussion or in the field of communication9, the contents of an argument is different from those of formal logic argumentation3 2hat follo+s is a distinction &et+een the contents of a philosopher<s argument and the contents of an e%eryday, common argument1
1'

!ample of specious argument1 @The Crontes used men<s names for their first &ook 7 #oems9, &ecause in 5ictorian times +omen +ere not allo+ed to pu&lish3A This might seem a plausi&le e!planation to a &eginning student, &ut it is not actually correct3 1) !ample of sophism1 Zuestion1 @2hat is &etter1 eternal &liss or a simple &read[A !planation1 @2hat is &etter than eternal &liss[ Eothing3 Cut a slice of &read is &etter than nothing3 6o a slice of &read is &etter than eternal &liss3A7http** &rainden3com*parado!es3htm9 16 Toulmin presented his theory on argumentation in his &ook !he Fses of rgument, in 19)8

23

3bservation #

Contents of a PhilosopherBs Argument and a CommonerBs Argument

Contents of a philosopherBs argument:

8ontents of an argument +hich depends on formal logic &asically deal +ith premises 7ma:or and minor in the case of a syllogism91 statements that reason a conclusion a conclusion1 a statement for +hich you are gi%ing reasons3 =f the interlocutor accepts the premises, then the interlocutor accepts the conclusion 7see !ypes of argument depending on the form9 7>a&ossiere in +++3 niDkor3org3*features*fallacies93

8ontents of a commonerBs argument:

data>grounds 7e%idence, information, facts9 +hich is the foundation of the argument and a starting point for reasoning it into a claim 7conclusion9 )arrant 7the reasoning process +hich connects data to a claim1 e!pert testimony, appeal to the interlocutor<s con%ictions and %alues, logical reasoning# for instance, cause and effect reasoning93 $ +arrant needs tangi&le, practical e!amples, statistics, etc3 =t ans+ers the ?uestion1 @2hy does that data make your claim to &e true[A 7http**1changing minds3org*disciplines*argument*makingUargument*toulmin3htm9 reservation 7a logical e!ception to the claim +hose role is to strengthen the claim &y limiting the argument1 the e!ception that pro%es the rule9 claim 7or conclusion in formal logic argumentation9 represents the essence of the argument and the point that has &een pro%ed %ia data, +arrant and reser%ation3 =t can &e also placed at the &eginning of an argument3 =t can &e a statement, a piece of information or an action a speaker*+riter asks someone to accept3 3

The difference &et+een a philosopher<s deducti%e or inducti%e argument and an e%eryday reality argument is the follo+ing1 83%9A2 23+*C A%+.9-/TAT*3/ =f premises are true or false, the conclusion found is uni%ersally true or false, &ut ne%er am&iguous -:-%;7A; %-A2 43%27 A%+.9-/T" The claim is not uni%ersally true, it is in &et+een1 +hat is right for an audience can &e +rong for another, therefore, the reasoning process of +arrants +ill %ary depending on the audience These arguments are &ased @grounded in a&stract, These arguments are @grounded in &eliefs, uni%ersal statementsA 7Ramage and Cean 969 assumptions or %aluesA 9Ramage and Cean9 granted &y a listener*reader3 The speaker does not need ?ualifiers1/ to pro%e his*her The speaker needs ?ualifiers 7absolutely true, maybe, true or false point3 The rele%ance of a conclusion has most likely, somehow, etc9 &ecause he*she has to sho+
1/

Zualifiers @represent the %er&aliDation of the relati%e strength of an argumentA 76oukup and Tits+orth9

2'

no connection +ith the speaker<s feeling of confidence in his*her :udgment $ppeal to mainly logos and ethos 7see point C3 )39 are primarily used to con%ince the interlocutor 76oukup and Tits+orth other than already ?uoted 9

his*her confidence in the po+er of the argument used to con%ince $ppeal to logos, pathos and ethos are used &y the speaker*+riter to persuade the listener*reader

B< 5< Persuasive argumentation This su&chapter is adapted from Lohn D3 Ramage<s and Lohn 83 Cean<s &ook 6riting rguments7 0hetoric with 0eadings, pages 81#82, 9'#9), 1)1#1))9 2hether part of an argumentati%e essay or a fiery de&ate, arguments @occur +ithin a social conte!tA 78191 they are uttered or +ritten &y speakers or +riters +ho are addressing an interlocutor or a reader +ho must &e con%inced*persuaded*manipulated to share the locutor<s %ie+3 Through arguments, locutors and interlocutors &uild a relationship in +hich the former has to learn ho+ to sell an idea so that the latter could &uy it3

2ogos 7@+ordA in -reek9: the logic of his*her premises*data*+arrants so that his*her conclusion*claim should &e %alid 7see points C3 23#C3 '39 2hat the speaker*+riter has to appeal to in order to &e successful is Pathos 7@e!perienceA or @sufferingA in -reek9 : the interlocutor<s po+er of empathy and imagination3 The listener or reader must &e mo%ed into sharing the speaker<s or +riter<s %ie+s -thos 7@characterA in -reek9: his*her o+n credi&ility and sincerity 7ethics93 =t is connected to the tone, intensity, style, credi&le sources, orderly structure and atmosphere of the te!t, +hich are all meant to catch the reader<s*listener<s interest, enhance and con%ince him or her3 There are times +hen the credi&ility of a speaker*+riter has no connection +ith the message con%eyed &efore an audience or +ritten on the printed page, &ut it has the po+er to influence the audience due to the speaker<s*+riter<s reputation, pro%ed professionalism or moral integrity

3bservation 5

2)

Persuasive argumentation

"peaJer>)riter or 2ocutor
builds

An argument b means of
23+3" a<> 9aKor Premise---9inor Premise---Conclusion b<> 7ata---4arrant---%eservation---Claim PAT=3" 8inds listener>reader-based reasons that are effectivel connected to an interlocutorBs beliefs, emotions, assumptions and values

-T=3" Appeals to the credibilit of the speaJer )ith the speaJer>)riter sho)ing =is>her Jno)ledge in the issue under discussion That he>she is fair and courteous to alternative vie)sL understanding and empathising )ith alternative vie)s A connection )ith the interlocutor b being respectful to his>her opinions, values being tolerant, modest respecting the interlocutorBs intelligence 7see also )bservation 8:GG, p38' on academic ethics of an essay9 *n order to

P-%".A7- a listener>reader or *nterlocutor to share the speaJerBs>)riterBs opinion

=n essay +riting and critical de&ates &oth formal logic argumentation 7&ased on uni%ersal, a&stract statements9 and real +orld arguments 7&ased on assumptions, &eliefs and %alues likely to &e shared &y the listener*reader9 should &e used3

26

"A9P2- :**

A ToulminBs Argument -&ample )ith 2<P<-<'0

Eotice the components of a Toulmin argument and the three means of persuasion 7>ogos, Pathos and $ramis 199

"peaJer: 'st ear student

builds

An argument on a colleague and friend to maJe the sign of the cross before the summer e&ams b means of
23+3"
Claim: You should make the sign of the cross, discreetly FKKKG, +ith the tongue in your shut mouth three times &efore any e!am and you ha%e high "/ualifier) chances to pass the summer e!ams +ith good marks 7ata: $ll the colleagues = kno+ do it 7Didina, -eorgina, Paul, 5ar%ara, etc9, myself included, and they and = ha%e all passed the +inter e!ams +ith high marks 4arrant: $ strong &elief in -od<s po+er +ill definitel 5Mualifier6 help you concentrate and &e at your &est in the e!am room3 P+TH#S. The gesture remin-s you of the s"ecial relationshi" between yourself an- *o- an- tunes you to Him. He has hel"e- you a lot lately0 as you know %eservation 5%ebuttal6: You got pretty high marks in +inter &ecause your tiny amethyst amulet you +ere +earing may ha%e helped you3 %TH#S. ( believe it very much -i- hel" you. +lso stu-ying harmust have raise- your marks 59ore )arrant: But ( know from 1ather (oan that making the sign of the cross in times of neestrengthens one an- ( believe that) 5%TH#S6

PAT=3"

-T=3"

*n order to

P-%".A7- another 'st ear student to taJe action

18 19

>ogos, Pathos, thos $ctually, thos3

2/

$ny e!aggeration of the logical, emotional and ethical component of an argument, any unreasona&le claim or conclusion lead to a fallacy3

B< Avoiding 8allacies2(

$ny error in reasoning an argument +hich is likely to &e decepti%e is a logical fallacy3 =f the premises of an argument, +hether true or false, fail to &ack up the conclusion or the claim in an argument, then you are dealing +ith a logical fallacy3 This is different from a factual error, +hich is :ust a +rong piece of information that has no reasoning, no logical thinking a&out any e%idence3

"A9P2- :*** Bere are t+o e!amples for you to compare &et+een a factual error and a fallacious argument1 8actual error: @>ondon is the capital of RomaniaA 5a factual error indeed in this 3D reality, other+ise it could &e ?uite true in a sci#fi no%el*mo%ie or +ith a talking toddler9 8allac 1 @Ba%ing :ust arri%ed in Cucharest 7for the first time9 at a&out lunch time, = sa+ that most streets +ere nearly empty3 The conclusion that = dre+ +as that that all streets are al+ays nearly empty in Cucharest at lunch time +hene%erA3 7Bo+ totally and supercalifragelistically +rong for +hoe%er to dra+ such a conclusion +hen arri%ing in Cucharest on a &lindly hot midday 6unday of an insuffera&le $ugust of the present century9

;allacies may &e smoke#screens uttered &y your interlocutor to &lur and impress your :udgement, therefore you should learn ho+ to detect them +ith ease and a%oid them, &ecause they are academically unprofessional, and &ecause in e%ery day discussions they can make you a silent %ictim of manipulation3 6ome&ody +ho recurrently makes deli&erate use of fallacies may ha%e a tendency to &e self#centred and intolerant3 The most common fallacies you should identify and a%oid are the follo+ing1

'> Arguing against the person 5also Jno)n as +- Hominem argument N+rgumentum a- hominem6 =t means attacking the person and not his*her arguments3 The ad hominem fallacy shifts attention from someone<s +ords to some personal characteristic or ?uality of the person 7real or in%ented9, therefore minimising them and finally re:ecting their argument3 The ad homimem argument is often used to &lock any detailed analysis of someone<s argument3 !amples1 @Bo+ can +e take seriously +hat ` says a&out the &liss of marriage, +hen it is kno+n fact that he is a con%inced &achelor[A @People that criticise Y<s &ooks are o&%iously :ust en%ious of her success3A
2(

This section 7839 on fallacy is inde&ted to cademic 3ocabulary and rgument7 n Introductory Guide &y R33$3 Pearson and T3 Phelps, pp31((#111, and 6riting rguments7 0hetoric with 0eadings &y Lohn D3 Ramage and Lohn -3 Cean, 'th ed3, '22#'33.

28

6ometimes the ad hominem argument simply takes the form of dismissing the other person &y la&elling them as &elong to a group that is likely to &e unpopular +ith the intended listeners * readers1 @4f course ` would say that, since he * she is a communist * fascist * chau%inist * feminist * fundamentalist * anti# uropean * etc HA 2> Appeal to inappropriate authorit 5+rgumentum a- verecun-iam N argument from modest 6 This means supporting an argument &y citing a supposed authority +ho actually has no real competence in the field under discussion3 This type of argument is fre?uently used to &ring to an end any argument :ust &y in%oking the name of a +ell#kno+n person3 !amples1 @0other says men are liars,A @This must &e good shampoo, &ecause ` 7a famous T5 star9 appears in the ad%ertisement,A @Y, +ho +on a Eo&el PriDe for Physics, said this +as the most important no%el of the t+entieth century3A 7Eote that e%en appealing to the authority of someone +ho is competent in the field should &e done +ith caution3 The fact that a famous critic said something is not sufficient reason for you to accept it +ithout ?uestion3 You should e!amine their arguments, and look for further e%idence and other authoritati%e opinions39 3> Appeal to ignorance 5+rgumentum a- ignorantiam N argument from ignorance6 This fallacy is characterised &y the a&sence of contrary e%idence or the argument that a claim is +rong &ecause it has not &een demonstrated to &e correct3 You should not accept conclusions that present no argumentation other than @Eo one has e%er HA, @There is no e%idence that HA3 !amples1 @Eo one has come up +ith a feasi&le flood#pre%ention plan for the country, so it seems it cannot &e done3A @Eo alleged sighting of e!tra#terrestrials has e%er &een authenticated, so +e must assume +e are alone in the "ni%erse3A @6cientists don<t fully understand the causes of glo&al +arming, so there<s no reason to impose pollution controls :ust yet3A @Eo students ha%e e%er complained a&out this course, so it must &e all right3A #> Appeal to popular belief> attitude 5+rgumentum a- "o"ulum 2 argument from the people6 This asserts that something is the case :ust &ecause it is generally &elie%ed, or considered the proper thing to &elie%e3 =t includes the appeal to emoti%e sym&ols instead of logical arguments3 !amples1 @0aidens should put some &asil under their pillo+s in order to dream of the man they +ill one day marry1 e%eryone kno+s it +orksKA @These young men starting military ser%ice are all %ery proud to &e ser%ing their country3A @` 7a politician9 al+ays has an icon on the +all &ehind him +hen he appears on tele%ision, so he must &e sincere3A 5> Appeal to emotion 5+rgumentum a- misericor-iam 2argument from pit 6 This fallacy is committed +hen premises do not logically lead to a conclusion that is supported &y solid argumentation, &ut, instead, incite and stir the emotions of the interlocutor * audience * reader, leading them to accept the conclusion on an emotional &asis3 !amples1 @Bo+ can la+s in Critain allo+ hunters to kill those soft#skinned delicate#looking deer e%en if they are ?uite a lot of them in the mountains[A @= kno+ = didn<t attend the course %ery often, &ut = ha%e a :o& and my &oss +on<t gi%e me time off, so please e!cuse my a&sence and don<t &e angry +ith me3A !> The "tra) 9an fallac

29

This is an argument +hich makes your interlocutor<s claim or some opposing position seem +eaker than it really is, thus strengthening your o+n position3 =n other +ords, you present an e!aggerated %ersion or a caricature of their position, +hich is easy to attack, instead of confronting the full comple!ity of their arguments3 !amples1 @These uropean "nion regulations are completely stupid3 You kno+, a committee of &ureaucrats in Crussels +ants us to change the colour of our tomatoes3A 72ell, entering the " does mean adopting a lot of regulations and standards, and there may &e grounds for de&ating the %alue of some of these, &ut to dismiss the +hole process of conforming to e!isting uropean standards on the &asis of a single 7and highly impro&a&le9 e!ample like this is fallacious39 @Don<t listen to +hat these ecologists say1 they :ust +ant to stop progress and go &ack to the stone age3A 7Cut perhaps they actually ha%e some good arguments as to +hy the speaker should not &e allo+ed to &uild a hotel comple! in the middle of a nature reser%e39 1> The moving definition fallac This fallacy redefines a term in order to do a+ay +ith a counter#e!ample +hich +ould destroy the initial argumentation3 =t generally contains +ords like @trueA, @genuineA, @&ona fideA3 6uch a fallacy insists on the e!ception that pro%es the rule, and it is ?uite common, so &e+are of itK =t is perfectly legitimate in an essay to choose the +ay you +ant to define key +ords, &ut once you ha%e chosen a definition you ha%e to stick +ith it3 !ample1 $1 @Eo genuine*&ona fide Romanian prefers +hisky to tDuica3A C1 @Cut = prefer +hisky, actually3A $1 @Yes, &ut you are not a genuine Romanian3 You spend most of your time a&road3A 0> Argument b poetic +ibberish =t refers to using complicated +ords and lots of 8$P=tal leTTters so that the general impression comes to &e that the +riter is an e!pert in the field and therefore he or she is right3 !ample1 @ ach autonomous indi%idual emerges holographically +ithin egoless ontological consciousness as a non# dimensional geometric point +ithin the transcendental thought#+a%e matri!A 7see +++3don#lindsay# archi%e3org*skeptic*arguments3html9 There many more types of fallacious arguments than the ones mentioned a&o%eJ if you +ish to learn more a&out them, go to1 +++3don#lindsay#archi%e3org*skeptic*arguments3html +++3 niDkor3org*featurers*fallacies*inde!3html +++3 fallacyfiles3org*adhomine3html

3(

3bservation !

8allacies
*n our essa s and public discourses

to avoid
'> Arguing against the person (+rgumentum a- hominem) 2> Appealing to inappropriate authorit (+rgumentum a- verecun-iam) 3> Appealing to ignorance (+rgumentum a- ignorantiam) #> Appealing to popular belief> attitude (+rgumentum a- "o"ulum) 5> Appealing to emotion (+rgumentum a- misericor-iam) !> The "tra) 9an fallac 5terribl simplif ing the opposing position6 1> The moving definition fallac 0> Argument b Poetic +ibberish

31

-&ercises for ./*T" 3-# Progress Iuestions: 2hat are the %er&s used for sho+ing some critic<s or your o+n facts, assumptions and opinions on a gi%en topic [ 2hat is an argument and +hat is it not[ 2hat types of arguments do you kno+[ 2hat is the difference &et+een assertion and axiom[ 2here +ould you place the assumption +hen compared +ith assertion and a!iom[ 8an you define specious argument and sophistry[ 2hat is d Hominem[ 2hat is rgumentum ad verecundiam[ 8an you define rgumentum ad ignorantiam[ 2hat does rgumentum ad populum descri&e[ 2hat is rgumentum ad misericordiam[ 2hat can you say a&out the 1traw man fallacy[ 8an you define the moving definition fallacyG 2hat does argument by poetic gibberish refer to[ 4riting tasJs during class: -i%e an e!ample of1 a dilemma, a parado! and a specious argument 0ake up a syllogism of your o+n3 2rite a reductio ad absurdum argument3 !plain +hy Bamlet<s +ords @= must &e cruel only to &e kindA represent a parado!3 ***< 7iscussion -stablish )hat the follo)ing statements are: A> an empirical statement, B> an a&iomatic statement, C> a logical statement, 7> an evaluative statement 0ost old +omen suffer from osteoporosis3 =n +inter it is not as it is in summer3 6hakespeare +as &orn in the 16th century and li%ed &et+een 1)6' and 16163 $ll students should read the +hole compulsory &i&liography for each course3 +ive ToulminBs argumentation )ith 2<P<-< to the follo)ing claims: 8irst claim addressing a first ear student before the )inter session of e&ams: @You should &uy yourself a cheating hands free de%ice for you e!am of ci%iliDation &ecause my father is an ear doctorA "econd claim addressing an essa )riting seminar group @People are different3 $nd it is the &est +ayA 70ark T+ain, !om 1awyer7 http7++www3 t+ain?uotes3com9 Third claim addressing a literature seminar group @Bigh and fine literature is +ine, and mine is only +aterJ &ut e%ery&ody likes +aterA3 70ark T+ain in a letter to 23 D3 Bo+ells, 2*1)*188/1 http1**+++3 t+ain?uotes3com9 "uppose ou have an interlocutor )ho is maJing use of the follo)ing fallacies: *dentif these fallacies and tr to counteract his>her argumentation )ith our o)n logic 5)hich must not fall into another fallac 6< 2hy should teachers shorten their course &i&liographies[ 6tudents ne%er read anything any+ay3

32

= sa+ on tele%ision, on Disco%ery 8hannel, that it +as not 6hakespeare that +rote Hamlet and all the other plays &ut 8hristopher 0arlo+e3 Lohn1 @Eo true and proper Romanian trusts a single gypsy to do &usiness +ith3A 0ary1 ACut = ha%e a fe+ gypsy friends = do trust and admire and do &usiness +ith3A Lohn1 @You must ha%e some gypsy &lood yourself3A D3 =t is clear that yetis do not e!ist3 Eo one has e%er captured one, and none of the claimed sightings stand up to scientific e!amination3

3<

7iscuss the sophism given on page 20 as footnote '0< .nravel its lacJ of logic< Zuestion1 @2hat is &etter1 eternal &liss or a simple &read[A !planation1 @2hat is &etter than eternal &liss[ Eothing3 Cut a slice of &read is &etter than nothing3 6o a slice of &read is &etter than eternal &liss3A =ome)orJ 13 >ook for ' fallacies in the media during the +eek3 =dentify their type and correct their +rong logic3

33

./*T" 5-!
The "tructure of an -ssa
=n the =ntroduction to !he /ew )xford Guide to 6riting, Thomas 63 Pane announces that the t+o assumptions that underline his &ook are that @+riting is a rational acti%ity and that it is a %alua&le acti%ityA 7'93 0y addition to his +ords is that essay +riting is a rational and %alua&le acti%ity which, therefore, needs planning3 =t is %alua&le &ecause it teaches us ho+ to use sentences and ideas3 2e are defined &y +ords, they help us gro+3 Planned carefully, +ords make us more comple! and interesting as human &eings3 The purpose of this section is thus to make you a+are of the first target in your essay +riting acti%ity, that is, structuring the information and the argumentation on a gi%en topic3 The great amount of e%idence and interpretation must &e arranged on a rather strict @shel%ingA &asis, appro!imately the same +ay one puts cups and plates in a cup&oard according to siDe, shape, function and indeed choice3 The difference is that the structure of an essay is more rigid than the arrangement of porcelain on shel%es3 The second target is, of course, +riting the essay according to the plan concei%ed &eforehand3 Therefore, here is +hat an essay should contain1 13 Title 7+hich is an implied ?uestion921 2< *ntroduction 3< Bod #< Conclusion 5< *n-te&t citations>footnotes>endnotes !< Bibliograph >4orJs Cited The essay structure = suggest is rather neutral, since it seems to +ork +ith most types of essays 7e!cept reports and doctoral theses93 $nd here are the comments on each component1 13 Title This challenges you +ith an implied ?uestion3 =t has key +ords1 a* instructional +ords 7analyse, discuss, compare9 &* content +ords 7a&out any topic1 Hustice, sonar, 0omanian politics now etc 9 23 *ntroduction The length of your introduction depends %ery much on the comple!ity of your essay, &ut no matter +hat you +rite a&out, you ha%e to deal +ith the follo+ing issues1 a+ nnouncing the subHect forced onto you by the key words in the title223 There should &e al+ays a close connection &et+een your stated su&:ect and the key +ords in the title3 You should make clear +hat e!actly you understand the key +ords to mean3 Your interpretation may &e 1
21

/3 Paragraphs

!ample of essay title1 =eans of ttaining Humour in !he Importance of Being Earnest by )scar 6ilde. The implied ?uestion is 6hat are the =eans of ttaining Humour inIG 22 ssay title1 !eenagers$ modern clothing. =ntroduction 2a* @=t is my purpose to consider the +ay in +hich teenagers< emotional and mental profile are &eing shaped &y the economics and policy of the te!tile industry and imports in our country3A

3'

your o+n definition, &ased on your kno+ledge of the su&:ect

23

a standard dictionary definition, or a definition you ha%e found in one of your sources 7+ith a mention of the source9 7in a literature essay9 the +ay you think the author his*her characters understand the su&:ect introduced &y the key +ords, or the +ay you think the +ords +ould ha%e &een understood at the time +hen the te!t you are studying +as +ritten 7+ith your e%idence for this9 b+ Briefly giving 3#'& answer to the .uestion "implied' in the title +ithin the su&:ect introduced &y the key +ords3 This short ans+er is called a @general statementA3 2' c+ Giving a methodological statement about what you are going to do in order to gi%e a full ans+er things you are going to look at 7characters, plot, tensions, dilemmas, comparisons 2) etc39 critical approaches 76tructuralism, Ee+ 8riticism, Ee+ Bistoricism etc39 d+ Indicating the main ideas that will be dealt with in the body. -i%ing a short account of your plan makes it easier for the reader to follo+ your se?uential logic3 The longer and more comple! your essay, the greater the need to indicate its organisation distinctly3 26 33 Bod This contains as many main ideas as necessary to demonstrate your general statement in the introduction, +hich, in its turn, must &e connected to the ?uestion in the title3 $t times, a main idea needs a &acking idea to pro%e its point3 The se?uence of your main ideas depends on the logic of your o+n demonstration and argumentation, +hich ha%e to &e clearly singled out &y means of signposts and inter#paragraph transitions 7see /3a*93 The instructional +ord in the essay title 7compare, discuss, anlyse etc9 is sometimes an important factor in the thinking of your essay structure3 ;or e!ample1 the +ord discuss organises your essay on a for and against &asis the +ord compare takes you into +eighing t+o or more units 7plots, characters, spaces, notions, domains, times etc39 in terms of differences and*or similar ?ualities or you are in%ited to compare a single characteristic in t+o or more units 7no%els, poems, domains, themes etc9 The content +ords in your essay title may also ha%e something to do +ith your decision to adopt a certain structure, sometimes on a1 thesis J antithesis J synthesis &asis cause and effect &asis

$ third possi&le factor to influence the se?uential logic of the main ideas in your essay is the nature of your information and argumentation gathered &y ?uestion categories1 who, what, when, where, how, how intense and why 3

23

!ample1 @The purpose of this paper is to analyse the +ay in +hich the 13#19 age#group population in the country seems to &e responding to the hip#hop and house sort of 0T5 clothes as +ell as to those +orn &y -oths HA 2' @The latest statistics gathering information a&out teenagers< choice of @fashiona&leA clothing mimicking 0T5 hip#hop house and -oth stars announces a rate of a&out /'b of 13#16 age group and a 29b of 1/#19 age group youngsters eager to put on anything that has the design and la&el of their fa%ourite music star3A 2) @The present paper compares the teenagers< su&#di%ision group according to the +ay they choose their clothes1 hip#hop, house or -oth, trying to offer an e!planation as to +hy Romanian young people dress this +ay3 ;or this reason the in%estigation +ill look into ca&le#T5 music programmes and youth magaDines as possi&le influencing factors3 26 @=n the paragraphs to follo+ the 13#16 age group and then the 1/#19 age group +ill &e dealt +ith together +ith an account of their choice in dressing at school, in to+n, at parties3 Bip#hop, house and -oth garments +ill &e analysed as to the place they are +orn and the age group su&#di%ision they are popular +ithA3

3)

'3 Conclusion The conclusion must lea%e the reader +ith a %ery clear idea of +hat you think the essay has achie%ed3 Therefore, it should contain1 a+ what the conse.uences of +hat you ha%e +ritten are b+ how the main ideas in the body contribute to the demonstration of your general statement, +hich is your personal ans+er to the 7implied9 ?uestion in the title Try to a%oid additional ideas, philosophical generalisations or any type of afterthoughts, &ecause the conclusion ends your paper, it is not meant to introduce a ne+ thought 7>ester 1''93 )3 *n-te&t citations>footnotes>endnotes are an important part of your essay3 They should al+ays &e there, and should &e honest and complete3 4nce you decide on the style of source referencing, you ha%e to stick to it all through your essay3 ;or the choice of style and ho+ to organise the %arious types of sources, look &ack at 0eferring to 1ources 63 Bibliograph >4orJs Cited The titles in your &i&liography should &e the same as in your in#te!t citations*footnotes*endnotes and should match the latter in the choice of source reference style3

36

3bservation 1

The "tructure of an -ssa

ssay title 5an implied Iuestion6

*/T%37.CT*3/ a+ nnouncing the subHect based on the key +ords in the title

b+ Giving 3#'& answer to the .uestion "implied' in the title "the general statement' c* Giving a methodological statement about what you are going to do d+ Indicating the main ideas that will be dealt with in the body

B37; The demonstration 7e%idence c argument9 of your general statement gathered in as many main ideas and &acking ideas as necessary main idea 8 backing idea C3/C2."*3/ a+ what the conse.uences of what you have written are b+ how the main ideas in the body contribute to the demonstration of the general statement that you made in the introduction, which is your answer to the implied .uestion in the title 4050 60 70 8 etc have demonstrated that is7 how main ideas your answer to the .uestion in the main idea K main idea L main idea : main idea 9 backing idea

title

3/

/3 Paragraph1 a su&di%ision of a +ritten composition that consists of one or more sentences, Fmost likely more than one sentenceG, deals +ith one point For main ideaG and &egins on a ne+ indented line 7Critannica 2((3 8D# Rom93 ach paragraph should generally include1 a+ a signpost 7firstl *in the first place, secondl , thirdl etc9 and*or inter5paragraph transition 7or transition, for short9, +hich links a paragraph to +hat has &een said pre%iously 7 in addition to this, on the other hand, ho)ever, in conclusion etc6 b+ a topic sentence which announces your main idea on a certain topic connected to the general statement in the introduction c+ an explanation of the topic sentence a d+ a .uotation and+or paraphrase 7+ith the source ackno+ledged9 and+or the presentation of some evidence to support or illustrate your main idea b e+ your comment on the evidence, your argument to pro%e a point &ased on the main idea c 72illiams 3/9 a+ Inter5paragraph transitions7 The relationship &et+een one paragraph and another is the same as &et+een one clause and another1 a relationship of co#ordination or su&ordination3 Therefore, the linking +ords &et+een paragraphs are synonymous +ith1 8o#ordinators 7and, but, or6< ;or e!ample, the meaning of co#ordinators could &e @translatedA into inter# paragraph transitions as follo+s1 @=n addition to +hat has &een mentioned, H @ @To the idea mentioned a&o%e, another factor can &e added, namely that HA @;urther e%idence appears in HA @=n contrast to +hat has &een said, HA @"nlike critic `, = &elie%e that HA @4n the other hand, HA
3%

A/7

B.T

@$lternati%ely, HA

8orrelati%e co#ordinators 7bothOand, not onl Obut also, neitherOnor9 8orrelati%e co#ordinators can &e used as such1
B3T=

the pre%ious piece of e%idence*interpretation

A/7

the ne!t to follo+ demonstrate

thatH
/3T 3/2;

does the author use humour, as demonstrated in the pre%ious paragraphs,

A2"3

B.T

he

com&ines it +ith a dramatic flo+ thatH critic Y seem to ha%e e!pressed their conclusions directly3

/-*T=-%

critic `

/3%

38

78omple!9 6u&ordinators 7if, provided that, as though, on condition that, as, because, since, even if, although, )hile, )hether, that etc93 6u&ordinators can &e used as follo+s1
3/ C3/7*T*3/> P%3:*7-7 T=AT

the social phenomenon has &een correctly reconsidered, +e can say further thatH

-:-/ *8

the general opinion a&out character ` is the one analysed in the pre%ious paragraphs, = +ill try to demonstrate the opposite3

tc3 $ny conclusion dra+n in the &ody or in the end of the essay should &e mentioned in a paragraph starting +ith something like1 *n conclusion , O > To conclude the present anal sis, * )ould liJe to sa thatO

3bservation 0

"ignposts and inter-paragraph transitions

Sign"osts an- inter9"aragra"h transitions at the beginning of "aragra"hs -o not have to be always "resent. They are im"ortant0 however0 because they re"resent :traffic signs; for the rea-er to follow the writer<s train of thought an- for the rea-er to be able to see how clearly the structure of the essay is unfol-e- before him/her.

b+ !he announcement of a main idea +hich represents one of your se%eral points, from +here you start to demonstrate the general statement you ha%e made in the introduction3 c+ !he statement of some evidence. You need to gi%e some e%idence3 The e%idence pro%es you ha%e found something in connection +ith the general statement and that supports the main idea you ha%e stated pre%iously3 %idence can &e some rele%ant data or some critic<s opinions you ha%e read in pu&lished materials or heard in unpu&lished lectures3 d+ Muotation and+or paraphrase 7+ith source93 The piece of e%idence should &e &acked up &y a ?uotation or a paraphrase from the fragment*&ook*poem etc 7pu&lished or unpu&lished materials93 $s in the case of a detecti%e, you need palpa&le e%idence to argue your case3 This takes us to the main reason +hy you ha%e to read the &i&liography3 e+ Nour argumentation based on evidence. You ha%e to e!plain the reasons +hy the a&o%e e%idence is part of your argument3 The critics< opinions should &e intert+ined +ith yours, if possi&le3 =f you are %ery much at the &eginning of +riting essays, you may feel you do not ha%e many opinions of your o+n to e!pressJ your paper +ill &e appreciated according to the +ay in +hich you ha%e managed to com&ine the critics< opinions and according to the reasons you gi%e for agreeing or disagreeing +ith the critics3 You can choose +hether you place 7d*9 the .uotation or+and paraphrase &efore or after 7e+9 your comment on the evidence. Eo+ that you kno+ +hat the structure of an essay is, that is, +hat the issues you ha%e to deal +ith in the introduction and the conclusion are, it &ecomes o&%ious that each main idea in the &ody +ill ha%e to &e de%eloped o%er one to three paragraphs3

39

3bservation $

The Content of a Paragraph

a./ Sign"osts an-/or inter9"aragra"h transitions b./ The announcement of a main i-ea c./ The statement of some evi-ence. -./ /uotation or/an- "ara"hrase 5)ith source6 e./ 3our argumentation base- on evi-ence.

"A9P2*@

>et us suppose that there is an essay called Healthy &iet7 #ain or #leasureG >et us assume the general statement in the introduction is1 It very much depends on the individual$s power of self5discipline, priorities and tastes whether a healthy diet is considered something painful and unpleasant or something tasty and totally necessary in everyday reality.

Title: $ Bealthy Diet3 Pain or Pleasure[ *ntroduction a* $nnouncing the su&:ect &ased on the key +ords in the title1 defining a healthy diet &* -eneral statement1 It very much depends on the individual$s power of self5 discipline, priorities and tastes whether a healthy diet is considered something painful and unpleasant or something tasty and totally necessary in everyday reality. c* -i%ing a methodological statement a&out +hat you are going to do d* =ndicating the main ideas that +ill &e dealt +ith in the &ody
Bod The demonstration 7e%idence c argument9 of your general statement gathered in as many main ideas and &acking ideas as necessary3 main idea 1 main idea 2 etc3

Conclusion a* +hat the conse?uences of +hat you ha%e +ritten are &* ho+ the main ideas in the &ody contri&ute to the demonstration of the general statement that you made in the introduction, +hich is your ans+er to the implied ?uestion in the title

Bere is an attempt at a first paragraph in the &ody of this essay1

'(

'< main idea contained in one paragraph a* 6ignpost In the first place I &* The announcement of a main idea1 (onsider the individual endowed with will power, a strong liking for vegetables, white meats and fruits, and the necessary finances to keep a healthy diet. c* The statement of some evidence1 1uch a person may regard healthy food as being of paramount importance in relationship to career, looks, mental and emotional balance, body health, longevity etc. d* Zuotation or*and paraphrase 7+ith source91 article in the 1cottish newspaper ,!he Herald- last week showed that in the past two years, more and more middle class town people have been avoiding fast food restaurants e* Your argumentation &ased on evidence1 It seems obvious that a health diet cannot simply be followed by anyone, anywhere and in every season with the same results. It is most likely that a fairly well educated, middle aged, financially stable person in the 6est will start a healthy diet in order to become healthier, more energetic and active. *et us first take into account education7I

'1

-&ercises for ./*T" 5-! Progress Iuestions a* 2hat should an essay contain[ &* 2hat are the components of the title to &e taken into account[ c* 2hat should you +rite in the introduction[ d* 2hat does the &ody contain[ e* 2hat should you +rite in the conclusion[ f* 2hat is the connection &et+een the in#te!t citations*footnotes*endnotes and +orks cited*&i&liography[ g* 2hat are the parts of any paragraph in the &ody[ h* 2hat is the function of signposts and inter#paragraph transitions[ 4riting tasJs during class a* "se the #lan5in5the51tructure strategy that you find on the follo+ing pages and plan the structure of an essay entitled Television. our "rotection from reality= according to the pattern1 Tele%ision1 our protection from reality[ *ntroduction a* $nnouncing the su&:ect &ased on the key +ords in the title1 television, protection, reality. Eotice that the instructional +ord is not present in the title3 Presume it is discuss or comment &* -eneral statement c* -i%ing a methodological statement a&out +hat you are going to do d* =ndicating the main ideas that +ill &e dealt +ith in the &ody

Bod three to four main ideas, plus &acking ideas 7if necessary9, so at least three to four paragraphs, each containing the follo+ing1 a* 6ignpost and*or inter#paragraph transitions &* The announcement of a main idea c* The statement of some e%idence d* Zuotation or*and paraphrase e* Your argumentation &ased on e%idence Conclusion a* +hat the conse?uences of +hat you ha%e +ritten are &* ho+ the main ideas in the &ody contri&ute to the demonstration of the general statement, +hich is your personal ans+er to the 7implied9 ?uestion in the title 7iscussion 8ompare your %ersion +ith some of your colleagues< and sum up your conclusions3 =ome)orJ Read an article from (otidianul and put do+n its structure3 Does it stick to the one it has &een taught in this &ook[ 8ompare3

'2

Ta&le 21 The Plan into the Structure is to &e fre?uently used &y e%ery student +orking +ith this &ook, therefore it is ad%isa&le that a &lank copy should &e kept at home for further multiplication any time it is needed3

The Plan of the follo)ing essa title OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO put into The "tructure of an -ssa
*/T%37.CT*3/

a/ +nnounce the sub>ect base- on the key wor-s in the title

b/ *ive 3#'& answer to the ?uestion (im"lie-) in the title (the general statement)

c> *ive a metho-ological statement about what you are going to -o

-/ (n-icate the main i-eas that will be -ealt with in the bo-y

'3

B37;

The demonstration 5evidence P argument6 of our general statement gathered in as man main ideas and bacJing ideas as necessar main i-ea number 4
a/ a sign"ost and>or inter9"aragra"h transition

b/ the announcement of a main i-ea on the topic connected to the general statement in the introduction

c/ the statement of some evi-ence on the idea alread announced<

a -/ ?uotation or/an- "ara"hrase 5)ith the source acJno)ledged6

e/ your comment on the evi-ence0 your argument to prove a point based on main idea number '<

''

main i-ea/backing i-ea number

a/ a sign"ost and>or inter9"aragra"h transition

b/ the announcement of a main i-ea on the topic connected to the general statement in the introduction

c/ the statement of some evi-ence on the idea alread announced<

b -/ ?uotation or/an- "ara"hrase 5)ith the source acJno)ledged6

c e/ your comment on the evi-ence0 your argument to prove a point based on main>bacJing idea number O<

')

C3/C2."*3/

a/ the conse?uences of what you have written

b/ how the main i-eas in the bo-y contribute to the -emonstration of the general statement that you ma-e in the intro-uction0 which is your answer to the im"lie- ?uestion in the title

'6

./*T 1
%evising 3bservations and -&ercises
3bservation '

Paper Presentation
'< 2rite on $' siDe paper, one side of each page3 23 Eum&er all pages3 33 Put your name, grade, year, language, group 7on right#hand side9 and tutor<s title and name, seminar 7on left#hand side of front page93 '3 "se dou&le spacing and +ide margin on the left#hand side of each page for the tutor<s comments3 )3 "se !imes /ew 0oman font siDes1 1( for your name, the teacher<s name, the institution you &elong to, group num&erH 11 or 12 for the te!t itself, 1' 7&old letters9 for su&#headings 16I&old type for the title of your essay3 63 Your corrections +ritten a&o%e the +rong +ords, not in the margin3 /3 Eo irrele%ant pictures3 83 6taple your essay sheets and ring &ind your dissertations3 93 2rite / B1!0 (! or a r2sum2 at the &eginning of your 0$ or Diploma paper 71)( to 2(( +ords9 in +hich you1 state the main aims of your paper gi%e the conte!t enumerate the issues your paper deals +ith name the methods of in%estigation you ha%e used gi%e your conclusion and its significance 1(3 $l+ays keep an e!tra copy of your essay3

3bservation 2

8allacies
*n our essa s and public discourses

to avoid
'> Arguing against the person (+rgumentum a- hominem) 2> Appealing to inappropriate authorit (+rgumentum a- verecun-iam) 3> Appealing to ignorance (+rgumentum a- ignorantiam) #> Appealing to popular belief> attitude (+rgumentum a- "o"ulum) 5> Appealing to emotion (+rgumentum a- misericor-iam) !> The "tra) 9an fallac 5terribl simplif ing the opposing position6 1> The moving definition fallac 0> Argument b poetic gibberish

'/

3bservation 3

The "tructure of an -ssa

ssay title 5an implied Iuestion6

*/T%37.CT*3/ a+ nnouncing the subHect based on the key +ords in the title

b+ Giving 3#'& answer to the .uestion "implied' in the title "the general statement' c* Giving a methodological statement about what you are going to do d+ Indicating the main ideas that will be dealt with in the body

B37; The demonstration 7e%idence c argument9 of your general statement gathered in as many main ideas and &acking ideas as necessary main idea 8 backing idea C3/C2."*3/ a+ what the conse.uences of what you have written are b+ how the main ideas in the body contribute to the demonstration of the general statement that you made in the introduction, which is your answer to the implied .uestion in the title 4050 60 70 8 etc have demonstrated that is7 how main ideas your answer to the .uestion in the main idea K main idea L main idea : main idea 9 backing idea

title

'8

3bservation #

"ignposts and inter-paragraph transitions

Sign"osts an- inter9"aragra"h transitions at the beginning of "aragra"hs -o not have to be always "resent. They are im"ortant0 however0 because they re"resent :traffic signs; for the rea-er to follow the writer<s train of thought an- for the rea-er to be able to see how clearly the structure of the essay is unfol-e- before him/her.

3bservation 5

The Content of a Paragraph

a./ Sign"osts an-/or inter9"aragra"h transitions b./ The announcement of a main i-ea c./ The statement of some evi-ence. -./ /uotation or/an- "ara"hrase 5)ith source6 e./ 3our argumentation base- on evi-ence.

'9 "ni%ersity of Cucharest Department of nglish >ecturer Dr Daniela Cro+n

Part C: Practice ./*T" 0-$

The three successive phases prior to the )riting of our essa
Phase *
a> Approaching the essa title b anal sing its Je )ords b> +athering information , interpreting the evidence of the title )ords c> 9ind-mapping d> 7ra)ing the ghost of a plan

Phase * a<> Approaching the essa title b anal sing its Je )ords
$ny essay title is an implied ?uestion3 6o &efore you e%en think of starting a plan, you ha%e to find out +hat precisely you are asked to do3 The title tells you +hat you ha%e to do through its Je )ords, +hich you must e!amine carefully3 You should approach the title &y taking into account the follo+ing1 '< 2< 3< *nstructional )ords Content )ords 4hole title

'< *nstructional )ords specially in the case of argumentati%e2/ essays, the title contains instructional +ords, usually %er&s, +hich tell you ho+ to deal +ith the content3 Bere is a list of most of them +ith an e!planation of +hat they mean1 Account Anal se Appraise Assess Comment Compare Contrast Criticise 7efine Account for asks you to gi%e reasons for3 +ive an account of asks for a detailed description3 0ake a detailed e!amination or in%estigation into something3 %aluate, find the %alue 8onsider in a &alanced +ay the points for and against something3 6tate clearly your opinions on the topic in ?uestion 6upport your %ie+s +ith e%idence3 >ook for the similarities and differences3 mphasise the differences &et+een t+o or more things3 -i%e your considered opinion a&out the %alue of the theories*practices, &ack up your criticism +ith e%idence from your research 7reading, o&ser%ation, and so on93 -i%e the precise meaning of something3 6ho+ ho+ the distinctions you make are necessary3

2/

an argumentati%e essay is concerned +ith ideas in connection +ith +hich you are re?uired to critically de&ate a particular issue 7$le!ander 1(393 6ee also "E=T 1, p3'

)(

7escribe 7iscuss -valuate -&amine -&plain -&tent

-i%e a detailed account of3 =n%estigate or e!amine &y argumentJ gi%e reasons for and against3 0ake a :udgement a&out the %alue* importance*+orth of something3 Present in depth and in%estigate fully the implications3 0ake plain, interpret, gi%e reasons3 To )hat e&tent asks you to +eigh the e%idence for and against something1 to state @ho+ farA something is %alid3 "se e!amples, diagrams aid so on to e!plain or make clear3 0ake clear the meaning of something, usually gi%ing your o+n %ie+s also3 -i%e your opinion*conclusion 6ho+ ade?uate grounds for decisions or conclusions3 -i%e the main features, structure or general principles of a topic omitting minor details3 Pro%e a statement*argument to &e false 0ake the connections clear &et+een facts and e%ents3 0ake a sur%ey ofJ critically e!amine the su&:ect3 6pecify fully and clearly3 6ho+ the de%elopment, in clear stages 76mith ')#'6, Bennesey 31 9

*llustrate
*nterpret Qudge Qustif 3utline %efute %elate %evie) "tate Trace

"ummarise -i%e a concise account of the main points of the topic3

2< Content )ords These tell you +hat area of su&:ect#matter you must focus upon in your essay3 sta&lish +hether the topic under discussion re?uires a general or a specific treatment3 "se the dictionary to check your understanding of the content +ords, if necessary, and state the definition of them that you think is most rele%ant in the conte!t of your essay3 =f the essay title includes a ?uotation from a literary or scholarly te!t, you may also ha%e to think a&out +hat the +ords mean in the conte!t of the author<s +ork, the period in +hich the te!t +as created, etc 3< 4hole title =f necessary, paraphrase the essay title &y presenting the implied ?uestion3 This +ay you esta&lish e!actly +hat you ha%e &een asked to do, +hat the content area is and +hat you must do +ith that content3
-&ample: You

can paraphrase the essay title1 Television is our "rotection from reality. ,iscuss, &y turning it into !an television be consi-ere- our "rotection from reality= 3es or no= 3bservation !

The Je )ords in the essay title are1

'< instructional )ords 5CdiscussD, CillustrateD, CinterpretD etc6 13 2< content )ords 5related to a domain, st le, a character, narrative techniIue etc6

)1

b> +athering information , interpreting the evidence of the title )ords 5for te&t anal sis and )ider topics6
2hether you ha%e a fragment 7T-@T A/A2;"*"6 or the +hole te!t7s9 under scrutiny 74*7-% T3P*C"9, you should approach it*them in a -etective +ay1

*< B gathering evidence for te&t anal sis or )ider topics **< B interpreting>commenting on the evidence ou have found for te&t anal sis or )ider topics *< A< +athering evidence for T-@T A/A2;"*"
6ome of the e%idence +hich you gather may &e la&oratory +ork, that is, +ork for yourself, not for the reader1 you may gather more information than needed and only that &it of e%idence +hich sustains your interpretation +ill appear in your essay3 =f you ha%e a fragment of a te!t or a +hole short poem that you are asked to analyse on a gi%en topic, you should first prepare the te!t for scrutiny1

Preparation:
look up the unkno+n +ords in the dictionary gi%e num&ers to the lines of your 7fragment of9 poem or fragment of prose paraphrase each line or paragraph1 transpose in your o+n +ords +hat each line or paragraph means identify the possi&le figures of speech

*nformation:
-athering e%idence means ans+ering a fe+ ?uestions focused on the te!t +hich is &efore you and connected +ith the essay title3 The ?uestions you ans+er offer you te!t#&ased information a&out =D ET=TY, TB 0 , T=0 , 6P$8 , B42 TB T `T =6 0$D 70$EE R9 and =ET E6=TY3 13 =D ET=TY 4=3 is the narrator[ 4=3 are the characters*people*companies in%ol%ed[ 4=3 is the author[ 7This ?uestion refers to +hat kind of person the author is, not to his or her name9 23 TB 0 4=AT is the te!t a&out[ 4=AT are characters*speaker*people doing, talking a&out, thinking of, commenting on[ 33 T=0 4=-/ +as the te!t +ritten[ 4=-/ does the action in the fragment take place[ '3 6P$8 4=-%- +as the te!t +ritten[ 4=-%- does the action in the fragment take place[ )3 B42 TB T `T =6 0$D 70$EE R9: a*+-/%- and "T;2- : =34 did the author +rite the fragment I in %erse[ in prose[ in a comedy[ in a tragedy[, in a melodrama[

)2

&*%-2AT*3/"=*P: =34 does the author*speaker relate himself to the te!t*characters1 7the point of %ie+9 does he*she kno+ e%erything[ =s he*she disguised in a character[ =s he*she hiding &ehind the shoulder of a character[ =s he*she almost in%isi&le[ c*ATT*T.7-: =34 do characters*people relate to one another1 is the speaker*character*person placing himself*herself in a position of inferiority* superiority*e?uality to the other character7s9*people in the fragment[ d*T3/-: =34 +ould you descri&e the tone the author*speaker uses1 ironic, humorous, cynical, dramatic, tragic, melodramatic, neutralH[ 63 =ET E6=TY: =34 */T-/"- is the author<s*character<s*speaker<s %oice*presence*tone[ =34 */T-/"- is the atmosphere[

**<A< *nterpreting>commenting on the found evidence )ith reference to T-@T A/A2;"*"

This is not la&oratory +ork3 Depending on the essay title, a good deal of the material you interpret +ill &e in your final %ersion of your essay3 You ha%e to ans+er 4=; the te!t contains the particular1 13 =D ET=TY 7)h it has that %ery point of %ie+ and those %ery characters*people*issues93 23 TB 0 7)h the fragment deals +ith that matter, +hy the characters*people are doing +hat they are doing9 33 T=0 7)h the author*character*people chose that particular time of e%ents9 '3 6P$8 7)h the author*character*people in the te!t chose that place for action9 )3 2BY TB T `T =6 0$D 7a* - ER and 6TY> 1 )h the author chose that genreIpoetry, fiction, dramaI, +hy the author preferred a comic, tragic, melodramatic, com&ined tonality3 &* R >$T=4E6B=P1 )h the author +ished to use that %ery point of %ie+3 c*$TT=T"D 1 )h characters relate the +ay they do to one another93 d*T4E 1 )h the author e!pressed himself*herself +ith that toneI ironic, neutralH9 63 =ET E6=TY 7)h the author<s, character<s has that particular intensity9

*<B< +athering evidence for 4*7-% T3P*C" *nformation

ssays on +ider or synthetic topics should &e approached in a similar +ay to essays &ased on te!t analysis, the difference &eing that the student should gather e%idence &y ans+ering a fe+ ?uestions focused, this time, mainl on the Je )ords 5content )ords6 in the essa title , +ords +hich are connected to the fields under discussion or on the entire te!ts 7&ooks, articles9 the student has read3 $s +ith te!t analysis, the ?uestion categories are to &e ans+ered, although not all of them may &e rele%ant to the topic3 The ?uestions are the same1 13 2ho[ 7=D ET=TY9 23 2hat[ 7TB 0 9 33 2hen[ 7T=0 9 '3 2here[ 76P$8 9 )3 Bo+[ 7B42 TB T `T*R >$T=4E6B=4P*$TT=T"D *T4E $R 9 63 Bo+ much[ 7=ET E6=TY# if the case9

)3 "A9P2:**

;or e!ample, suppose the essay title of a +ider topic is The symbolic -ifference between !amelot anHaut-esert in Sir *awain an- the *reen @night

4orJing on the title, you can turn it into a ?uestion to understand it &etter1 Ahat is the

-ifference between the symbolism of !amelot castle an- the symbolism of Haut-esert castle in the me-ieval romance "oem Sir *awain an- the *reen @night= The key +ords are a* instructional1 -raw a com"arison0 &* content +ords1 -ifference0 symbolism0 !amelot0 Haut-esert

+athering evidence supposes ans+ering the ?uestions you kno+, referring to the content +ords

in the essay title1 13 2hat is a sym&ol[ 23 2hat does 8amelot sym&olise[ 33 2hat does Bautdesert sym&olise[ '3 2ho are the inha&itants of 8amelot[ )3 2ho are the inha&itants of Bautdesert[ 63 2hat is the relationship &et+een them[ /3 2ho controls the game in 8amelot[ 83 2ho controls the game in Bautdesert[ 93 2hat is the time of the year +hen +e are introduced to 8amelot and then to Bautdesert[ 1(3 2here is 8amelot supposed to &e[ 113 2here is Bautdesert[ 123 Bo+ do people relate to one another in 8amelot 7the relationship &et+een the king and the Pnights of the Round Ta&le, the relationship &et+een these characters and the -reen Pnight9 133 Bo+ do characters relate to one another in Bautdesert[ 7the relationship &et+een 6ir -a+ain and the inha&itants of the castle[ 1'3 Bo+ +ould you descri&e the atmosphere in 8amelot, in Bautdesert[

**<B< *nterpreting>commenting on the evidence found )ith reference to )ider topics

You ha%e to process or interpret the information gathered a&o%e &y ans+ering )h : ;or pre%ious ?uestions 1,2,31 2hy does the te!t use castles as sym&ols [, 2hy the name of Bautdesert[ ;or 2,3 2hy are the t+o spaces 78amelot and Bautdesert9 in opposition[ ;or ',),61 2hy are the inha&itants of the t+o castles meant to &e &lood#related[ ;or /,81 2hy did the -reen Pnight and company start the game of cutting off heads and the hunting game[ ;or 91 ;or 111 ;or 121 2hy are the 8hristmas and Ee+ Year cele&rations important[ 2hy is Bautdesert in a forest[ 2hy are the %isitors to the t+o castles 7The -reen Pnight entering 8amelot and 6ir -a+ain spending 8hristmas in Bautdeset9 not at the same le%el of kno+ledge and po+er as the inha&itants of the castles[ 2hy is atmosphere important in 8amelot and in Bautdesert[

;or 1'1

)'

To &e a&le to ans+er such ?uestions, you ha%e to control the te!t or topic %ery +ell and you may also need to do some research )orJ< 4nce you ha%e gathered the e%idence and ha%e commented on it, you must organise it in a coherent structure, that is, in a plan3 Cuilding a plan presupposes mind-mapping the information you ha%e gathered and its interpretation, that is, &uilding a %isual scheme3 This +ill &e seen ne!t in "E=T 63

3bservation 1

$3 M.-"T*3/" for essays &ased on te&t anal sis focus on the key +ords in the title essay and on the actual te!t &efore your eyes3 C3 M.-"T*3/" for essays &ased on )ider topics focus on the key +ords in the essay title and on the entire &ook or topic under scrutiny3

3bservation 0

(. +.0B. *athering evi-ence )ho

identity

)hat
theme

)hen
time

)here
space

ho)
manner

ho) much
intensity

4=;

identit +hy that character* narrator[

theme +hy that e%ent* matter

time +hy that period

space +hy that place

((. +.0 B. (nter"reting evi-ence

manner +hy that genre relationship attitude tone

intensit +hy that %oice atmosphere

))

-&ercises for ./*T" 0-$

Progress Iuestions 13 2hat are the most important pieces of information a&out the title[ 23 2hat do assess, discuss, explain and refute mean[ 33 2hat are the preparatory measures you take &efore you properly start analysing a te!t you ha%e &efore you[ '3 2hat are the ?uestions you ha%e to ans+er +hen you are scrutinising 7a9 te!t7s9*topics[ )3 2hat information do these ?uestions gi%e you[ 63 2hy do you think you should ans+er them all, e%en if you need only a part of the material you gather from these ?uestions[ **< 4riting tasJs during class Bere are 2 essay titles1 (omment on the idea that story telling enriches your experience. K. 1tray dogs should be put down. &iscuss. a*"nderline the key +ords in the a&o%e essay titles3 &*=ndicate or supply the instructional +ord if it is not e!plicit3 c* Paraphrase each title3 d* Try to define the content +ords finding the e!planation +hich you think is most rele%ant in the conte!t3 e* -ather e%idence and interpret it3 ***< 7iscussion Bo+ do you decide +hat to lea%e out and +hat material to put in your plan[ 8an you gi%e an e!ample[ *:< =ome)orJ You are gi%en the essay title Beauty lies in the eye of the behol-er. a* $pproach the title as asked in e!ercise ==3 7&y underlining the key +ords, understanding the instructional +ord, defining the content +ords conte!tually and paraphrasing the title if necessary, gathering e%idence and then interpreting it9 &* Plan the structure of the essay esta&lishing the content of the introduction, the possi&le main ideas in the &ody and the conclusion3 c* 2rite the introduction co%ering the four issues 71* $nnouncing the su&:ect &ased on the key +ords in the title, 2* -eneral statement, 3* -i%ing a methodological statement a&out you are going to do, '* =ndicating the plan of your essay9

Attention ! Achtung! Yo!

The follo)ing # pages maJe up Table ', )hich )ill be freIuentl used b ever student together )ith Table 2 <Therefore, permanentl Jeep a blanJ cop to be @ero& copied )henever it is needed during classes or at home for home)orJ< Table ' contains t)o pages of (.+.0 B. *athering %vi-ence )hich are to be put together as one blocJ maJing an A3 sheet of paper 5pp< !#-!56< The follo)ing t)o pages 5!!-!16, ((. +.0 B. (nter"reting %vi-ence0 are also to be put together in a single A3 blocJ< A< refers to an essa focused on te&t anal sis and B< refers to an essa focused on a )ide topic

*< A<,B< +athering

'< *7-/T*T;: 4=3?
4=3 is the narrator[ 4=3 are the characters*people*companies in%ol%ed[ 4=3 is the author[ 7This ?uestion refers to +hat kind of person he, she is9

2< T=-9-: 4=AT?

4=AT is the te!t a&out[ 4=AT are characters*speaker*people doing, talking a&out, thinking of, commenting on[

3< T*9-: 4=-/?

4=-/ +as the te!t +ritten[ 4=-/ does the action in the fragment take place[

)6

4h ?

)/

%vi-ence
#< "PAC-: 4=-%-?
4=-%- +as the te!t +ritten[ 4=-%- does the action in the fragment take place[

5< 9A//-%: =34 T=- T-@T *" 9A7- ?

a* +-/%- and "T;2- : %erse[ comedy[ tragedy[ etc &* %-2AT*3/"=*P: =34 does the author*speaker relate himself to the te!t*characters[ c* ATT*T.7-: =34 do characters*people relate to one another d* T3/-: =34 is the author<s*speaker<s tone[1 ironic, humorous, cynical, dramatic, tragic, melodramatic, neutralH[

!< */T-/"*T;> AT93"P=-%-:

=34 */T-/"- is the author<s*character<s*speaker<s %oice*presence*tone[ =34 */T-/"- is the atmosphere[

4h ?

)8

**< A<,B< *nterpreting

'< 4=; T=AT *7-/T*T;?
4h does it ha%e that %ery point of %ie+ and those %ery characters*people*issues[

2< 4=; T=AT T=-9-?

)h does the fragment*topic deal +ith that matter, +hy do the characters*people are doing +hat they are doing[

3< 4=; T=AT T*9-?

4h does*do the author* character*people choose that particular time of e%ents[

)9

%vi-ence
#< 4=; T=AT "PAC-?
4h does*do the author* character*people in the te!t choose that place for action[

5< 4=; T=AT 9A//-% ?

a* +-/%- and "T;2- : )h does the author choose that genre, making use of that particular style[ &* %-2AT*3/"=*P: )h does the author use that %ery point of %ie+[ c* ATT*T.7-: )h do characters*people relate the +ay they do to one another[ d* T3/-: )h does the author*speaker e!press himself +ith that tone[ 7 ironic, humorous, cynical, dramatic, tragicH9

!< 4=; T=AT */T-/"*T;> AT93"P=-%-?

4h does the author<s, character<s or some person<s %oice ha%e that particular intensity[ 4h is that atmosphere[

6(

9ore e&ercises for ./*T" 0-$

13 Read the fragment from 8harles Dickens< Great Expectations. 23 $nalyse the te!t &y I. . Gathering Evidence and then &y II. Interpreting Evidence 7see Table '9 33 0ake the plan of an essay in response to the follo+ing task1 6ith reference to Great Expectations, comment on (harles &ickens$s ironic attitude towards the 3ictorian middle class understanding of 1hakespeare$s tragedy Hamlet. Eote the description of the actors on the stage and the spectators< reaction3 "se Table 2: !he #lan into the 1tructure3 The late king of the country not only appeared to ha%e &een trou&led +ith a cough at the time of his decease, &ut to ha%e taken it +ith him to the tom&, and to ha%e &rought it &ack3 The royal phantom also carries a ghostly manuscript round its truncheon, to +hich it had the appearance of occasionally referring, and that, too, +ith an air of an!iety and a tendency to lose the place of reference +hich +ere suggesti%e of a state of mortality3 =t +as this, = concei%e, +hich led to the 6hade<s &eing ad%ised &y gallery to @turn o%erKA# a recommendation +hich it took e!tremely illH The Zueen of Denmark, a %ery &u!om lady, +as considered &y the pu&lic to ha%e too much &rass a&out herJ her chin &eing attached to her diadem &y a &road &and of that metal 7as if she had a gorgeous toothache9, her +aist &eing encircled &y another, and each of her arms &y another, so that she +as openly mentioned as @the kettledrumAH 2hene%er that undecided Prince Bamlet had to ask a ?uestion, the pu&lic helped him out +ith it3 $s for e!ampleJ on the ?uestion +hether @t+as no&ler in the mind to sufferA, some roared yes, and some no, and some inclining to &oth opinions said @toss up for itKA3