1

FISHPOND ENGINEERING: A TECHNICAL MANUAL FOR SMALL-AND MEDIUMSCALE COASTAL FISH FARMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA by C.R. dela Cruz1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1. AC!GROUND
Coastal pond aquaculture is best developed in southeast Asia and has existed in this region for a long time. It is an important source of food and has provided income and employment to thousands of people in the region. Based on a 197 regional compilation!" it is estimated that there are over #$$ $$$ hectares of developed coastal fishponds in the region" providing close to %$$ $$$ metric tons of fish and crustaceans. &alued at equivalent to over '()%*$ million +,able 1.1-. It is also estimated that there are over 7$ $$$ coastal fish farm units in the region involving the employment of close to %$ $$$ .or/ers +0ig. 1.1-.

1.1 S"a"u#
(ome #1% # # hectares of coastal fishponds are located mainly in the 1hilippines. Indonesia" ,hailand" &ietman" 2alaysia" ,ai.an +China-. 3ong 4ong and (ingapore. ,hey are used for raising finfish" mainly mil/fish such as in Indonesia" 1hilippines and ,ai.an or penaid shrimps such as in ,hailand" (ingapore and 2alaysia. At present" polyculture of mil/fish and penacid shrimps and stoc/ing of sea5bass are fast developing.

0ig.1.1 Areas in (outheast Asia .here coastal fish farming is practiced 1. Indonesia !. (ingapore %. 2alaysia #. ,hailand *. Cambodia 6. &ietnam 7. 1hilippines . 3ong/ong 9. ,ai.an
1

Consultant +Aquaculture 7ngineering-. (outh China (ea 0isheries 8evelopment and Coordinating 1rogramme. 2anila" 1hilippines. ! (7A087C. 0isheres (tatistical Bulletin for the (outh China (ea Area. 197 +19 $-.

Table 1 S"a"u# a$d %&"e$"'al &( bra)*'#+,a"er -)&a#"al. %&$d a/ua)ul"ure '$ S&u"+ea#" A#'a1 P&"e$"'al area# (&r Pr&du)"'&$ 1alue -1 222 de4el&%0e$" -1 222 -0". US3. +a.1 *$ %17 1% * 7 99* 5 5 11 6 ! %# 1$ $#9 1$ $$$ !7 #6! 7* 9 1 # *!7 1$9 *9! 5 5 1%$ $6! #1 1 %9! 1! $$$ %*$ *9* 5 5 % 61 *$ 6*! !!$ % %1! 6$$ * #**

Area -+a. China +,ai.an3ong 4ong Indonesia 4ampuchea% 2alaysia# 1hilippines (ingapore! ,hailand &ietman% ,9,A:
1

1 66* 1 97* 171 *## 5 5 176 !%1 1$7 !# 96! !$ $$$ #1% # #

Based mainly on data from 0ishery (tatistical Bulletin for the (outh China (ea Area. 197 . (7A087C +19 $-. ! Calculated from ((!.#* /g. % 8ata on 4ampuchea and &ietnam are based on information from government obtained by (C(1 staff during travel to these countries. # Based on total area of unexploited mangroves in 1eninsular 2alaysia and in (abah and (ara.a/ states. * Based on (C( $ ;1 9# +<evised-. 8evelopment of this industry at the beginning can be attributed primarily on private sector initiative. Based on very crude facilities and simple rural experience" the production has been generally lo." at present about 67$ /g=ha=year on the average in the .hole region" although ranges from as lo. as %$$ /g=ha to as high as ! $$$ /g=ha +e.g." ,ai.an- occur. ,he value of production from this industry is evaluated at over '()%*$ million per year" .hich can be a big boost to the economy of the region +,able 1-. 1rices has been relatively lo. for mil/fish +average '()1=/g- but rather high for penaeid shrimps +'()%5 /g- and also good for seabass +'()%5*=/g-.

1.5 P&"e$"'al#

,he potentials for the further development of this industry in the region is high. ,here are still large acreage of mangrove s.amps and tidal mudflats that can be suitable sites for development into fishponds" estimated at about *> million hectares in the (outheast Asian countries +,able 1-. 9f course" it has no. been reali?ed that for ecological balance and for rational conservation of the fishery resources" some part of these mangrove areas should be reserved. But if some 1$ to %$ percent of the existing s.amps can be developed" such a ratio being deemed feasible and affords proper ecological considerations" the area that can be developed in the region can be about $.* to 1.6 million hectares. Also the average production of about 67$ /g=ha can easily be increased to double this amount .ith better engineering and the use of improved technology of management in the existing areas. ,his can increase the production capacity to over **$ $$$ metric tons per year. ,he additional pond areas to be developed can li/e.ise contribute about 6$$ $$$ to 1.9 million metric tons per year or an overall production of 1 to ! million metric tons per year in this region. :i/e.ise" the value of production can considerably be increased.

1.6 Ma7&r e$8'$eer'$8 %r&ble0# &( )&a#"al ('#+%&$d#

1oor or inadequate engineering of coastal fishponds is one of the ma@or causes of lo. production and=or failure. It can be said that %$ to *$ percent are inadequately constructed .hile close to 1$$ percent can ta/e further engineering improvements. (uch engineering deficiencies can be classified into three categories" vi?. +i- problems brought about by climatic and hydrological factorsA +ii- problems due to environmental factorsB and +iii- engineering specific problems. 1.6.1 Pr&ble0# due "& )l'0a"e a$d +ydr&l&8y ,he type of rainfall" occurrence of typhoons" and prevailing tidal charcteristics in the fishpond location can influence the nature of construction of fishponds in such area. ;here rains are strong and severe and .here typhoons are frequent" the fishpond structures need to be bigger and more firm. :i/e.ise" areas .ith high tidal ranges +average daily range of % m or more- .ill require bigger di/es and sturdy .ater control structures" .hereas areas .here the tidal fluctuation is small +one meter or less daily range-" the di/es can be smaller and .ater gates need not be massive. Areas prone to earthqua/es and tidal .aves should li/e.ise ma/e some extra provision for these occurrences. Cenis curah hu@an" ter@adinya angin topan dan /ara/teristi/ pasang surut yang ada di lo/asi tamba/ dapat mempengaruhi /onstru/si alam dari tamba/ di area tersebut. 4eti/a curah hu@an sangat besar dan badai berlangsung" dibutuh/an stru/tur tamba/ yang besar dan tanggul besar yang /uat sebagai pengontrol air" sedang/an are dimana flu/tuasi pasang surutnya /ecil +1 meter atau /urang per hari-" tanggulnya dapat lebih /ecil dan pintu airnya tida/ butuh yang besar. 8aerah yang ra.an gempa dan flu/tuasi omba/ @uga harus dibuat beberapa /etentuan tambahan untu/ /e@adian ini. 1.6.5 E$4'r&$0e$"al '$(lue$)e#

,he engineering of coastal fishponds can be affected by various environmental influences. ,hese include such factors as the nature of the soil" vegetation" elevation of site" topographic characteristics" availability of fresh.ater supply and occurrence of pollution. If the site has porous type soil +sandy or peaty-" bigger di/es need to be provided. In some cases" better clayey soil for di/ing may have to be brought from outside. ;ell vegetated areas especially .ith big5 si?e trees .ill require bigger construction effort. 7levation of the site based on the tidal datum .ill determine .hether excavation or filling .ill be required" .hile those .ith uneven topography .ill need more .or/ in levelling the area. 2asalah te/ni/ dari tamba/ pesisir dapat dipengaruhi oleh pengaruh ling/ungan yang beragam. Ini termasu/ fa/tor D fa/tor alam dari tanah" tumbuhan" elevasi" topografi" /etersediaan air ta.ar dan polusi. Ci/a lo/asi ini mempunyai tipe tanah yang porous +berpasir atau gambut-" dibutuh/an tanggul yang lebih besar. 8alam beberapa /asus" tanah yang bagus untu/ tanggul mung/in harus diba.a dari tempat lain. &egetasi yang bai/ /hususnya dengan pohon yang besar a/an membutuh/an /onstru/si yang lebih besar. 7levasi di lo/asi berdasar/an pada data pasang surut a/an menentu/an penggalian atau pengisian yang dibutuh/an" /eti/a topgrafi tersebut tida/ pas a/an membutuh/an pe/er@aan yang lebih banya/ di area tersebut It is better to have some source of fresh.ater supply for coastal fishponds so that the brac/ish.ater salinity .hich is usually more suitable for gro.ing food organisms as .ell as the cultured species can be maintained. If ho.ever this is not available" the fishpond should be so engineered so that the periodic occurrence of fresh.ater such as from rains can be ta/en advantage of. 0resh.ater supply from the tidal river or stream is usually the cheapest source of fresh.ater as this can be ta/en in by gravity. 3o.ever" this may not be available so that other sources have to be determined and tapped. ,he seasonal rains can be another source" although this can be seasonal and not very reliable. 'nderground .ater is another source of this" if available. (ometimes the pond bottom is lo. enough in relation to the .ater table so that underground .ater can seep in naturally to the ponds. 1iped .ater through .ells of varying depths is good" if this is available. All the above sources of fresh.ater .ill need engineering structures so that the required .ater can be put into use. 1umps" either to dra. in or drain out excess .ater" may be found necessary and helpful. 9ccurrence of pollution is a difficult problem in coastal fishpond areas and should be avoided if this .as noted before the farm is established. 3o.ever" if this condition should happen after the fishpond has been constructed" additional structures may need to be installed to minimi?e the effects of this adverse factor. 1.6.6 E$8'$eer'$8 #%e)'(') %r&ble0# ,hese are the site specific problems that are encountered during actual construction or after the construction of the fishpond. 0or instance" after the fishpond has been constructed" there is a need to shift the /ind of management from the traditional extensive method to the modular progression method or to the stoc/ manipulation methodA this .ill require a renovation of the layout of the fishpond system. Again" if the fishpond is to shift from mil/fish monoculture to

mil/fish shrimp polyculture or to shrimp monoculture" some definite pond modifications have to be made for such a shift. 8uring the construction" it sometimes occur that there is excess soil that needs to be disposed of properly" or there may be lac/ of soil that can be adequate for the needed di/ing or filling .or/. ,hese have to be solved through engineering means. 2any engineering problems occur .ith regard to the .ater control structures. ,hese have to be properly designed and .ell constructed and located in appropriate places in relation to the entire fishpond system. ,hese structures are usually expensive to put up and once made they are very difficult to change. It is noted ho.ever" that some progress have been attaind in better designs and in the method of constructing these .ater control structures. 2ore lasting materials li/e fiberglass" ferrocement" etc." especially if these can be prefabricated may lessen the inherent costs encountered .ith these fishpond structures. Correcting .ater lea/ages and seepages in finished fishponds often present many problems. 7ven if these have to be dealt .ith on a case to case basis" there is need for aquaculture engineers to develop and improve the technology involving these very frequent problems in coastal fishponds.

CHAPTER 5 SELECTION OF FISH FARM SITE

5. E1ALUATION AND SELECTION OF SITE
5.1 Cr'"er'a u#ed
5.1.1 9a"er #u%%ly Adequate supply of good quality of fresh and salt5.ater must be available year round in the site. Eood quality .ater suitable for fish culture is rich in oxygen" nutrients and free from pollutants.

0resh.ater is important for mixing .ith sea .ater to maintain salinity level especially in the dry season .hen evaporation is rapid. 0resh.ater is also necessary for the daily use of the .or/ers in the fish farm. 0or fresh.ater" the reliability of supply or flo. rate from the source can be evaluated by /no.ing theA +1- required rate of flo." F +!- required depth for the pond" h +%- prescribed time" t of filling a given area" A of pond .ith .ater" and +#- total losses during filling time arising from the evaporation and seepage or lea/age from .ater delivery canals and fishpond itself. ,he required rate of flo. is determined from the formulaA

;here F G required rate of flo. from the source +m%=sect G time required to fill the pond +sech G equivalent depth of .ater to be added to the pond for maintaining salinity +m-

A G pond area +m!,he available rate of flo. from the source +ground5.ater" spring" irrigation canal" river" cree/" etc.- is compared to the required rate of flo. by the farm. ,he available flo. must be equal or greater than the required flo.. In brac/ish.ater areas" /no.ledge of tidal characteristics in the site is very important in determining its suitability for fishponds. ,he height of the tide and its range determine the sufficiency of .ater" height of di/es" elevation of pond bottom and .ater gates" si?e of gate opening" construction cost and others. (ites near the source of pollutants that .ould pollute .ater supply such as mines" factories" food processing plants" oil rigs and densely populated areas should be avoided. 5.1.5 T'dal ra$8e a$d 8r&u$d ele4a"'&$ ,he depth of .ater in pond to be maintained is determined by the height of incoming tide and height or elevation of pond bottom based on ?ero tidal datum. ;henever possible" the available tidal range must be able to fill the ponds by gravity to the specified depths. In relation to tide ground elevation" this depth should allo. the most economical construction +least cut and fill- of pond .hich .ould have an ideal pond elevation. ,he elevation of pond bottom is considered ideal if it enables draining of the pond almost any day of the year and flood it .ith sea.ater to the desired depth .ithin five days or less during the critical spring tides. ,he critical spring tides usually occur in the 1hilippines during the months of 0ebruary" 2arch and April +8enila" 1976-. 0igure !.1 serves as a guide in determining the suitability of fishpond site in relation to tidal conditions in the area.

0ig. !.1 (uitability of proposed fishpond site based on tidal ranges and ground elevation under 1hilippine condition .ith tide range of +5- $.6 to !.! m or !. m +After Camandre and <obanal" 197*,he tidal characteristics and effect of the magnitude of tidal range in fish farm management in the (outheast Asian region is described in ,able !.1. A typical example in relating the tidal characteristics .ith the ground elevation of the site is sho.n in the Ban 2erbo/ estuary" 2alaysia +0ig. !.!-. ,he desired elevation for a pond bottom of a mil/fish farm appears to be at least !$ cm from the ?ero datum +2::;- or at an elevation .hen at least *$ cm depth of .ater can be maintained in the pond during ordinary tides.

0ig. !.! ,idal characteristics of Ban 2erbo/ estuary" 4edah state" 2alaysia in relation to existing ground elevation of an area +After 3echanova and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $Table 5.1 T'dal )+ara)"er'#"')# a$d #u'"ab'l'"'e# (&r a/ua)ul"ure '$ #&0e area# &( "+e S&u"+ C+'$a Sea re8'&$ -a("er :a0a$dre a$d Raba$al; 1<=>. L&)al'"y H'8+e#" L&,e#" Ab#&lu"e N&r0al da'ly Re0ar*#

10

(lu)"ua"'&$ re)&rded re)&rded a$$ual l&,?+'8+ -ra$8e. "'de -0. "'de -0. ra$8e -0. -0. INDONESIA Cambi <iver" Cambi" (umatra ,idal characteristics favourable for proper fish farm management 5do5 ,idal fluctuation slightly narro. for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation too narro.A unfavourable ,idal characteristics favourable for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation slightly narro. for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation favourable for proper fish farm management 5do5 ,idal fluctuation narro. for proper fish farm management

%.7

$.*

%.!

1.#=%.#+!.$-

2usi <iver" 1alembang %. (outh (umatra ,an@ung 1andan" Belitung Island" (outh (umatra

$.1

%.7

$.9=!.7+1. -

!.7

$.$

!.7

$.9=1. +$.9-

,an@ung 1rio/" Ca/arta" ;est 1.1 Cava (amarinda" ;est Cava

$.1

1.$

$.%=$.7+$.#-

!.7

$.$

!.7

$.7=!.!+1.*-

:ittle 4apuas <iver" 1ontiana/" 1. ;est 4alimantan Barito <iver" Ban@armasin (outh 4alimantan Bali/papan 7ast 4alimantan '@ung 1andang" (outh (ula.esi !.

$.$

1.

$.*=1.%+$. -

$.1

!.7

$. =!.!+1.#-

!.9

$.1

!.

$.*=!.%+1. -

1.%

$.1

1.!

$.%=1.$+$.7-

11

2enado" Horth !.# (ula.esi

$.$

!.#

$.6=1.7+1.1-

,idal fluctuation slightly narro. tidal range for proper fish farm management ,idal range narro. for proper fish farm management 0air tidal range for proper fish farm management (lightly narro. tidal range for proper fish farm management ,idal characteristics favourable for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuations too high for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation favourable for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation high for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation favourable for proper fish farm management 5do5 5do5

Cayapura" Irian 1.1 Caya 2ano/.ari" Irian Caya (orong" Irian Caya

+5-$.1

1.!

$.%=1.$+$.7-

1.9

$.$

1.9

$.#=1.6+1.!-

1.9

+5-$.1

!.$

$.%=1.#+1.1-

Aiduna" Irian Caya

!.6

$.$

!.6

$.#=!.1+1.7-

2erau/e" Irian *.% Caya MALA@SIA 1enang" 1enang !.

$.!

*.1

1.%=#.%+%.$-

$.!

!.6

$.7=!.!+1.*-

4elang" (elangor

*.#

+5-$.1

*.*

1.!=#.1+!.9-

4uala Batu" %.! 1abat" Cohore 4uantan" 1ahang 4uala %.* !.7

+5-$.!

%.#

$.7=!.6+1.9-

+5-$.! +5-$.#

%.7 %.1

$.6=!.7+!.1$.%=1. +1.*-

12

,rengganu" ,rengganu 4uching" (ara.a/ 6.$ $.* *.* 1.#=*.$+%.6,idal fluctuation too high for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation slightly narro. for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation favourable for proper fish farm management ,idal fluctuation too narro. for proper fishpond management ,idal fluctuation slightly narro. for proper fishpond management

2iri" (ara.a/ !.1

$.

!.1

$.*=1.6+1.1-

(anda/an" (abah

!.7

+5-$.1

!.

$.#=1.9+1.*-

PHILIPPINES (an 0ernando 1.$# :a 'nion +5-.!1 1.!* +5-.$%=.61+$.6#-

2anila City

1.#6

+5-.%#

1.

$.1#=1.$*+$.91-

:egaspi City Cebu City 8avao City Colo" (ulu SINGAPORE (ingapore THAILAND

1. % 1.9 1.9 1.19

+5-.#$ +5-.#$ +5-.#9 +5-.1!

!.!% !.% !.#7 1.%1

,idal fluctuation favourable for +5-$.$9=1.#+1.#9proper fishpond management +5-.$%=1.#9+1.*!+5-.$%=1.77+1. $5do5 5do5

,idal fluctuation slightly narro. for +5-$.$%=.9 +1.$1proper fishpond management ,idal fluctuation favourable for proper fishpond management

%.%$

+5-.%$

%.6$

$.6=!.7+!.1-

13

Bang/o/ Bar

#.!

$.1

#.1

1.1=%.!+1.1-

,idal fluctuation slightly lo. for proper fishpond management :o. tidal fluctuationB lo. for proper fishpond management 5do5 ,idal fluctuation favourable for proper fish farm management

:aem (ing" Chantaburi 4o Hu" (ong/hla 4o ,aphao" 1hu/et

!.*$

$.*$

!.$$

1.!=1.9+$.7-

1.%$

$.!$

1.1$

$.*=1.$+$.*-

%.7

$.*

%.!

1.!=%.$+1. -

Areas reached only by the high spring tides should not be selected as it is expensive to move large quantities of soil during excavation. ,here is also an added problem of disposing excess soil material. ;hile constructing higher and .ider di/es may solve the problem" this .ould result to occupying more space in the pond compartment and hence" less area intended for fish production. :o. areas on the other hand .ill require much higher and .ider di/es" thus soil is moved at far distances further increasing construction cost. 7xcessive construction cost for larger di/es is also true in areas .here tides can reach as high as %.* m such as in 7ast Cava" Indonesia +8@a@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-. 5.1.6 S&'l )+ara)"er'#"')# 2any soil characteristics" especially those related to texture" determine its suitability for fishpond purposes. (oil texture refers to the relative proportion of sand" silt and clay content of the soil. ,able !.! belo. sho.s the different soil classification based from the '.(. 8epartment of Agriculture Classification (ystem. Table 5.5 TeA"ure a$d "eA"ural $a0e &( "+e "+ree 0a'$ "y%e# &( #&'l C&00&$ $a0e Coarse (andy soils 2oderately coarse 2edium :oamy soils 2oderately fine TeA"ure a#') #&'l "eA"ural )la## $a0e (andyB sandy loam (andy loamB fine (andy loam &ery fine sandy loam :oam" silty loam (ilt

14

Clayey soils

0ine

(andy clayB silty clayB clayB clay loamB sandy clay loamB silty clay loam

Areas suitable for fish production must possess properties .hich allo. for the economical construction of di/es" efficient gro.th of fish food" extended .ater holding and load carrying capacity and favourable chemical properties. +a- Desirable soil texture for ponds. (oils belonging to the follo.ing textural classification are desirable for fishpond developmentA clay" clay loam" silty clay loam" silty loam" loam and sandy clay loam +8ure?a" 19 !-. Clayey soils are preferable because they are superior material for di/ing and holding .ater. ,hey have good compaction characteristics and lo. permeability. A very simple general rule can be follo.edA As a clay content of the soil decreases" its suitability for fishpond construction also decreases. ,his is illustrated in ,able !.% :oamy soils are also recommended. ,hey have good organic matter content .hich favour the culture and gro.th of natural fish food. +b- Determination of soil texture. (oil texture can be determined by various methods ranging from the sophisticated mechanical and laboratory methods to the simple practical and field methods. ,he follo.ing sections outline some of these methods. +i- Mechanical method ,he amount of each soil separate +si?e fraction of sand" silt and clay- in a soil mixture determine its texture. ,he popular Bouyocous mechanical test is a reliable method of determining the amount of each soil separate in the soil through laboratory tests. ,he test results are then compared .ith a soil triangle +0ig.!.%- to determine the textural name. +ii- Field identification ,here are three practical field identification methods to determine soil texture. ,hese are the feel method using a modified soil triangle" feel method +alternative- and ball method. Table 5.6 Rela"'&$#+'% &( #&'l )la##e# a$d #u'"ab'l'"y (&r d'*e 0a"er'al -a("er FAR-UNDP?FAO; 1<>1. Cla## Clay Per0eab'l'"y Impervious C&0%re##'b'l'"y 2edium C&0%a)"'&$ 0air to good Su'"ab'l'"y 7xcellent

15

(andy clay :oamy (ilty (andy 1eaty 1eaty

Impervious (emi5pervious to impervious (emi5pervious to impervious 1ervious

:o. 3igh 3igh 2edium to high 3igh Hegligible

Eood 0air to very poor Eood to very poor Eood

Eood 0air 1oor 1oor &ery poor

0ig. !.% ,exture triangle sho.ing the percentages of sand" silt and clay in the textural classes. ,he intersection of the dotted lines sho.s that the soil .ith ** percent clay" %! percent silt and 1% percent sand has a clay texture +After 8ure?a" 19 !,he use of feel method requires considerable practice in order to attain accurate interpretations. ,extural determination by feel involves the rubbing of a moist soil bet.een the thumb and index finger. ,he ability of the soil mixture to form good" medium or poor or no ribbons determine the corresponding texture as indicated in a modified soil triangle sho.n in 0igs. !.# and !.*

16

,extural approximation by feel +alternative method- is also done by pressing a moist soil bet.een the thumb and forefinger. ,he corresponding texture is then compared .ith the '.(. (oil (urvey definitions of soil for various classes +,able !.#,he ball method consist of forming and squee?ing a ball of moist soil in the hand. ,he stability of the balled soil mixture to hold its shape .hen released or touched determines its texture. ,able !.# is a helpful guide in approximating soil texture for both the feel and ball methods. 1IE9 OF SAMPLE AFTER ROLLING DESCRIPTION OF TEBTURE

Ho roll" sand" loamy sand

Beginning of a roll" sandy loam ,he roll is continuous" but brea/s .hen ring is formed" loam and silt loam ,he roll is continuous" but the ring crac/sB clay loam" sandy clay loam" silty clay loam ,he roll is continuousB the ring is also completeB silty clayB clay and sandy clay 0ig. !.# &ie. of samples of rolling" description and texture of soil by touch and feel +After (ingh" 19 !-

17

0ig. !.* 2odified textural triangle for determining soil texture by the feel method +After 8ure?a" 19 !Table 5.C De('$'"'&$ &( #&'l (&r 4ar'&u# "eA"ural )la##'(')a"'&$ TeA"ural )la## (and De('$'"'&$ (and is loose and single5grained. ,he individual grains can readily be seen or felt. If squee?ed in the hand .hen dry" it .ill fall apart .hen the pressure is released. If squee?ed .hen moist" it .ill form a cast" but .ill crumble .hen touchedB .ill not form ribbon bet.een thumb and finger.

,his soil contains much sand but .hich has enough silt and clay to ma/e it some.hat coherent. ,he individual sand grains can be readily seen and felt. If squee?ed .hen dry" it .ill form a cast .hich .ill readily fall apart" (andy loam but if squee?ed .hen moist" a cast can be formed that .ill bear careful handling .ithout brea/ing. (ands and sandy loams are classed as course" medium" fine or very fine" depending on the proportion of the different si?ed sand particles that are present. 3as a relatively even mixture of the different grades of sand" silt" and clay. It is mello. .ith a some5.hat gritty feel" yet fairly smooth and slightly plastic. If squee?ed .hen dry" it .ill form a cast that .ill bear careful handling" .hile the cast formed by squee?ing the moist soil can be handled quite freely .ithout brea/ing. 3as a moderate amount of fine grades of sand and only a small amount of

:oam

(ilt loam

18

clay" over half of the particles being of the si?e called silt. ;hen dry" it may appear quite cloddy but the lumps can be readily bro/en and .hen pulveri?ed it feels soft" smooth" and floury. ;hen .et" the soil readily runs together and puddles. 7ither dry or moist" it .ill form casts that can be freely handled .ithout brea/ingB it .ill not form a ribbon if squee?ed bet.een the thumb and finger .hen moist but .ill given a bro/en appearance. Clay loam ,his is a fine textured soil" the characteristics of .hich are mid.ay bet.een the characteristics of the silt loam and the clay loam. If moisture conditions are ideal" it is possible to form a ribbon .ith it .hen squee?ed bet.een the thumb and finger. A silty clay loam is a fine textured soil .hich brea/s into clods and lumps that are hard to brea/ .ith the squee?e of the hand .hen the clods are dry. ;hen the moist soil is pinched bet.een thumb and finger it .ill form a cast that .ill bear much handling. ;hen /neaded in the hand" it does not crumble readily but tends to .or/ into a heavy" plastic" compact mass. A clay is a fine textured soil usually forms very hard lumps or clods .hen dry and is quite plastic and is usually stic/y .hen .et. ;hen the moist soil is pinched out bet.een the thumb and fingers" it .ill form a long" flexible ribbon. (ome fine clays very high in colloids are friable and lac/ plasticity in all conditions of mixture.

(ilty clay loam

Clay

(c) Soil investigation procedures and equipment. Both physical and chemical properties of the soil must be investigated and considered in ma/ing the final decision on the suitability of a site for fishpond development. ,he procedure consists of ta/ing soil samples properly from the site from .hich measurements of some parameters that describe the characteristic of the soil useful in engineering are obtained. ,here are standard methods of tests .hich are specifically applied to determine certain soil properties. (i) Soil sampling As standard practice" several samples should be obtained from pre5determined and scattered locations .ithin a given site through borings. It is better to have more number of borings in .ell5 planned locations to cover the .hole site. 0or relatively shallo. boring" soil samples are obtained by means of augers +0ig.!.6-. ,he auger is turned vertically into the .et soil by hand and .ithdra.n after reaching a short distance. ,he soil stic/ing to tha auger is collected and labeled properly. ,he auger is driven again into the soil deeper and again .ithdra.n to get the soil. ,he process is repeated until the soil samples are collected from selected intervals of soil depth. (oil samples should at least be dra.n from 1$ random locations per hectare. ,he preliminary examination and classification of the soil texture may be done at the site. ,he samples from each selected depth interval is pac/ed in a sealed plastic bag for further laboratory

19

test. ,he bags should be mar/ed .ith information on the date of boring" location" .ater table elevation and boundary or thic/ness of each soil layer. <ough s/etches on the location and depth of borings from each site should be /ept.

0ig. !.6 A typical soil auger (oil auger can also be fitted .ith sampling spoons for obtaining a tube si?e sample or Ispoon sampleJ for undisturbed samples needed for permeability and compressibility tests +3echanova" 19 !-. ,he device consists of a pipe .ith inside diameter ranging from %.* to 1$ cm and split length.ise. ,he operation of this device is similar to that of a soil auger. ,he total depth of sampling varies depending on the type of investigation being carried out. As a rule of thumb" the depth to be investigated should reach the hard soil +impermeable- layer. If the hard soil is so deep" depth of investigation should reach at least three meters. (ii) Measurements to be done from the soil ,he most important factors to be determined from the soil are" for physical properties K textural class" load bearing capacity" and permeabilityB for chemical properties K soil p3 and presence of acid5forming substance such as pyrites and sulfides.

20

,he texture is the most important physical property of the soil in fishpond engineering. 4no.ing the texture" much can already be said on the characteristics of the soil. (oil texture gives information on its ability to resist the flo. of .ater through it +seepage-" attainable compaction" and load bearing capacity. :oad bearing capacity refers to the capability of the soil to carry" heavy loads. ,his information guides designers in determining the type of foundation for structures +gates and di/es- and the amount of pilings needed up to a certain point. Brac/ish.ater pond site usually has lo. bearing capacity of foundation. In addition to driving piles to strengthen foundation" structures should be of light.eight construction. It has been experienced that these structures should not exert a contact pressure of more than 1*$ g=cm! or 1.* tons=m! +,ang" 1976-. ,he possible seepage flo. at the site or loss of .ater in the pond by passing through di/es and pond bottom is calculated by determining the permeability of the soil and the nature of foundation. ,here are extensive procedures in literatures in determining permeability of soil in the laboratory or in5situ. (oil p3 provides an initial and immediate measure of the chemical nature of the site. ,he soil reaction .hether basic or acidic has direct relationship to fish production. ,he p3 scale varies from 1 to 1# units and the desirable range of soil as .ell as .ater p3 for aquaculture is 6.* to .*. :o.er than 6 is too acidic for most fish species and other aquatic animals and greater than 9 is li/e.ise infavourable for gro.th. Ereater values than 9 approach polluted condition. 2easurement of p3 may be done on5site or in the laboratory by using p3 meters or for less accurate values" litmus paper. 7xtensive determination of p3 is done do.n to 1 m deep" at $.!* m interval" especially in problematic acid sulfate soils. Incidentally" a large hectarage of coastal areas tend to have acidic p3. It is noted that approximately * million ha of coastal area in the (outh and (outheast Asia are /no.n to be potential or actual acid sulfate soils +1oernomo and (ingh" 19 !-. Acid sulfate soils are associated .ith the accumulation of sulfides and pyrites after undergoing biological and chemical processes. (ulfides are compounds that produce acidity upon oxidation. ,he resulting acidic soil condition in turn facilitate the release of aluminum and iron to levels that may be toxic to pond biota including the cultured species. 1yrite is a mineral .hich is fixed and accumulated by the reduction of abundant sulfate from sea.ater. ,he usual p3 range of acid sulfate soils is % to 6.* +1oernomo and (ingh" 19 !-. 0urther discussion on this /ind of soil is given in Appendix C. 5.1.C T&%&8ra%+y &( "+e #'"e ,opography refers to the Ilay of the landJ or the changes in the surface elevations of the ground .hether flat" rolling or sloping" undulating" and hilly. 0ishpond design" layout and specifications are made largely in accordance .ith the land topography.

21

A suitable site for fishpond has a topography that can be converted into a pond economically. ,he cost of construction can be greatly reduced if the surface features of the land are used to advantage. 0lat coastal s.amplands .hose elevation are .ithin the range of ideal pond bottom elevation are preferred for brac/ish.ater pond culture. In such areas" excavation or filling are at a minimum" if any. (ites .ith rolling topography or those .ith elevations varying from lo.er than 2::; +$$ tidal datum- to #D* m high must be avoided as these .ill be too costly to level +de los (antos" 19 $-. 8enila +19 $- describes four ?ones in the coastal edge as probable sites for fishpond +0ig. !.7-. +a- Zone A. 2arginal lands along edges usually planted to lo.land rice but generally unproductive due to salt .ater seepage can be converted into fishpond by lo.ering the elevation through excavation. ,hese are usually productive as fishponds because of good soil quality. ,he cost of excavation can ma/e these areas relatively more expensive to develop due to their high elevation. +b- Zone B. ,he elevation is generally high .ith occasional earth mounds along the edges but can be reached by tides. 3igh di/es not necessary but development cost may be expensive if a big portion of the area needs excavation. +c- Zone C. ,his area is .ithin the ideal range of pond bottom elevation" thus excavation cost is less. 3o.ever" extreme acidity may occur because of the presence of vegetation that contributes to acidity. +d- Zone D. ,he elevation is lo. or @ust a little higher than the $$ datum +2::;-. It is very exposed to .ave action .hich may require expensive big di/es and .ave protection structures. Ho acidity problem" hence" may be ideal for shrimp culture. 5.1.D Ty%e a$d de$#'"y &( 4e8e"a"'&$ Coastal fishponds in the tropical and sub5tropical ?ones are constructed on tidal lands" river estuaries" bays and sheltered coasts. ,he vegetation present in these areas are varied depending on the land elevation and soil type. 3o.ever" mangrove trees pose serious concern to fishpond development because of their extensive rooting system.

22

0ig. !.7 ,he four ?ones in typical s.amps as probable sites for fishpond +After 8enila" 19 $+a- Vegetation uses and related benefits. &egetation provides several beneficial uses not only in fish culture but also for other purposes. In ,hailand" 2alaysia" Bangladesh" and the 1hilippines" mangrove trees are utili?ed as timber for construction" furniture" charcoal sources and other uses. ,hey have also been found to be useful in big offshore shrimp fisheries not only in these areas but also in Indonesia. In addition to playing an important role in the maintenance of various forms of biological life" mangrove forests also serve as silt collectors promoting soil accretion" absorber of .ave impact and buffer of storm surge levels +2enasveta" 19 !-. +b- Effects of soil properties. ,he type and density of vegetation is also an important criterion in fishpond site selection. 4no.ledge of their composition and abundance can provide information for an easy and practical evaluation of the physical and chemical properties of soil. A practical guide in evaluating some physical and chemical properties of soil based on type of vegetation is presented in ,able !.* +2enasveta" 19 !B Adisu/resno" 19 !B 1oernomo and (ingh" 19 !-. Table 5.D P+y#')al a$d )+e0')al )+ara)"er'#"')# &( #&'l '$ rela"'&$ "& "y%e &( 4e8e"a"'&$ (&u$d De#)r'%"'&$ &( #&'l %r&%er"y P+y#')al Ty%e &( 4e8e"a"'&$?#%e)'e#

23

7levated areas :o. areas (andy soils 1eaty soils 3igh organic content C+e0')al 1otentially acidic :ess acidic

Avicennia !i"op!ora" #elaleuca" $!oenix" certain shrubs and ferns Hipa palm +%&pa fruticans-" grasses %&pa' #elaleuca !i"op!ora %&pa' !i"op!ora' #elaleuca Avicennia

2angroves .ith Avicennia usually indicate productive soil. 2angroves .ith !i"op!ora' Bruguiera and Sonneratia are sometimes less suitable for fishponds. +c- elations!ip to amount and cost of construction (or). ,here is a direct relationship bet.een vegetation and the amount and cost of fishpond construction .or/. Areas .here mangrove trees .ith dense rooting systems li/e !i"op!ora" %&pa and #elaleuca are more difficult to excavate. At the same time" densely vegetated areas ta/es longer time to clear of stumps. As a result" cost of fishpond construction is higher. &egetative density is dependent upon the /ind" si?e and quantity per unit area. ,otal vegetation from the site can be estimated by obtaining at least five random samples regardless of area. ,hen the vegetation is classified according to /ind" si?e +% cm trun/ diameter and above only- and number. ,otal vegetation is computed using the follo.ing formula as suggested by B0A<5 'H81=0A9" 19 !.

5.1.E Cl'0a"') a$d ,a"er#+ed )&$d'"'&$# ar&u$d "+e #'"e ,he climatic factors largely affecting site selection and fishpond design are .ind and rainfall. ,he direction of prevailing .ind is rec/oned .ith in designing the layout of fishponds as it generates erosive .ave action against the di/es. ,he .ind energy also causes natural .ater circulation and aeration in the pond. 0or rainfall information" maximum intensity" duration" frequency and annual distribution .ithin the .atershed are important as these are associated .ith flooding that .ould affect the site. ,he land area that surrounds or lies above the site is referred to as a .atershed. ,his drains its collected surface runoff through a river" river system or body of .ater causing flood .ater .hich could affect the site. ,he volume of flood .ater or runoff are affected by the rainfall and soil

24

characteristics" type of vegetative cover" topography" and area of the .atershed. 2uch higher rate of runoff can be expected in a .atershed that has high rainfall intensity and duration" clay or heavy5textured soil covered .ith less vegetation or grassland" high slopes and covering large area than a .atershed characteri?ed .ith lo. rainfall intensity and short duration" loamy or coarse5textured soil that is forested .ith flat or gently rolling slope and small area. ,he pattern and recurrence of maximum height of flood .aters in the site must be determined. ,hese information can be obtained from the rainfall or flood records of appropriate agency for each country. It is common" ho.ever" that the sites are located in remote areas .here such records may not be available. In this situation" rough information on flood may be obtained from /no.ledgeable residents .ho have seen the recurrence of floods for years in the area. ,he design of fish farm should be based on a flood height .ith recurrence interval of 1$D1* years. :onger recurrence interval of !* or *$ years means much higher flood level and hence" much bigger di/es and structures .hich ma/es the design uneconomical or impractical. It .ould be more economical to repair damaged fishponds +designed for 1$D1* years flood- during the sudden occurrence of say !* years or longer term floods than to design the entire farm for such floods. 5.1.= O"+er )r'"er'a ,here are other factors .hich are significant in fishpond site selection. ,hese are equally as important as those previously mentioned and li/e.ise require the same careful evaluation during the survey. a. Accessibilit&. ,his is important for the transport of construction equipment and material" and for production inputs required for daily operations. ,ransporting costs can considerably increase if materials are manually carried through long distances. It is better if the site is accessible throughout the year by means of land and .ater. b. Availabilit& of labour. ,he cheapest sources of labour are those .hich can be provided by the local residents" or people living .ithin or near the area. It is important that the customs and tradition of local labourers are /no.n. ,he pattern of labour distribution and utili?ation should be considered as this is important in preparing the calendar of activities. In the 1hilippines" it is generally difficult to obtain enough labour during the rice planting and harvesting season or during milling season for sugarcane. c. Availabilit& and cost of material. In fishpond production" it is important that critical production inputs such as fishseeds" fertili?ers" pesticides and other related materials are readily available .hen needed. 0or some inputs" especially inorganic fertili?ers" the supply is restricted and the cost is uncontrolled for non5agricultural uses. 9ther inputs li/e organic manures are difficult to obtain" or may be available only at certain times of the year. If purchase in bul/ is necessary" then storage space must be available. If material is to be imported" restrictions and corresponding costs must be /no.n. d. Availabilit& of mar)eting outlets and prices. Aquaculture products are highly perishable. Immediately upon harvest" products must be disposed of to maintain good quality and for better prices. If mar/eting outlets are located at a distance" larger quantities must be

25

harvested and transported requiring some post5harvest mar/eting practices. If so" then the required support facilities especially ice5ma/ing plants must be available. e. Availabilit& of credit and tec!nical assistance. 0ishpond operations require high initial capital investment. In this respect" credit at reasonable terms play a ma@or role in providing the needed cash outlays. ,echnical assistance may be obtained from government extension services" public or private university research stations and lending institutions. ,he services rendered by these agencies are important especially in cases of emergency. f. $attern of land and (ater use. It is important to assess the pattern of land and .ater use in the area to determine the impact of this on the pro@ect. Activities such as navigation" fishing" industries" public utilities" recreation and nursery areas must be included in the overall assessment. It is best that a complementary rather than competitive relationship bet.een these various uses and the pro@ect be established. g. $eace and order situation. Eood peace and order conditions at site are favourable for both public and private interests.

5.5 Ma*'$8 "+e de)'#'&$

,he success of coastal fishpond operations depends not only on the general site suitability for fish production but also on other related factors such as input and labour availability" accessibility" mar/eting considerations and others. (ite selection not only involves the determination of desirable physical" chemical and biological factors. It is also important in providing valuable information in the preparation of the overall design and layout of the facility" engineering modifications to be made and the choice of management practices appropriate for the given site. It is important to remember that there is no site that possesses all the desirable characteristics for fishpond operation. 2oreover" no t.o sites are exactly identical .ith one another. 3ence" the degree of suitability of various sites evaluated vary from one area to another. 5.5.1 Me"+&d &( e4alua"'&$ ,he evaluation of the suitability of fish farm sites involves a detailed survey of both technical and non5technical aspects" and the processing of information gathered in order to ma/e the final selection. a. *!e surve&. If possible" the survey should be comprehesive to cover aquacultural" ecological" engineering" socio5economic" management and financial aspects. As a standard practice at least t.o surveys should be conducted during the yearKone each during the dry and rainy seasons. It is important to evaluate the prevailing conditions for different seasons because there are factors that change at different times of the year. A .rong @udgement could be made in the selection if only one survey is conducted.

26

Conducting the survey can be a costly" laborious and time5consuming exercise if the proper steps" procedures and preparation are ta/en for granted. Adisu/resno +19 !recommends the follo.ing to save money" time and effortA i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. (ufficient and complete questionnaires or forms should be prepared before leaving for the surveyB Fuestionnaries must be properly and completely accomplished during the surveyB An itinerary or travel schedule should be preparedB 9nly trained or capable personnel should conduct the surveyB Heeded field equipment should al.ays be put together and brought alongB A list of people to be the met and purpose of meeting should be prepared ahead of time.

b. $rocessing of information. 8ata and information collected during the survey are combination of quantitative and qualitativeB thus" it is very difficult to arrive at a general decision. ,he most commonly used method of deciding the suitability of sites from among a number of prospective sites surveyed is the point and ran/ing system. c. Appl&ing t!e point and ran)ing s&stem. 'nder this system" all data and information are transferred into numbers or assigned numerical points or scores. ,he scoring could be from 1 to 1$ or from 1 to 1$$. A site .ith the most desirable characteristic for a certain criterion is assigned the highest score" the lo.er the value" the less ideal or desirable site becomes and vice5versa. 0or example" in evaluating the accessibility" if a road leads right into the central area" a score of 1$ can be given to this siteB if reached .ithin .al/ing distance" 9B and if reached along across a river or cree/" or less. ;ith regard to the type of vegetation" presence of %&pa sp. can be ran/ed lo.estB mangrove .ith Avicennia sp. can be ran/ed highest" and so on. ,here are t.o .ays of assigning points for the different items in the criteriaA +i- one may consider every criterion to have equal degree of importanceB and +ii- the other .ay recogni?es the varying degree of importance of each criterion by assigning .eights or multiplying factors. ,he latter +ii- is considered better than the former. 7ssentially it is @ust an added step from the first +iin order to get the .eighted score. Camandre and <abanal +197*- suggest the follo.ing relative .eight multiplier for various criteria under conditions in 1eninsular 2alaysia. Cr'"er'&$ +a- Accessibility +b- (ocio5economic impact +c- ;ater supply system +d- Available area +e- ;ater quality 1 % ! ! % Rela"'4e ,e'8+" -0ul"'%l'er.

27

+f- (oil quality +g- 4ind of vegetation +h- 8ensity of vegetation +i- 7levation +@- 1ossibility of mechani?ation +/- 1rotection from .inds" .aves" currents" etc.

% $.* $.* % 1 1

,he points earned under each criterion using either the un.eighted or .eighted method are added together. 0inal selection from among the sites is done by setting a cut5off score. (ites that obtained total points above the cut5off score are qualified for selection. 3o.ever" the sites that qualify must be ran/ed according to the total scores earned. (ites .ith the highest scores are the most desirable. <abanal and Camandre +197*- suggest an evaluation range for scores earned under 2alaysian conditions as follo.sA Ra$8e &( #)&re# -F. $ to 1$$ 6$ to 79 #$ to *9 Belo. #$ 5.5.5 Illu#"ra"'&$ &( "+e %&'$" #y#"e0 ,o illustrate the system described" t.o examples +!.1 and !.!- are hereto presented. 7xample !.1 is modified after Adisu/resno +197*- and 7xample !.! deals .ith surveyed sites in ;est 2alaysia ta/en from Camandre and <abanal +197*-. In 7xample !.1 +,able !.6-" four sites +A" B" C and 8- .ere evaluated. Considering the relatively high scores" all four sites can be considered for fishpond development. Based upon the ran/ing" area 8 is the top priority and area B is second. 3o.ever" it must be noted that all the criteria used have been assigned equal .eights. If factors are used to convert the individual scores into .eighted scores based on the criteria are given emphasis" the ran/ing of the evaluated sites is li/ely to change. In 7xample !.! +,able !.7-" the different criteria used are assigned relative .eights .ith maximum point equivalents totalling 1$$. 7valuation scores for each criterion is assigned .ith the maximum point or less depending on the results of the survey. 7valuated sites .ith scores belo. the cut5off of #$ percent are not considered for fishpond development. EAa0%le 5.1 A%%l')a"'&$ &( u$,e'8+"ed %&'$" #y#"e0 &ery good Eood Hot .orth considering E4alua"'&$ 7xcellent site for development

28

Table 5.E C+ara)"er'#"')# a$d %&'$"# ear$ed by (&ur #'"e# -0&d'('ed a("er Ad'#u*re#$&; 1<>5. Cr'"er'a S&'l /ual'"y: ,exture 8epth of top soil +cmp3 9a"er /ual'"yA p3 (alinity +pptE$4'r&$0e$"al a$d )l'0a"') (a)"&r#: :and elevation +m b.s.l.,idal fluctuation +m<ainfall +days=yearAnnual precipitation +mm&egetation O"+er (a)"&r#: 8istance to source of supplies +/m8istance to nearest industrial area +/m1resence of stream from the industrial area 1resence of stream from ricefield Accessibility 8istance to source of fishseed +/m8istance to nearest source of labour +/m!* 1* Ho Ho Eood *$ * !$ 1* Ho Ho Eood 7$ % 1$ 1$ Mes Ho Eood %$ ! * * 5 Ho Eood 6$ ! 1D! 1D! 1*$ 1 $$ <are 1D! 1.*D!.* !.# 1%$ 1 *$$ 8ense 1D% $.*D!.* 6 1!$ 1 *$$ <are 1D% 1D! * 1$$ ! $$$ 8ense 7. !$ 7.9 !! .$ !# 7.9 !$ (andy loam +%$L sand!$ #.* (andy loam (andy !* *.$ 1$ *.$ (andy loam !$ #. +%*L sand- +6$L sand- +%*L sandL&)a"'&$ A C D

;ater flo. capacity +cu.m=sec- %

29

8istance to nearest mar/et outlet +/mAvailability of area 9ccurrence of typhoon in the area

*$ Mes Hone

*$ Mes Hone

!* Mes Hone

%$ Mes Hone

9ccurrence of monsoon to.ard ;est +8ec5 ;est +8ec5 ;est +8ec5 7ast +Cul5Augthe area 0eb0eb0ebBeach abrasion by monsoon 0lood ha?ard Ho Mes" during heavy rain Ho Ho Ho Ho Ho Ho

S)&re Cr'"er'a S&'l /ual'"y: ,exture 8epth of top soil p3 9a"er /ual'"y: p3 (alinity E$4'r&$0e$" a$d )l'0a"') (a)"&r#: :and elevation ,idal fluctuation ;ater flo. capacity <ainfall Annual precipitation &egetation O"+er (a)"&r#: 8istance to source of supplies 8istance to nearest industrial area 1resence of stream from the industrial area 1resence of stream from ricefield 6 9 1$ 1$ 7 9 1$ 1$ $ 1$ 9 7 1$ 1$ 9 9 6 1$ * 7 7 6 6 6 9 6 6 7 9 1$ 6 6 7 9 9 1$ 7 6 7 # 6 7 7 7 A C D

30

Accessibility 8istance to source of fishseed 8istance to nearest source of labour 8istance to nearest mar/et outlet Availability of area 9ccurrence of typhoons in the area 9ccurrence of monsoon to.ard the area Beach abrasion by monsoon 0lood ha?ard ,otal points <ating +L-N

1$ 7 * 1$ 1$ 1$ * 19! $

1$ 6 9 * 1$ 1$ 7 1$ 1$ 196 !

1$ 1$ 1$ 7 1$ 1$ 7 1$ 1$ 1 9 79

1$ 7 1$ 6 1$ 1$ 7 1$ 1$ 19 %

N 2aximum total points is !#$" maximum score per item is 1$. EAa0%le 5.5 T+e ,e'8+"ed %&'$" #y#"e0 Table 5.= E4alua"'&$ &( #u'"ab'l'"y (&r ('#+%&$d de4el&%0e$" &( 4ar'&u# #,a0%la$d #'"e# #ur4eyed '$ 9e#" Malay#'a -Ad&%"ed :a0a$dre a$d Raba$al; 1<=D. A )) e# #' L&)a"'&$ b' &( #'"e l'" y -G 1. 4uala 1erlis5 'tara" 1erlis 9a "er #u% %ly #y#" e0 -G 5.

S&)'& e)&$ &0') '0%a )" -G 6.

A4a'l able area -G 5.

9a "er /ua l'"y -G 6.

!'$d Pr&"e S&'l 1e8e" &( )"'&$ 9e'8 /ua a"'&$ Ele4a Me)+a$ 4e8e" -,'$d +"ed Re0ar* l'"y de$#'" "'&$ 'za"'&$ a"'&$ "&"al # -G y -G -G 6. -G 1. -G (l&&d. -F. 6. 2.D. 2.D. -G 1. Coop has 2)* $$$ intended for seabass" crabs

6 6

*$

1ulau % ! :ang/a.i" 1erlis ,an@ong

6 7 9 1$

%#

66

#*

*7

*# 7# 9n an island Eood demonst

31

8a.ai +:eft ban/ due south-" 4edah

ration pro@ect site" # ha pond under construc tion +planned for shrimp(hould be supervis ed and encoura ged or ma/e into demonst ration pro@ect 0air Horth end of mud flat" fair Eood 2aybe good for C!anos demonst ration pro@ect 0air

,an@ong 8a.ai +<ight ban/ due south-" 4edah

1$

7#

4uala 2oda" 1enang 1eatal Acheh" 1enang 4uala Calan Baharu 1enang 1ulau Betong 1enang 4uala 4urau" 4uala EulaA ,elo/

7 6

##

6 #

*1

7 *

*%

*7

! !

##

32

<ubian" 1era/ :arut 2atang (elingsing * 7 Island" 1era/ Cabong +roadside-" 9 # 1era/ :arut 2atangA (ungei 4echil" 1era/

6%

Eood

#*

0air

7 7

*9

Eood

Bagan 1ancorA (ungai ,inggiB 1assir 7 7 3itamB (ungai 4erangB Caron 2as" 1era/ 4uala (elangor" (elangor (ungai :u/ut" Hegeri (embilan (ungai :inggi Hegeri" (embilan (ungai <embau" Hegeri (embilan

1$

6#

Can be good for state demonst ration pond at Bagan 1ancor + to 1* ha recomm ended0air Hot recomm ended Hot recomm ended Hot recomm ended

6 6

#*

* #

#$

# %

%9

* %

%6

33

Eelang 1atah" Cohore

6 *

1ro@ect site salinity and .ater quality poor .hen it rains 0air 7xisting and profitabl e crab fattening ponds Eood &ery poor not recomm ended &ery fair Eood 0airly good Eood Eood demonst ration site for

(ungai Chu/oh (er/at" Cohore 4ampong Celo 8a.a. Cohore 1lentong ,ebrau. Cohore

6 %

#*

*1

7 *

*7

4ampong 4uala 7 1 1enor" 1enang 4udatan <iverside. * ! 1ahang 4ampong Cherating. 1ahang !

!6

*#

(ungai Chu/ai" 7 7 ,rengganu (ungai 4emaman" 7 7 ,rengganu 4uala 4erteh" ,rengganu 7

*9

* 6

7 6

% 7

# 6

6 *

* 6

* 6

6 7

# *

*! 6#

34

east coast (ungai 8atu" 7 7 ,rengganu 4ampong 1ulau 4rengga 9 % 2erchang. ,rengganu 4uala Ibai" 7 * ,rengganu 6 # % * * * * 6 * *! Eood <ecom mended for experim ental pond only 0air Hot .orth consider ing Hot .orth consider ing Hot .orth consider ing 0looded

*%

##

4ampong Hegligible 1enare/" s.amps ,rengganu 4ampong 0i/ri" 6 * ,rengganu (aba/" 4elantan ,umpat" 4elantan

##

&ery marginal mangrove 7 6 6 %

#!

CHAPTER 6 DETAILED ENGINEERING AND

35

ECOLOGICAL SUR1E@S IN POTENTIAL?SELECTED SITES

6. DETAILED SUR1E@S AFTER SITE SELECTION
8etailed engineering and ecological=environmental surveys of the fish farm site follo.s after site selection. Actual site surveys is done in connection .ith the full5scale planning and design layout and construction of the farm. ,he engineering surveys may include measurements or verification of distances" directions" and areas" and topographic mapping. 9rdinarily" existing topographic maps .hich include probable sites cover large areas such that the scale used is small and unsuitable for planning designing process. 0or purposes of fish farm pro@ect development" a more suitable or updated topographic map has to be dra.n out. A topographic map sho.s the nature of the ground relief or its characteristics" such as differences in elevation" location and measurement of boundaries or fences" physical facilities +buildings" roads" rivers" canals" bridges" land use5tilled" s.amps" .oods- and other features. ,his map is of paramount importance because it gives the basic hori?ontal +areal- and vertical +elevation- controls in the planning=design of the farm. It provides the relationship of the site .ith the tidal fluctuation" determines direction of .ater movement" guides in locating .ater control structures and in estimating quantity of earth.or/" and other factors .hich are closely tied5up .ith development costs. ,he ecological=environmental survey may verify or provide more in5depth information about the physico5chemical and biological ma/e5up of the environment" in addition to .hat has been /no.n during the site selection process. ,his topic" therefore" covers the survey procedures involved in the measurement of distances" areas" levelling contour mapping" including the ecological concerns and their application to fishpond design and construction.

6.1 E$8'$eer'$8 #ur4ey e/u'%0e$"

,here are a variety of equipment available for field survey .or/. ,he principal equipment are composed of the engineerOs transit" levels" magnetic compass" surveying tape" levelling rod" and range poles. Added to these are minor tools such as hatchet" mallet" bolos" sta/es" etc. 9ther equipment for actual field mapping .or/ is place table .ith alidade. +a- Engineer+s transit. ,he cost depends on the model available .hich range from the simplest /ind to the most sophisticated model. It is a versatile piece of equipment .hich is used for measuring vertical and hori?ontal distancesB vertical and hori?ontal angles" for prolonging lines" for levelling operations" and others. +b- ,evels. Cust li/e the transit" levels vary from simple or less accurate models of hand levels up to the sophisticated and precision models such as the self5levelling level. ,hese are used mainly

36

for measuring vertical and hori?ontal distances in levelling operations. (ome models are equipped .ith hori?ontal circle to measure hori?ontal angle. +c- #agnetic compass. ,he essential features of a surveyorOs compass areA +i- a compass box .ith circle graduated from $P to 9$P in both directions from the H and ( points and usually having the 7 and ; points interchangedA +ii- a line of sight in the direction of the (H points of the compass boxA and +iii- a magnetic needle supported freely on a pivot. ,he .hole compass can be attached to a tripod by a ball and soc/et @oint. +d- ,evelling rod. Also called target rod" this is usually made of .ood graduated either in 7nglish or metric units for measuring vertical distances in con@unction .ith the transit or level. ,his comes in lengths of ! to # m. +e- ange poles. ,hese are slender round poles usually made of metal or .ood painted .ith alternate bands of red and .hite. ,hese are stuc/ along the line of survey in order to establish a straight line of sight.

6.5 Mea#ure0e$" &( d'#"a$)e#

8istances in survey .or/ are measured in either vertical or hori?ontal plane. &ertical distances or differences in elevation in fish farm planning are usually determined by the use of level instruments and level rods. 3ori?ontal distances are determined in various .ays depending on the accuracy desired. Among the available methods" the common and practical ones in use are pacing" taping" and the stadia method. 6.5.1 Pa)'$8 8istances may be roughly calculated by pacing .hen the desired accuracy is not greater than $.6 m in %$ m. A pace is the normal length of a step or stride of an individual. ,he length of pace of an individual should be chec/ed .ith an accurately measured distance in order to determine the so5called 1ace 0actor. 1ace 0actor +1.0.- is defined as the ratio of the measured distance in the number of paces made by an individual to cover the measured distance orA

In determining the 1.0." the measured distance is at least !$$ m or more. ,he !$$ m distance is .al/ed at normal pace" counting the number of paces to cover it. ,his is done at least three times. ,he average number of paces is used as the divisor in determining the 1.0. A person .ho has a 1.0. of $.7$ means that the normal length of his step is $.7$ m. If the same person has .al/ed % $$$ paces" the rough estimate of the distance covered isA 8istance G 1.0. Q Humber of paces G $.7$ Q % $$$ G ! 1$$ m

37

In pacing" one should be a.are of the factors .hich vary the length of pace. (ome of these areA +i- .hen .al/ing through short or tall vegetationB +ii- .hen going up or do.n hillB +iii- .hen .al/ing on .et or dry groundB on plo.ed or firm soilB and +iv- .hen crossing fences. 6.5.5 Ta%'$8 ,apes +0ig. %.1- are used for direct measurements of hori?ontal distances. Commercially sold are made of steel" metallic cloth or fiberglass materials. ,hese tapes are graduated in 7nglish" metric or combination of the t.o systems of units and come in various lengths of *$ ft or 1* m. 1$$ ft or %$ m. and as much as 1$$ m. ,he first and last foot or meter of the tapes are usually fully graduated" as small as tenth of a foot or in mm. ,he middle graduations are in full feet or meter graduation. ,here are" ho.ever" exceptions to this" Accurate taping requires s/ill in the use of the tape" mar/ing sta/es or pins" plum bob and range poles or flags. 0or accurate taping" the follo.ing should be observedA +a- 1ull tape tight enough avoiding too much sag especially .hen long lengths of the tape is suspended. Brea/ the tape or use only a portion of a tape length .hen measuring hori?ontal distances on slopping groundB use also plumb bob. +b- 9n the other hand" avoid too much stretching as in the case of fiberglass tape. +c- 7rror due to expansion +in the case of steel pipe- during hot days. +d- Alignment of tape during measurement. 'se range poles or flags as guide in having straight line of sight. <ear tapeman should al.ays align .ith the head of the tapeman during taping. +e- Count number of tape lengths carefully. ,aping pins should be used +0ig. %.1b-.

38

0ig. %.1 7quipment for measuruing hori?ontal and vertical distances +f- Inspect the full tape length al.ays before using. ;hen damaged or short tape is used" apply correction properly. +g- Be proficient in measuring distance less than a tape length" and in reading graduation in tape. 6.5.6 T+e #"ad'a 0e"+&d

39

A quic/ .ay of measuring distance is by the stadia method. ,he measurement of distance by stadia uses the transit or level instruments" having telescope provided .ith stadia hairs +0ig. %.!and levelling rod. ,he stadia hairs are equidistant from the hori?ontal cross5hair. ,he procedure of measuring distance on level ground is illustrated as follo.s +0ig. %.!-. :et us say that distance 9A is to be measured. 0rom the position of the instrument" distance 9A can be determined by getting the upper and lo.er rod readings .hich are intersected by the upper and lo.er stadia hairs of the telescope" respectively. ,he general formula is as follo.sA 8istance 9A G +'pper rod reading 5 :o.er rod reading- +1$$- R (tadia Constant 9ld model transits and levels have stadia constants indicated in their box but the modern ones have this value as ?ero. ;ith stadia constant equal to ?ero" the formula becomesA 8istance 9A G +'pper rod reading 5 :o.er rod reading-+1$$,he difference bet.een upper and lo.er rod readings is called stadia interval. ,he unit of the distance follo.s the unit of the rod used. As an example" if upper and lo.er rod readings are !.7* and $.!* m" respectively" the distance isA 8istance 9A G +!.7* 5 $.!*- +1$$- G !*$

40

0ig. %.! Illustration of stadia method ,he hori?ontal cross5hair is used as a chec/ in the correctness of the distance. (ince the hori?ontal cross5hair is located at the middle of the t.o upper and lo.er stadia hairs" the distance measure using either of the t.o stadia hairs and the hori?ontal cross5hair is one5half of the distance 9A. 3ence" the chec/ is as follo.sA 8istance 9A G +'pper or lo.er rod reading 5 2iddle rod reading- +!- +1$$If the line of sight is on sloping ground" it is necessary to apply a correction in order to obtain the true hori?ontal distance. ,his is done by the use of tables .hich indicate corrections for various angles of slope. 3o.ever" in the fish farm survey" corrections are usually ignored as slope encountered rarely exceeds * percent and such percentage does not require corrections.

6.6 Mea#ure0e$" &( a$8le# a$d d're)"'&$#

,he direction of any line is measured in terms of angle bet.een the line and some reference line K usually the Horth5(outh line in the compass. ,he instruments used to measure angles are compass" transit" tapes" plane5table" alidade" and sextant. In general" accomplishment of survey .or/ revolves in the properly organi?ed measurements of distances and angles. Angles @ust li/e distances" are also measured along the hori?ontal and vertical planes are called hori?ontal and vertical angles" respectively. 6.6.1 Me"+&d# &( eA%re##'$8 a$8le# a$d d're)"'&$# Angles and directions may be expressed in different .ays" namelyA +i- bearingB +ii- a?imuthB +iiiinterior anglesB +iv- deflection anglesB and +v- angles to the right. Among these" the first t.o are commonly used in fish farm survey. ,he method using interior angles is useful in chec/ing or ad@usting the plotted sides of an area +based on the field data gathered to have a closed survey. +a- Bearing. It is the angle that is referred from the Horth and (outh" .hichever is nearest .ith the added designation of east or .est" .hichever applies +0ig. %.%-. A bearing can never be greater than 9$P. 7xamples of bearing areA H %7P 7. H #*P *$O ;" ( *#P 1*O%$S ;" ( 9P #*O 7" H 9$P 7 or due 7ast. +b- A"imut!. ,he a?imuth of a line is a cloc/ .ise angle measured from a reference direction usually Horth. ,he (outh end of the Horth5(outh line is also being used as reference direction for a?imuth in geodetic surveys. A?imuths based from the Horth are called Horth a?imuthB those referred from the (outh are (outh a?imuth +0ig. %.#-.

41

0ig. %.% (/etch of example bearing of line

0ig. %.# Illustration of north and south a?imuth of a line (ome examples of equivalent a?imuth and bearings of a line are as follo.sA Az'0u"+ N&r"+ 1!$P !$$P %$ !9$P %$P #*O %$OO S&u"+ %$$P !$P %$O 11$P !1$P #*O %$OO ( 6$P 7 ( !$P %$O; H 7$P ; H %$P #*O %$OO7 ear'$8

8etermining equivalent bearings and a?imuths can best be done by figuring out in .hich quadrant the angle lies. +c- Deflection angle. ,his refers to the angle bet.een a line and the prolongation of the preceding line. 8eflection angles are identified as right or left. <ight deflection if the angle measured lies to the right +cloc/.ise- of the extension of the preceding line. :eft deflection if the angle lies to the left +counter cloc/.ise- of the extension of the preceding line +0ig. %.*-.

42

0ig. %.* 8efinition s/etch of deflection angles In the case of deflection angles" the reference lines for lines +or sides of a field- BC and C8" is the prolongation or extension of the preceding lines AB and C8" respectively. 3o.ever" those reference lines must be tied up .ith the reference line of AB .hich could be expressed either in bearing or a?imuth. 8eflection angles may have values bet.een $P and 1 $P but they are not usually used for angles greater than 9$P. In any closed polygon +or sides of a given fish farm site-" the algebrate sum of the deflection angles +considering right deflection as plus +R- and left deflection as minus +5- is %6$P. +d- Angles to rig!t. Angles may also be determined by cloc/.ise measurements from the preceding line to the follo.ing line +0ig. %.6-. (uch angles are referred to as angles to right.

0ig. %.6 Angles to right +e- -nterior angles. In any closed polygon" the angles inside the figure bet.een ad@acent lines are called interior angles +0ig. %.7-. ,he sum of the interior angles in a closed polygon is equal to +H5 !-+1 $P-" .here H is the number of sides. 0or a five sided field" the sum of the interior angles is *#$P. Actual value of every interior angle is computed from the field data on directions" such as bearings" a?imuths or the other methods. An error is incurred if the total interior angles obtained from survey data is more or less than the value determined by the formula.

43

0ig. %.7 Illustration of interior angles As an example" the interior angles in A and B +0ig. %.7- can be computed as follo.sA +i- 0or interior angle A" example bearings of line AB and 7A of H $P7" and H 11P7" respectively" .ill be needed in the computation including the cross5directional lines H5( and 75 ;. 3enceA Interior Angle A G 1$P R 9$P R 11P G 111P +ii- 0or B" the bearings of lines AB and BC" H $P7 and ( 9*P7" respectively" .ill be needed. ,herefore" Interior G +9$P 5 1$P- R *P Angle B G 16*P or G 1 $P 5 1$P 5 *P G 16*P 6.6.5 Me"+&d# &( de"er0'$'$8 a$8le# a$d d're)"'&$# 9nly the common or simple methods are presented herein. +a- #easurement of angles b& tape. As an example" the angle bet.een t.o sides of a field is to be determined as in 0igure %. . ,he procedure is as follo.sA 0rom the figure" measure and mar/ .ith sta/es a convenient distance" say *$5m each along line 9A and 9B. ,he points at 9" A and B are mar/ed by range poles in order to have a straight line

44

of sight. 2easure the distance bet.een C8 and locate the mid5point 7. ,he angle is then determined by using the sine function and trigonometric table or calculator.

:et us say" distance C7 is !* mB then" :ocate the angle .ith (in G $.* from the table or by calculator" .hich is %$P

therefore" angle $ G %$P Q ! G 6$P

0ig. %. Angle measurement by taping Another situation is ho. to establish a perpendicular line to either of the t.o lines 9A and AB to ma/e a right triangle +0ig. %.9-. ,he angle is determined by ta/ing the necessary measurements in order to use the sine or tangent function. 3o.ever" the above method is slightly quic/er than this.

45

0ig. %.9 Angle by taping" right triangle method +b- #easurement of angles and directions b& compass and transit (i) Bearing of a line. ,o determine the bearing by compass" set the instrument over some point on the line. :evel the instrument and lo.er the magnetic needle of the compass to ma/e it s.ing freely K next" sight along the line the bearing of .hich is sought. ,he bearing is then read on the graduated circle at the point of the needle .hich .ill be less than 9$P and either in the ;est or 7ast of the Horth or (outh. 7xample" if the needle stands #*P east of north" then the bearing is H #*P7 +0ig. %.1$-. ,a/e note that the magnetic needle of the compass al.ays aligns itself to.ards the magnetic Horth. 8uring reading the Horth and (outh end of the needle is distinguished from each other by the counter.eight" it being located in the (outh end.

46

0ig. %.1$ 2easurement of line bearing ,he engineerOs transit is also provided .ith compass .hich is mounted on its upper or vernier plate. In ta/ing bearing" the instrument is set5up on the line and properly levelled. ,hen the telescope line of sight" the $P mar/ of the hori?ontal circle" as .ell as its vernier" are all loc/ed and all in one line directed to.ards the magnetic Horth to coincide .ith the released free5 s.inging needle of its compass. After attaining a steady position" the hori?ontal circle is unloc/ed to ma/e it rotate .ith the telescope. ,he telescope is then rotated about its vertical axis and directed along the line until the vertical cross hair bisects the mar/er sta/e or range pole. ,he angle read on the hori?ontal circle and the vernier corresponds to the bearing of the line. ,he directional H5( and 75; are ta/en from the compass. (ii) Azimuth of a line by transit. :et us say that the a?imuth of the line BC is desired +0ig. %.11-. (et the instrument at B. Bac/sight point A .ith the vernier set to read the a?imuth of the line BA. ;hen the telescope or line of sight is rotated to C" the vernier reading .ill be the a?imuth of line BC.

47

0ig. %.11 2easurement of a?imuth (iii) Deflection angle. <eferring to 0ig. %.1!" the deflection angle at B can be determined as follo.sA A bac/sight is ta/en at A .ith the vernier set at $P. ,hen the telescope or line of sight is rotated vertically or plunged in altitude to point in the direction B8. ,hen the line of sight is rotated until it sights C. ,he vernier reads the deflection angle 8BC.

0ig. %.1! 2easurement of deflection angle

6.C Lay'$8 &u" %er%e$d')ular a$d %arallel l'$e#

,his is usually encountered in the actual layout of pond di/e. ,he @ob is easily done .ith transit but in its absence the use of tape is also convenient. 6.C.1 Lay'$8 &u" %er%e$d')ular l'$e#

48

0or example" it is desired to layout the centreline of di/e C8 +0ig. %.1%- perpendicular to di/e AB at point 8.

0ig. %.1% ,he %5#5* method in laying out perpendicular lines +a- *!e ./0/1 met!od2 It is a common /no.ledge that a right triangle is one .hose sides are in the proportion of triangle" .ith shorter sides % and # perpendicular to each other .hile the longest side * is the hypotenuse. ,o lay out the perpendicular lines AB and C8 using the same principle" the procedure is as follo.sA +i- 9ne tape length of 1$$ m is convenient to use such that the $" 1*" %*" and 6$5m graduation mar/s can be held as a loop in one set5up. +ii- ,hree men have to do the .or/. 0irst man holds the ?ero and 6$5m graduation of the tape" the second man" the 1*5m and the third" the %*5m mar/. +iii- ,he tape is held tight enough" and the first and second man are aligned along AB .hile the third man ad@usts himself as necessary to /eep the tape stretched. +iv- ,he points 8 and C are then mar/ed and extended.

49

+v- ,his can be chec/ed by using larger proportions of distance such as %$" #$ and *$ m. -b. Intersection method

0ig. %.1# Intersection method +i- 0rom 0ig. %.1# measure equal distance of %$ m from both sides of point 8. +ii- ;hile one man holds the tape at $" another man describes an arc using" say a full tape length of *$ m. +iii- ,he procedure in +ii- is repeated at point $O. +iv- 1oint C is located by the t.o intersecting lines. :ine C8 is then perpendicular to AB. ,he intersection method applies on relatively clear ground .here the described are can be mar/ed or seen. An alternative quic/er procedure is to use one tape length of *$ m and an equivalent length of rope or t.o ropes of equal length. ,.o men hold one end of the tape=rope and each of them stays at point $ and $O. Another man holds the other end of the t.o ropes pulled tight and point C is located. 6.C.5 Lay'$8 &u" %arallel l'$e# (uppose in 0ig. %.1*" di/e C8 is to be laid parallel to and at 6* m distance from di/e AB. 0rom AB erect perpendicular lines 70 and E3 in the same .ay described in the previous topic. 7xtend the line from points 7 and E until it exceeds 6* m from AB. 2easure equal distances of 6* m along 70 and E3 from AB. ,he line C8 formed passing through points 0 and 3 is the desired parallel.

50

0ig. %.1* :aying out parallel lines

6.D Mea#ure0e$" &( area#

In ordinary land surveying" the area of a tract of land is ta/en as its pro@ection upon a hori?ontal plane and not the actual area of the surface of the land. Available methods used in computing areas are theA +i- planimeter method K .here boundaries of the farm are plotted to scale and area is determined by the use of planimeterB +ii- double5 meridian5distance +828- method K .here area is calculated from the coordinates of the farmB +iii- trape?oidal rule and (impsonOs T rule for calculating areas of land bounded by irregular curvesB and +iv- by plotting the boundaries to scale and dividing the tract into regular geometric figures +such as triangles" rectangles" or trape?oids-" scaling the dimensions of these figures and computing their areas mathematically. :i/e.ise" the tract of land may also be actually divided into regular figures and all necessary measurements of sides are ta/en. Among these methods" the trape?oidal rule and the last method of subdividing into regular geometric figures are easily understood. 2oreover" .ith the advent of precision poc/et calculators" direct computation of areas is no. convenient to do. ,he principles and procedures for t.o methods are illustrated in Appendix 8.

6.E T&%&8ra%+') #ur4ey

,his /ind of survey requires technical /no.5ho. and s/ill in levelling operations. ,he ultimate ob@ective in doing this survey is to reflect on map the relief or changes in elevation of the fish farm site including other relevant ground features. 6.E.1 Le4ell'$8

51

,his is a basic operation in engineering survey that leads to the production of a topographic map. 8irect levelling is commonly used among the methods in levelling available and it is the process by .hich differences in elevation in the site is determined .ith the use of a level or transit instruments +0ig. %.16- together .ith a level or stadia rod. ;hen it is necessary to locate or fix the ground points as in the case of full5scale topographic survey" additional information on directions +angles- and distances are obtained. ,here are t.o /inds of direct levelling K differential and profile levelling. 8ifferential levelling is the operation .hich determines the difference in elevation of t.o points .hich are distance apart. 1rofile levelling is the operation that determines the differences in elevation of points along a prescribed line and at measured intervals. ,he follo.ing terms and their definitions are useful in understanding the principle of levelling. +a- Elevation K refers to the vertical distance of a ground point from the reference datum plane +2::;-. +b- Benc! mar) (B#) K it is a station or point on the ground of /no.n elevation and of a permanent nature. B2 provides the reference elevation from .hich relative elevations for other stations are calculated. A B2 may be established on permanent ob@ects=structure on .ooden or bamboo sta/es driven firmly near a construction pro@ect.

52

0ig. %.16 :evel instruments +c- Station +(ta- K any point .here a rod reading is ta/en and is generally along the line being run. +d- Bac)sig!t or plus sig!t +B(- K a rod reading ta/en on point of /no.n elevation. ,his is used for obtaining the level line of sight or 3I. Also /no.n as plus sight since it is al.ays added.

53

+e- 3oresig!t or minus sig!t +0(- K a rod reading ta/en on any point of un/no.n elevation. Also /no.n as minus sight since it is al.ays subtracted. +f- *urning point +,1- K it is generally impossible to ta/e all the readings along the direction of survey .ithout moving the instrument. ,he ,1 is an intermediate station or reference point .henever the instrument is moved from one set5up to another. A point .hich is no longer needed after the necessary readings have been ta/en. +g- 4eig!t of t!e instrument +3I- K is the relative elevation of the line of sight of the instrument as referred to the elevation of the datum plane" bench mar/ or turning point. +h- 5round profile K a graph of the ground surface .hich sho.s change in elevation +along vertical y5axis- .ith distance +along hori?ontal x5axis-. 6.E.5 D'((ere$"'al le4ell'$8 ,he principle involved" /eeping of differential level note" the arithmetic chec/" and acceptable degree of accuracy are given belo.. +a- $rinciple of differential levelling ase !" ,.o points visible. 0rom 0ig. %.17" the difference in elevation" 3 G 3a 5 3bB .here 3a and 3b" are rod readings at points A and B" respectively.

0ig. %.17 Case of t.o points visible from the instrument ,o determine the elevation of point B" the elevation of point A must be /no.n. Assuming that the elevation at A is 7:A" the elevation of point B" 7:B isA 7:B G 7:A R 3a 5 3b Hote that 7:A R 3a G 3IB and since the elevation at A G 7:A R B( 5 0( is /no.n" then 3a is a B(B 3b is a 0( since the elevation of B is un/no.n. 7:B G 3I 5 0(

54

ase #" ,he ob@ective points are not visible from each other or far apart. ,o determine the difference in elevation bet.een points A and B +0ig. %.1 -" a series of differential levelling is done. ,his situation occurs .hen another bench mar/ is to be established in the fish farm pro@ect. Instrument is set approximately mid.ay of turning points. ,he corresponding differential level note as obtained in the field for 0ig. %.1 is presented in ,able %.1. +b- Arit!metic c!ec)2 Completion of the level note for 3IOs and elevations follo. after the field .or/. ,o chec/ for the accuracy of addition and subtraction" the difference in the sums of the bac/sights and foresights must be equal to the numerical difference in elevation bet.een B2! and B21" orA (um B( 5 (um 0( G 7lev. B2! 5 7lev. B21 0rom the given example of a complete differential level note +,able %.1-" the corresponding arithmetic chec/ is as follo.sA (um B( G 9.*% (um 0( G 6.71 !. ! m 7lev. B2! #.%! G 7lev. B21 1.*$ G Chec/ !. ! m

+c- Allo(able error of closure. ,he arithmetic chec/ determines only the correctness of the addition and subtraction done in completing the table. It does not tell the degree of error incurred in the conduct of the field survey. 8epending on the nature of the @ob" the accuracy of .or/ must be .ithin the allo.able limit prescribed. In fish farm site survey" the allo.able error is largely dictated by the range of tidal fluctuations. ,he allo.able error of closure for rough and ordinary levelling .or/s are as follo.s +8avis" et al." 1966-A Ty%e &( ,&r* <ough levelling +0or reconnaisance or preliminary R +$.#- + = 2 -A 8istance of sights is about %$$ surveymeters 9rdinary levelling +2ost engineering .or/R +$.1- + = 2 -A 8istance of sights is about 1*$ meters All&,able err&r; '$ (ee" -2.62D 0.

;here 2 G length of traverse or level circuit in mile +1.6$9 /m-.

55

0ig. %.1 :evelling procedure .hen ob@ective points are not visible in single instrument set5up Table 6.1 D'((ere$"'al le4el $&"e (&r F'8ure 6.1> STA B21 ,11 ,1! ,1% ,1# ,1* B2! 1.*$ 1.71 1. * 1.67 1.#* 1.%* 5 S %.$$ %.71 #.#1 #. % *.1* *.% 5 HI 5 1.$$ 1.1* 1.!* 1.1% 1.1! 1.$6 FS ELE1ATION; 0 1.*$ !.$$ !.*6 %.16 %.7$ #.$% #.%! REMAR!S B2" located on an undisturbed or permanent structure

,he actual error incurred during the field survey must not exceed the allo.able error. Actual error is determined by completing the level survey loop or circuit. In other .ords" the levelling operation from point A to B +0ig. %.1 - is continued bac/ +B to A-" thus completing the loop and ta/ing into consideration its length. An example of a level circuit is sho.n in 0ig. %.19.

56

0ig. %.19 An example of levelling circuit ,he actual error is the difference in values of elevation at A at the beginning of survey and computed elevation +also at A- at the end of the survey. 6.E.6 Pr&('le le4ell'$8 An important aspect in pond design and construction is devoted to control of .ater movement. ;ater must be conveyed in desired direction and at controlled velocities. ,o accomplish this" it is necessary to measure accurately differences in elevation along a definite line. (uch line may be the centreline for a .ater supply canal or drainage ditch. ,he procedure in conducting profile levelling is illustrated in 0ig. %.!$. ,he figure is the centreline of a fresh.ater supply canal for regulating salinity or other purposes in a brac/ish.ater fish farm. 1rofile levelling begins by setting up the instrument at a convenient location .here several stations are visible. As B( is ta/en from the B2" then 0( readings are ta/en as many as the instrument man can clearly read. ;hen no more 0( can be read" the level instrument has to be transferred. Before transferring" an 0( is ta/en at the ,1. At the ne. location of the level" a B( is ta/en from the ,1" then additional foresights +0(- are again ta/en. ,he .hole process is repeared until the .or/ is finished. ,he column for elevations in the level note is completed by computations +,able %.!-. ,here are only t.o 3IOs under the illustration. ,o compute for the elevation of the stations" the foresights from (tation $ R $$ up to 1 R $$ shall be subtracted from 3I1. At ,11" a ne. 3I must be determined. 7levations of remaining stations +1 R !* to ! R $$- are determined by subtracting the foresights from the 3I! of ,11.

57

0ig. %.!$ Illustration of profile levelling procedure Table 6.5 T+e %r&('le le4el $&"e (&r F'8ure 6.52 STA; 0 B21 $ R $$ R !* R *$ R 6* R 7* 1 R $$ ,11 1 R !* 1 R *$ 1 R 7* ! R $$ ! R %$ 1.%7 K K K K K K 1. $ K K K K K S K K K K K K %.$7 K K K K K HI !. 7 K 1.*% 1.67 1.7% 1.9$ !.$* !.!! 1.6$ !.!7 !.%7 !.*7 !.77 %.$$ FS Ele4a"'&$ 1.*$ 1.%# 1.!$ 1.1# $.97 $. ! $.6* 1.!7 $. $ $.7$ $.*$ $.%$ $.7$ 7nd of canal Beginning of canal on top of di/e Re0ar*#

0rom the completed profile level notes" the ground profile is dra.n using a cross5section paper +0ig. %.!1-. ,he elevation is plotted on the vertical axis" .hile the stations or distances represent the hori?ontal axis. ,he scale for elevations are usually made larger than the hori?ontal scale to emphasi?e differences in elevation. 7xample of information obtained from the profile are available ground slope for determining possible velocity in canal" and location and depth of cuts or fills.

58

0ig. %.!1 1rofile of centerline of supply canal 6.E.C C&$"&ur 0a%%'$8 Contour lines sho. the configuration or changes in elevation of the ground in a topographic map. 7ach contour line represents points of same elevation and are spaced according to the difference in elevation bet.een t.o ad@acent lines. 3ence" contour line +C.:.- $.*$ means that every point on that line has elevation of $.*$ m above the reference datum. If the next contour lines lo.er and above C.:.$.*$ are $.!* and $.7*" respectively" the contour interval is $.!*. ,opographic or contour survey is commonly done .ith three methods K the laying K out5 square" random shot" and by sounding methods. ,hese methods use combined /no.ledge of differential and profile levelling. Accurate measurements of lengths and directions of the farm boundaries are done prior to ta/ing rod readings during contour survey. +a- ,a&ing/out/square met!od2 ,his method is done by literally setting up squares in the area .ith the use of either tape or transit. 7ach intersection or corner in the square is mar/ed .ith sta/e and represents ground point .here rod reading is to be ta/en. 1roper identification of ground points must be done for proper note /eeping and plotting during mapping. Identification is usually done using numbers in one direction and letters in the other direction +refer to 0ig. %.!!-. ,he format for data recording is given in ,able %.%

59

0ig. %.!! :aying5out square method Table 6.6 F&r0a" (&r "+e le4el $&"e (&r lay'$8-&u"-#/uare 0e"+&d S"a"'&$ B2 A1 A! A% An B1 B! B% S HI FS Ele4a"'&$ Re0ar*#

60

Bn C1 etc. HoteA InJ refers to the last number of observation ,he above menthod is appropriate for small areas .ith less vegetation. ;ith this method plotting of points on the scaled map is also easy. 0or large areas" ho.ever" laying out squares in the field becomes laborious and impractical. +b- andom s!ot met!od. ,his method has more advantage than the preceding method .hen large areas are involved. 0ield survey is done faster" but plotting of ground points on the scaled map may ta/e longer time since it involves measurement of angles and distances. A transit equipped .ith stadia hairs is best to use in this method. 3o.ever" frequent chec/ of the transit telescope level need to be done to minimi?e error. A plane table .ith telescopic alidade can also be employed in this method. ,he sequence of field survey activities in the random shot method is as follo.sA +i- ,he first step consists in measuring the boundaries of the field to be surveyed" determining the length" directions and angles of all sides. +ii- ,he instrument stations have to be established in the area. ,he locations of the instrument position on the ground must be fixed so that it can be accurately plotted on the map. ,he instrument stations can be established either separately and ahead of the actual ta/ing of rod readings or simultaneously as the .or/ progresses. 3o.ever" .hen the .or/ is quite large" it is better to establish the instrument stations separately together .ith additional turning points or bench mar/s as necessary. +iii- ,he instrument is set at Instrument (tation 1 +or simply (tation 1-. Before random shots are ta/en" the location of (tation 1 should be fixed or tied5up .ith at least t.o concrete corner points or monument of the land boundary. ,his is necessary in locating the positions of the instruments during map construction. ,he location of point on the ground is fixed if measurements are made ofA +a- its direction and distance from a /no.n pointA +b- its direction from t.o /no.n pointsA +c- its distance from t.o /no.n pointsB and +d- its direction from one and distance from another /no.n point. ,he position of the instrument at (tation 1 in 0ig. %.!% is fixed by the t.o lines connecting (tation to boundary monuments at points A and B. +iv- ;ith the instrument set at (tation 1" a reference line for the radiating random shots is selected. ,his reference line can either be the Horth5(outh line of the instrumentsO compass or the line connecting t.o ad@acent instrument stations. ,he illustration in 0ig. %.!% uses the line bet.een (tations 1 and 6 as the reference line or the ?ero5degree +$P- line. ,o ta/e random shots

61

+rod readings- the transit telescope deflects incremental angles in cloc/.ise direction from the $P K line. Incremental angles of %P" *P" 1$P" etc. may be used depending on the situation and convenience. Along the line of sight of these incremental angles" random rod readings are ta/en as many as necessary. 7ach rod reading" ho.ever" must be accompanied .ith corresponding angular reading and distance of the ground point from the instrument measured by the stadia method. 9nce the %6$P 5 turn is completed" the instrument is transferred to (tation !. Before going to (tation !" a 0( is ta/en from the selected ,11. 9nce the instrument is set at (tation !" a B( is ta/en from the ,11. At (tation !" the ground points not covered in (tation 1 are no. ta/en using the same procedure. ,he survey proceeds until the .hole area is covered .ith radiating shots. 0ig. %.!% illustrates the general procedure in the random shot method.

0ig. %.!% Illustration of instrument stations .ithin an area and the random shots for each angle +v- 9nce the field survey is completed" the elevation of all ground points are computed to complete the suggested format for level notes +,able %.#-. +vi- Construction of the topographic map follo.s. A suitable scale to be used is selected based on the si?e of the paper and purpose of the map. ,hen the boundaries of the land is dra.n to scale" follo.ed by the loop of the instrument stations. <adial lines corresponding to the incremental angles at each station is dra.n by using a protractorB distances along each line corresponding to the ground points are also plotted to scale. ,he computed elevations are then noted on their respective ground points. 7ach building" road" cree/" river" etc. should also be located .ith the proper symbols. Contour lines are then dra.n out in order to sho. the topography of the land.

62

+c- Contouring. ,he contour interval +C.I.- to be used must be decided on before dra.ing the contour lines. ,he C.I. depends on the desired accuracy and purpose of the contour map. Eenerally" ho.ever" .ider C.I. is used in area .ith rugged topography and closer such as $.1*" $.!*" $.* m for flat or gently sloping area as in the case of most fish farm sites. 7xamination of 0ig. %.!# provides better understanding on ho. to construct a contour map. ,he first contour line to be dra.n may be based either from the lo.est or highest ground elevation. ,a/e note that a contour line al.ays passes bet.een ground points .ith values lo.er and higher than the value or number of the given contour line. 7levations denoting each contour line must be indicated" other.ise it does not mean anything.

0ig. %.!# A contour map Table 6.C F&r0a" (&r "+e le4el $&"e# (&r ra$d&0-#+&" 0e"+&d S"a"'&$ S HI FS S"a"'&$ d'#"a$)e U%%er L&,er D'#"a$)e Ele4a"'&$ Re0ar*#

63

B2 Instrument 1 $P1 ! % n *P 1 ! % n 1$P 1 ! etc. ,he location of each contour line as it passes bet.een points on the map can be determined by inspection or eyeballing and more accurately by interpolation method. +d- C!aracteristics of contour lines. Certain /no.ledge on characteristics" of contour lines .ill facilitate contouring as .ell as its interpretation. (ome of these characteristics are as follo.sA i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. All points on a contour line are of the same elevation. Contour lines al.ays close to itself .ithin or outside the confines of the map. ;here they close outside the boundaries of the map" they are ended at the boundaries. Contour lines that close .ithin the confines of the map represent either a rise or a depression. Contour lines regularly spaced on the map represents uniform slope. Contour lines never intersect nor cross each other except in the case of an overhanging cliff. Contour lines never branch nor split. Contour in crossing a valley run up the valley at one side" cross the stream" and run bac/ on the other side. ,he steepest slope is al.ays at right angles to the contours.

6.E.D T&%&8ra%+') #ur4ey by #&u$d'$8

64

It is a common situation in coastal fish farm site to conduct topographic survey on an area that is under shallo. tidal .ater. ,he usual method used is by sounding. ,he follo.ing describes the procedure on ho. the survey is done by using magnetic +surveyorOs- compass" stadia=levelling +sounding- rod" tape and t.o small boats. 9ne boat is for the instrument +compass- man and the other for the rod man. +a- ,he predicted tide curve for the day the survey is conducted is prepared in advance. ,his curve provides tide level information at any time of the day. +b- ,he surveying party establishes the boundaries of area under survey as .ell as fixing location of some landmar/s or ground points .ith reference to corner points of boundary lines. +c- ,he instrument man at point A +refer to 0ig. %.!*- locates his position on the map. ;henever appropriate" the instrument man chooses to tie5up directly from the corner points of the boundary or from fixed landmar/s such as trees" in order to locate his position on the map. 3is position is located by ta/ing do.n the bearings of at least t.o of his Itie linesJ +i.e." the corner points or landmar/s-. ,he bearings obtained .hen plotted .ill intersect at one point .hich defines the position of the instrument man. ,he actual distance of the boat from the Itie linesJ may be measured by tape to chec/. It is assumed that the .ater is shallo. enough to permit actual measurements by tape. 9ther.ise" distance is measured approximately .hile on boat. +d- ,hen the instrument man signals to the rodman that he is ready to sight him +the rod-. ,he rodman holds the rod straight do.n to the ground surface +under .ater- at ground point +E1- 1 and the instrument man gets the bearing of E1 1. <odman records the .ater surface level or depth of .ater at E11 and the corresponding time. ,he process is complete after ta/ing the distance by tape bet.een points A and E11.

0ig.%.!* Illustration of topographic survey by soundings At this point" the ground surface elevation at E1" can already be computed as follo.sA

65

7levation of 3eight of tide +from predicted tide curve- at the time rod reading is ta/en E11G minus the rod reading at E11. ,he location of E11 is located on the map by plotting its bearing and distance .ith reference to point A. +e- ,he rod man at E11 then moves to another ground point" E1! and the instrument man at A reads the bearing" the rodman records the depth and timeB and the tape men measure the distance from A to E1!. ,his process is repeared until such time the rodman has covered the area that is visible from the instrument man. +f- ,he instrument man moves to another position B. ,he instrument man no. at point B bac/sights points A to get the bac/ bearing of BA. (imilarly" the tapeman measure the distance bet.een AB. 3ence" this locates point B on the map. 7levations of other ground points not yet covered at point A are subsequently ta/en using the same procedure. A sample of field survey data is presented in ,able %.*.

6.= E)&l&8')al -e$4'r&$0e$"al. #ur4ey

After a site has been selected" there are more information +in addition to those already gathered during the site evaluation- needed .hich are useful in the pro@ect development. It should be remembered that the site may have some strong and .ea/ points during the evaluation. 8uring the detailed planning and design" it is therefore necessary to identify the positive and especially the negative factors that .ould affect productivity of the cultured species" in order to ma/e the necessary modifications in the engineering design and cultural management practices. Among others" the follo.ing need more in5depth attention and evaluationA 6.=.1 9a"er /ual'"y 2ore information on the physico5chemical and microbiological characteristics of the .ater should be obtained. ,he .ater temperature" p3" dissolved oxygen" biological oxygen demand +B98-" nutrients +H9%" 1!9*" etc.-" salinity" pollution and other information such as C98 and measures of productivity must be loo/ed into in detail. ,hese values" aside from being used in design process" .ould also help in evaluating the environmental changes once the site has been cleared and the pro@ect established. ,here should be at least t.o samplings done. 9nce at minimum and once at maximum tidal range. If possible" this sampling should also be done at different seasons. ,his allo.s calculation of data for intermediate ranges. ;ater samples or measurements should be obtained at least from the surface" mid5length and near the bottom of the sampling site. 9n each sampling occasion" observation may be done at each depth at hourly interval over a tidal cycle. 6.=.5 Sal'$'"y '$ r'4er# a$d )a$al#

66

,he normal salinity during high and lo. tide at different seasons of the year should also be /no.n. ,he follo.ing are of particular importance and should be /no.nA +i- the rate of flo. and velocity in the rivers or canals during each season in relation to salt.ater intrusion and formation of salt.ater5fresh.ater .edgesB +ii- the length of .edge from the river mouth" the depth of salt.ater and fresh.ater layers .ithin the .edge" and salinity values along the depth .ith .edge regionB +iii- along .ith these" the frequency and duration of fresh.ater flooding. ,his is important to /no. if there is a need to induce mixing or destroy the .edge to alter the salinityB to minimi?e siltation along the river or canal" or in selecting the site for gate construction and others. Table 6.D Sa0%le ('eld da"a &$ #ur4ey by #&u$d'$8# S"a"'&$ I$#"ru0e$" 8r&u$d %&'$" A 1 ! % BA B 1 ! % # 9a"er de%"+ -0. $.9! $.7$ $.%9 5 $.#$ $.#% $.$9 $.$* ear'$8 D'#"a$)e -0. H%*P7 H6$P7 (#*P7 H7$P; H#*P7 (*!P7 !$ %% ! 7 %* !$ He'8+" &( Ele4a"'&$ Re0ar*# "'de "'de -0. -0. 1.$7 1.$* $.99 $.9# $.9$ $. * $.77 $.7# $.1* $.%* $.6$ 5 $.*$ $.#! $.6 $.69

T'0e -+r.0'$.. 1$.$$ 1$.1* 1$.%* 1$.#6 1$.*$ 1$.** 11.1$ 11.1*

H*$P; !*

(6*P; %$

6.=.6 T'dal ra$8e; )urre$"# a$d %re4a'l'$8 d're)"'&$# &erification of tidal fluctuations and currents is desirable. 1articular attention should be given to changing .inds and current patterns at different times +.et and dry seasons- of the year. ,he added information on prevailing currents are useful in the planning and designing of erosion control measures to protect di/es or gatesB finding out possibility of siltation or sedimentation in .ater control structures and ho. to solve the problem such as building of sediment trap .ithin the .ater supply system and so on. 6.=.C '&l&8')al +a- %atural food. Abundance of food organisms in aquatic environment are indicators of productivity and considered the most valuable resource for extensive fish farming. ,he

67

composition of plan/ton as .ell as some macrophytes are the ma@or groups of food organisms that are of interest. 1lan/ton to.s and netting should be done at some selected survey stations. ,hree net si?es" .ith mesh openings of $.$6% mm" $.!1 mm and 1.$ mm and to.ing speeds of 1.* to %" % to *" and 6 to /m per hour .ill retain the ma@ority of phytoplan/ton and the smaller and larger mesoplan/ton. All samples ta/en during plan/ton to.s and netting should be preserved for subsequent identification and analysis. +b- Bio/fouling. Any structure constantly immersed in .ater are susceptible to marine fouling and boring organisms. ,he rate and severity of attac/ depends on the /ind of materials" location of the structure in relation to depth and hydrographic conditions and biological conditions in the area. ,he foulers are grouped as microfoulers and macrofoulers. ,he latter should be given more importance than the former because macrofoulers include most of the IborersJ such as ship.orms +*eredo-" bivalves +#artesia-" gribble +,imnoria-" and such encrustations as tube.orms" barnacles" bryo?oans" algae" hydroids" mussels and oysters. Among the borers" .ood boring organisms is a factor in deciding the type of material to use in sluice gates. 7xamination of the /ind of organisms should be done and evaluated if it is a problem. 9ld pieces of .ood stuc/ in the ground" or .ooden boats of residents in the area should be examined to determine .hich group of borers cause the damage. +c- Seed resources. Continuous supply of fish seed +fry- is imperative in fish farming operation. In addition to ascertaining the supply from hatcheries or dealers" and assessment of local resource" evaluation of the availability and seasonality of cultivable species other than the identified species for culture should be surveyed. Assessment should also be done on the impact of clearing the mangrove on the local seed resource. +d- $redators and competitors. 1redators prey upon other animals .hile competitors may compete for food and space in the pond. 3ence" these t.o are important factors affecting .ater and cultural management practices. ,he /ind of screenings and pre5stoc/ing procedures must be effective to control predators and competitors. 7xamples of some predators that must be chec/ed and evaluated are given belo.. Aside from the finfishes" benthic community in the site must also be examined. ,he quantified data on the benthos is desirable. (ome /no.n predators and competitors of mil/fish in the region areA 2o?ambique tilapia +*ilapia mossambica-B tarpon +#egalops c&prinoides-B ten pounder +Elops !a(aiiensis-B apahap +,ates calcarifer-B erong5erong +*!erapon 6arbuaB *!erapon t!eraps-B Indian .hite shrimp +$enaeus indicus-B green tiger shrimp +$enaeus semisulcatus-A yello. shrimp +#etapenaeus brevicornis-. +e- Vegetation. ,his is .ell discussed in Chapter !.

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CHAPTER C LA@OUT DESIGNS FOR COASTAL FISH FARMS

C. COMPONENTS AND LA@OUT PLAN OF POND S@STEM
0ish farm layouts that are properly engineered should stri/e a balance considering economy" functionality and aesthetics. ;ithin a prescribed production management scheme" the layout must be economical. ,he basic principle is to minimi?e the number of gates" and the si?e and length of the main secondary and tertiary di/es and canals. But this should not sacrifice the biological requirements for suitable environment of the cultured species. 0ishponds should be planned in such a .ay that the length of the pond is positioned parallel to the prevailing .ind direction. ,he .ind direction in (outheast Asia is sho.n in 0ig. #.1 and the suggested orientation of the ponds is seen in 0ig. #.!. As such" the length of di/e exposed to .ave action is lessened" thus" the cost of repairs also less. ,he position also ta/es advantage of the .ind energy in effecting good .ater aeration through mixing and circulation. 3o.ever" in areas .here very strong .inds are prevalent" .ind brea/ers are included in the design and layout of ponds.

69

F'8. C.1 9'$d d're)"'&$ '$ S&u"+ea#" A#'a -A("er T'e$#&$8ru#0ee; 1<>5.

F'8. C.5 Lay&u" &( %&$d )&0%ar"0e$"# &r'e$"ed "& "+e %re4a'l'$8 ,'$d d're)"'&$ -A("er T'e$#&$8ru#0ee; 1<>5.

C.1 C&0%&$e$"# &( a ('#+ (ar0

In general" the fish farm is an establishment .hich is composed of pond system and support facilities. ,he pond system usually consists of various compartments .ith specific uses such as nursery or fry pond" transition or holding stunting pond" production or rearing ponds and other features +catching" desilting food5gro.ing ponds" etc.-. Also a part of the system are the .ater control structure or gates" pipes or culverts and .ater supply or drainage canals. 7ach of these units should be properly located and fitted in the system in order to have ease in .ater management and manipulation of cultured stoc/. 9n the other hand" support facilities consists of farm buildings" farm roads and road di/es" bridges" fish tan/s" storage shed +for feed and equipment-" chilling tan/s" and other ancillary structures. 7fficient organi?ation of support facilities in relation to the pond system is of paramount significance in the overall developmental planning and operation of the farm. 0ish farms are located at convenient distance from the sea or river. In the 1hilippines" a sanctioned buffer ?one of at leat 1$$ m from the sea to the main perimeter di/e and !$ m along river ban/s is spared for ecological consideration as .ell as physical protection against flooding and .ave action. ,he required buffer ?one along the shoreline in Indonesia is #$$ m.

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C.5 Ty%e# &( %&$d )&0%ar"0e$"#

7xisting fishpond layouts" especially for a mil/fish farm may have all or @ust a number of the follo.ing compartments depending on the layout requirements as dictated by the management scheme and cultured species. C.5.1 Fry a))l'0a"'za"'&$ %&$d (ometimes called fry box this is the smallest unit in a pond system usually # to m!. 0ry are first stoc/ed in this pond for 1 to # days and then allo.ed passage to the nursery pond proper by @ust cutting open the small di/e partition +8@a@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-. C.5.5 Nur#ery %&$d ,he nursery pond is small in si?e" about 1 to # percent of total production area and usually square or rectangular in shape. It may be a single pond unit or made up of t.o" four" six" etc. sub5 compartments .hich form the .hole nursery unit. A manageable area ranges from *$$ to 1$ $$$ m! per compartment" although 1 $$$ to * $$$ m! is preferred +B0A<5'H81=0A9" 19 !-. ,he nursery is used for rearing the fry for at least %$ days +in the case of mil/fish- before transferring into another larger pond. <earing the fish in small area is more convenient and safer as it can be .atched more closely and ta/en cared of more adequately. Hursery pond should be located in elevated portion of the farm in the central or near the corner of a rearing pond compartment +8@a@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-. ,he most suitable place is .here it can be easily supplied .ith ne. unpolluted .ater at all times .hen necessary and at elevation .here it can readily be drained even during ordinary lo. tides +Alcantara" 19 !-. Avoid locating nursery ponds directly ad@acent to perimeter di/es. Crab holes and lea/s that might occur during the rearing period .ill serve as exits of fry from the nursery pond to the river. ,hese can also serve as entrance for predators and un.anted species into the nursery pond" causing further loss of stoc/. 0rom the nursery pond the fry is moved into the transition pond or directly into the rearing or production ponds. C.5.6 Tra$#'"'&$ %&$d ,he transition" holding or stunting pond is located ad@acent to the nursery pond in order to have efficient and quic/ transfer of fingerlings. 8epending on the management scheme" close to 1$ percent of the total production area is usually allocated for this purpose. ,he fingerlings or post5 fingerlings are reared here for varying periods before finally stoc/ing them in the production or rearing ponds. ,he fish can be retained in the transition pond longer or up to a fe. months especially .hen the number of fry stoc/ is sufficient for several cropping .ithin the year. A manageable area for transition ponds ranges from 1 $$$D!$ $$$ m! per compartment but * $$$D 1* $$$ m! is preferred +B0A<5'H81 0A9" 19 1-.

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C.5.C Pr&du)"'&$ &r rear'$8 %&$d ,his is also called gro.out pond. It is the largest compartment in the pond system occupying about $ percent of the total farm area. ,he bottom elevation of the rearing pond should be about $.! m lo.er than that of the transition pond but slightly higher than the 2ean :o.er :o. ;ater +2::;- or ?ero tidal datum. ,he pond bottom slopes to.ard the catching pond or .ater supply canal to facilitate harvesting of mar/etable5si?ed fish. A manageable si?e ranges from 1.$ to 1$ ha per compartment although !.$ to *.$ ha is preferred. 1roduction ponds for mil/fish of 1* to !$ ha per compartment is common in the 1hilippines. C.5.D Ca")+'$8 %&$d ,his pond serves as a concentration area or basin for the fish during harvest. It is constructed ad@acent to the gate inside a bigger pond compartment. Catching ponds may be provided also for nursery ponds" transition ponds" and rearing ponds. ,he catching pond for the nursery and transition ponds is usually about ! percent of the respective compartmentsO .ater surface areaB for rearing pond" it is usually 1D1.* percent. C.5.E F&&d 8r&,'$8 %&$d ,his pond is optional and may be built" if deemed necessary. Hamed I/itchen pondJ" it is a compartment set aside for gro.ing live food organisms at high density. this is a recent innovation and is intended to augment the availability of food in fishpond areas .here natural food organisms does not gro. .ell or in farm set5up .here high density stoc/ing of cultured fish is used.

C.6 Lay&u" &( %&$d #y#"e0

,he simplest form of pond layout is that of a single compartment. 2ore recently" improved layouts consisting of multiple combination of compartments have come to general use. ,hrough the years of experience in pond fish production the pond operators have evolved and developed the arrangement and relative proportion of the various pond compartments that .ould fit into the system together .ith the appropriate production management scheme. C.6.1 Su'"ab'l'"y &( lay&u" (&r )ul"ured #%e)'e# 1ond layouts may be grouped intoA +i- conventionalB +ii- radiatingB +iii- modular or progressionB and +iv- multiple stoc/=harvest pond system +B0A<5'H81=0A9" 19 1 and 8enila" 1976-. 7xamples of these layouts are sho.n in 0igs. #.% to #.7 and 0igs. #.17 and #.1 . All of these" ho.ever" are intended for mil/fish production and in general maintain shallo. .ater that is required by fish food called Ilab5labJ +a complex community of micro5benthic biota closely associated .ith pond bottom-. 3o.ever" combination of deep5.ater for plan/ton production and shallo. .ater for lab5lab production is also being practiced. ,he basic characteristics or differences of these layouts are sho.n in ,able #.1.

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Table C.1 C&0%ar'#'&$ &( 4ar'&u# lay&u"# &( 0'l*('#+ %&$d# Lay&u" #)+e0e -%r&du)"'&$: *8?year. 1. Conventional +1 $$$D! $$$-

Nur#ery %&$d 1 percent of total production area (ame as above

Tra$#'"'&$ %&$d 9 percent of total production area (ame as above

Rear'$8 %&$d $ percent1 of total production area (ame as above $ percent1B there are three production process stageB each stage follo.s a ratio 1A!A# or 1A%A9 +0igs. #.6" #.17 and #.1 -

!. <adiating

%.

2odular +1 $$D% $$$-

# percent

6 percent

2ultiple #. stoc/=harvest +1 $$$D! $$$-

6 percent

Ho transition pondB instead holding canal for fingerlings is allocated for each rearing pondB 19 percent of every rearing pond

(ome 1$ percent is used for canals" catching ponds and di/es.

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0ig. #.% A conventional pond system .ith catching pond +C1-" nursery pond +H1-" transition pond +,1-" feed pond +01- and rearing pond +<1- +After Alcantara" 19 !-

0ig. #.# <adiating type layout sho.ing transition pond +,1- and rearing pond +<1- +After 8enila" 1976-

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0ig. #.* <adiating layout of ,aman and 1orong types of mil/fish farm .ith division pond +8-B rearing ponds +A"B U C-B fry pond +7- and canals +After 8@a@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-

75

0ig. #.6 A modular pond system in the 1hilippines sho.ing rearing pond stages +<1(- .ith ratio of 1A!A# and 1A%A9 +After Alcantara" 19 !-

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0ig. #.7 :ayout of a farm by multiple stoc/=harvest system sho.ing fish holding canal +03C- as added feature +After Alcantara" 19 !,he difference bet.een the conventional and radiating type of layout is the presence of much longer canal and secondary di/es in the former than the latter. ,he short supply canal of the radiating layout is desirable from the vie.point of economy in di/e construction. It also serves as catching pond. 3o.ever in the case of Indonesia" a division pond +8- precedes the production or rearing ponds +0ig. #.*- instead of supply canal. 0or most of the layouts" the space occupied by the partition and canal di/es is approximately 1$ percentB this is exceeded .hen large di/es are constructed. ,hailand concentrates more in shrimp culture .ith practically no mil/fish culture. 1ond layout for shrimp in this country vary depending on the levels of inputs and rearing methods as traditional" semi5intensive and intensive shrimp ponds. Although inner canals are occasionally found in mil/fish farm layout +as in Indonesia-" shrimp ponds are characteri?ed by the presence of extensive inner canal system. ,ransition pond is generally absent unli/e in mil/fish farm +0ig. #. -.

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0ig. #. :ayout of the traditional shrimp pond in ,hailand +After Chalayonde@a" ,hornbuppa and (i/ga" 19 !,he traditional shrimp pond usually has shallo. depth of .ater of 7$ to 9$ cm .ith one inlet .ater gate at one end and one outlet gate in the other end. ,he production is usually !* to 9$ /g=ha=year +0ig. #.9-. ,his traditional pond is modified by constructing larger ditches" higher di/es and increasing .ater depth to 1$$ to 1*$ cm" and hence" the si?e of pump +0ig. #.1$-. By doing so" production has increased by !$$ to %$$ /g=ha=year.

78

0ig. #.9 :ayout of a modified traditional shrimp pondB H"nursery and gates +inlet" E1 and outlet" E!- +After Chalayonde@a" ,hornbuppa and (i/ga" 19 !,he semi5intensive pond has a removable nursery pen in the rearing pond .here post larvae are /ept for one month" then released into the pond. ,he intensive ponds also have nursery ponds or pens .hich are also constructed .ithin the rearing pond. (upplementary feeding and aeration are necessary for this type of rearing. Intensive ponds are generally small in area. 1roduction from an intensive pond of 1 to 6 ha .ith ditch of to 1$ m .ide and 1.* m deep and .ith a .ater level above the berm of approximately 7* cm is 1 $$$ to * $$$ /g=ha=year +0igs. #.11 and #.1!-.

79

0ig. #.1$ :ayout of an intensive shrimp pond .ith nursery pens +H-" inlet gate +E1-" and outlet gate +E!+After Chalayonde@a" ,hornbuppa and (i/ga" 19 !-

0ig. #.11 :ayout of an intensive shrimp pond of % ha. consisting of three rearing ponds +<- and three nursery ponds+H-" and provided .ith separate inta/e and discharge gates+E+After Chalayonde@a" ,hornbuppa and (i/ga" 19 !-

80

0ig. #.1! Indicative layout for a *5ha shrimp monoculture pro@ect +After 7squerra" undatedC.6.5 Lay&u" a%%r&%r'a"e (&r %re#)r'bed 0a$a8e0e$" 0e"+&d ,he requirements of the cultured species is al.ays the basis for planning the layout and formulation of management scheme. ;ithin limits" ho.ever" management techniques can be manipulated to enhance production .ithout affecting the normal gro.th of species.

81

,he modular or progression system is a typical example of a layout .herein the management scheme involving fish movement in the various compartments are prescribed. In this system" specified number of mil/fish fingerlings from the transition pond are stoc/ed in the smallest production pond" then moved to the next bigger then to the largest pond. 2ovement of fish in each production pond stage can vary but is usually done in about %$ to #* days. ;hen inputs and conditions for normal gro.th exist" by this time the .eight of fish stoc/ has at least double" hence" movement to an area t.ice as large than .here the fishes are" is logical. ,his enables the fish farmer to ma/e four to six harvests per year .ith food gro.ing period of ! to # .ee/s bet.een crops. ,he multiple stoc/ harvest system involves stoc/ing of t.o to four different si?e groups of fish at different times in the pond. After !$ to #* days" the large ones are harvested by gillnet or by netting selectively the fish s.imming against the current during .ater inflo. /no.n as IpasubangJ method in the 1hilippines. Another batch of small fish replaces the harvested ones. <epeated harvests" thereafter" is done every %$ to *$ days. Because of this prescribed management method" fish holding canal +03C- for each rearing pond is added in the layout" instead of transition pond. ,his is to insure availability of designated si?e+s- of fish for the rearing of ponds +0ig. #.7-. Another example is a flo. through system of shrimp culture. ,he rate of .ater exchange is regulated depending on the density of stoc/ing. ;ater must be available any time irrespective of the tide cycleB hence" a combination of pump and reservoir system +using a headpond- or @ust a pump system should be provided +0ig. #.1$ and #.11-. Eates and canals are also strategically located to effect good movement and circulation of .ater.

C.C L&)a"'&$ &( 8a"e# a$d ,a"er #u%%ly?dra'$a8e )a$al#

82

0ig. #.1% Indicative layout for a *5ha shrimp monoculture pro@ect +After 3.<. <abanal" 1ersonal communications" 19 %;hen necessary such as in intensive shrimp monoculture farms" each pond compartment should have individual .ater supply and drainage outlets to ma/e them independent from each other +0ig. #.1%-. ,he location of .ater control gates depends primarily on the .ater management scheme. In general" main gates and secondary gates are positioned .here entrance and

83

circulation of .ater could be most efficient. 9rdinarily" a single gate per pond connected to a canal provides passage for tidal inflo. and outflo.. In a flo. through system" t.o gates located in opposite ends of the ponds are required. Although slightly expensive" narro. rectangular slope is desirable from the vie.point of effective .ater exchange. :i/e.ise" separate canals that accommodate inflo. and outflo. of .ater from the gates are provided +0igs. #.9 to #.1#-. Canals should be located .here it could connect or serve the most number of pond compartments. ,he lengths of canals should be minimi?ed .ithout sacrificing the functionality of the pond and intended management scheme. ;ater control gates and canals that are properly located provides ease in .ater management and reduces operational costs.

C.D O"+er (a)'l'"'e#?(ea"ure# '$ %&$d #y#"e0

C.D.1 Per'%+eral; )e$"ral &r d'a8&$al d'")+ ,he desirable temperature for mil/fish and shrimp ranges from !7 to %!PC and ! to %$PC" respectively. 8uring the dry season" the .ater temperature may increase" especially in the shallo.er part of the pond. 1roviding canals inside pond compartments deeper than the general pond bottom remedies the situation and serves as a hiding place for shrimp during critical pond condition. ,hese canals are also suitable in mil/fish ponds .ith generally shallo. .ater" .here polyculture .ith shrimp is desired. ,he ditches can vary from $.* to 1.$ m in depth +0ig. #.1*-. C.D.5 D'4'#'&$ %&$d ,he use of division pond is popular in Indonesia. this compartment distributes the tidal inflo. to the various ponds and provides independence in the operation of individual pond compartment. It is a common feature for rearing ponds +0ig. #.*- and even in nursery farm systems +0ig. #.16-. C.D.6 Re#er4&'r %&$d ,his is appropriate for the flo. through system in shrimp culture. ,he pump raises the level of .ater in the reservoir even during lo. tide so that gravity flo. through in the rearing pond of shrimp can be effected. C.D.C Sed'0e$"a"'&$ ba#'$ ,his may be located near the .ater source before incoming tide enters the ponds. It is intended to settle suspended solids carried by the inflo.ing .ater. C.D.D C+'ll'$8 "a$* ;ooden or concrete tan/s .ith capacity of 1 to * tons are usually constructed near the catching pond. He.ly harvested mil/fish are dumped and immediately covered .ith crushed ice to chill them to preserve their quality and freshness. ,his serves also to .ash the fish and reduce bacterial gro.th.

84

C.D.E R&ad #y#"e0 It is advisable to have road system .hich should reach at least the main gate and catching ponds for easy and cheap transportation. ,his can reduce mar/eting cost. C.D.= H&u#'$8 #'"e some space is to be set aside for houses of persons employed and as storehouses for feeds" equipment and other fish farm materials.

0ig. #.1# Indicative layout for a *5ha shrimp monoculture pro@ect +After 3.<. <abanal" 1ersonal communication" 19 %-

85

0ig. #.1* Indicative layout for a 1$5ha mil/fish=shrimp polyculture fish farm +After 3.<. <abanal" 1ersonal communication" 19 %-

86

0ig. #.16 :ayout of Ca/arta and 4amal types of mil/fish nursery .ith division pond +dp-B fry pond +fp-B transition pond +tp-B and canal +c+After 8@a@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-

87

0ig. #.17 Indicative layout for a 1$5ha mil/fish monoculture gro.5out pro@ect +After 3.<.<abanal" 1ersonal communication" 19 %-

88

0ig. #.1 Indicative layout for a 1$5ha mil/fish monoculture gro.5out pro@ect +After 3.<.<abanal" 1ersonal communication" 19 %-

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CHAPTER D DESIGN OF FISH FARM PH@SICAL STRUCTURES

D. DESIGN OF FISH FARM GATES AND POND S@STEM
D.1 De#'8$ "'de )ur4e a$d ele4a"'&$ &( %&$d b&""&0
,he local pattern of tide curve upon .hich fishpond design is based can be obtained from an analysis of the tide record. It is also referred to as design tide curve. ,he design tide curve is dra.n along the ?ero datum level .hich is usually the 2ean :o.er :o. ;ater +2::;-. Adoption of inappropriate design tide curve can cause problems in the management of the pond after construction is completed. ,he bottom elevation of ponds is the primary consideration in the design and is determined based on the design tide curve +0igs. *.1 and *.!-. 1rimary consideration should be given to both the biological needs of the cultured species and construction aspect such as the minimum and maximum .ater level to be maintained in the pond and adequate flo. of .ater into the ponds. 9n the economic side of construction" the elevation of pond bottom should stri/e a balance bet.een the excavation or filling .or/ and the tidal range. 0or a site .ith relatively high ground elevation" it is possible in a specific instance that pumping .ater to the ponds can prove to be more economical than excavating the soil to the desired elevation +Eedney" (hang and Coo/" 19 %-.

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0ig. *.1 <elation of tide curves to design elevations of a fish farm at the (ungai 2erbo/ estuary" 2alaysia +After 3echanova and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $-

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0ig. *.! <elation of tide curves to the different pond elevations +2odified after 8enilo" 1976,he elevation of other structures such as gates" canals and di/es are also based on the design tide curve and these should fit properly to the .ater management and operational requirements of the ponds. An example of representative tide curve .hich applies to the Ban 2erbo/ estuary in 2alaysia is given +0ig. *.%-.

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0ig. *.% <epresentative tide curve +2ean 3igh ;ater (pring- referred at ,an@ong 8a.ai" (econdary 1ort" Ban 2erbo/ 7stuary" 2alaysia +After 3echanova and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $-

D.5 De#'8$; #%e)'(')a"'&$# a$d )&0%&$e$"# &( 0a'$ ,a"er )&$"r&l 8a"e
D.5.1 C&0%&$e$"# &( ,a"er )&$"r&l 8a"e# -F'8. D.C.

93

0ig. *.# 1arts of a main gate +double opening- made of reinforced concrete +2odified after Camandre and <abanal" 197*+a- 3loor. ,he floor serves as the foundation of the structure and its elevation for main gates must be lo.er than the pond bottom elevation and as lo. or slightly lo.er than the lo.est tide in the site. If this is observed" the main gate .hich rests on a prepared foundation support .ill not be exposed even during extreme lo. tides. +b- Apron. ,his is the broadened and extended part of the floor and also generally rests on the foundation piles" .hich are made of seasoned bamboo or .ood driven at $.% m intervals into the

94

soft soil .ith the butt end up. ,he apron serves as protection to scouring and future seepage of .ater at the gateOs sides. +c- Cut/off/(alls. Cut5off5.alls are provided at both ends of the gateOs floor to prevent seepage and undercutting of .ater .ithin the gateOs foundation. ,hey extend do.n into the soil at a minimum of $.6$ m and are an integral part of the gateOs foundation. ;ooden sheet piles may be used as an extension of concrete cut5off5.alls in order to reach deeper depths at reduced cost. +d- Side or breast (alls. (ide .alls define the sluice .ay in addition to their being retaining .all for the di/e fill. Erooves or double cleats for flashboards and screens are built on these .alls. ,he top of these .alls are as high as the top of the di/e. +e- Buttress. ,his is built against the side .alls to support or reinforce it. It also helps in reducing seepage flo. along the side .alls. +f- 7ing (alls. ;ing .alls provide the transition from the sluice .ay into the main canal in addition to retaining the earth at both sides of the gate. ,his transition improves the condition of the flo. by providing a control on flo. velocities from one bed material to another. +g- Bridges or cat(al)s. ,hese are reinforced concrete slabs or thic/ .ooden plan/s that span the side .alls. At least three cat.al/s are provided" t.o at each end and one at centre near the flashboard grooves. +h- 3las!boards. (labs or flashboards are generally .ooden plan/s" !.* to * cm thic/ and %$ cm .ide inserted into grooves or double cleats. ,hey are used to control the amount of .ater flo.ing through the gate. +i- Screens. (creens are usually made of bamboo strips or of fine polyethylene meshes attached to a .ooden rectangular frame that fit into the grooves. ,he screens are used to prevent the exit of the cultured fish and the entry of predators into the ponds. +@- $illars. In .ooden gates" these are vertical supports .here .ooden .alls are nailed. ,hey are placed at regular intervals so that they form a frame.or/ for the gate itself. +/- Braces. In .ooden gates" these .ooden members hold or fasten t.o or more pillars together or in place. ,hey /eep the opening of a gate rigid. D.5.5 Ma'$ 8a"e ,he main gate lin/s the pond system to the source of .ater. It regulates the exchange of .ater bet.een the pond system and the tidal stream or sea. Instead of .ood" it should be made of concrete for effective control and to last longer. ,he main gate is usually situated at the central side of the proposed fishpond facing the source of .ater. ,he follo.ing provides some information needed in the design of the main gate.

95

+a- ,he floor elevation of the main gate should be lo.er than the lo.est pond bottom elevation desired inside the pond system. It should also be as lo. or slightly lo.er than extreme lo. tides +0ig. *.*-. ,he front end or riverside elevation of the floor or apron may be made lo.er if a pump is to be installed +0ig. *.*-. +b- ,he height of the main gate depends upon the highest tide and flood and should be the same as the elevation of the main di/e .hich is also dependent upon the tidal fluctuations" floods and other factors in the area.

0ig. *.* 8etail of main gate .ith pump sump +<einforcement not sho.n+After 3echanova and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $+c- 2ain gates may have single" double" or triple or even quadruple or more openings +0igs. *.6 to *. -. ,he opening of the main gate depends upon the area to be flooded. Eates should not have too .ide opening so that they .ould be difficult to manage. 9ne to 1.! m .ide per opening has been found appropriate for easy handling of .ooden slabs and screens. ;ider opening than these may require lifting mechanisms in the operation of the gate. 7xperience in the 1hilippines sho.s

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that a single opening of 1.$ m for a concrete main gate could flood a 1$ to 1* ha pond system in a mil/fish farm in t.o or three successive high tides. ,his opening" ho.ever" does not necessarily apply to shrimp farm because of the difference in .ater depth requirement bet.een shrimp and mil/fish. Based on the computations done +Appendix B-" a gate .ith three openings and 1.! m .ide each .ould fill an 11.%* ha shrimp farm to a minimum depth of one meter in t.o consecutive tide cycle. 0or much larger areas and deeper ponds" a double or triple opening5gate of proper .idth may be constructed at one or more spots along the perimeter di/e.

0ig. *.6 2ain concrete gate single5opening

0ig. *.7 2ain concrete gate double5opening

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+After :i@auco" 1977-

+After :i@auco" 1977-

0ig.*. (ample of a triple5opening concrete main gate +d- ,here must be a separtate groove for the slabs and screens. It may be necessary to have four pairs of groovesB t.o pairs for slabs and t.o pairs for screens +one at each end- depending upon their use. +e- ,he .ings should be properly designed to provide easy current flo.. ,he best angle of flare should be #*P to.ards the outside. ,his angle may not be necessarily the same for both ends of the gate. +f- ,he gate foundation must be rigid and stable. It must be able to carry the .hole .eight .hen the gate is fully constructed. ,here are t.o designs of gate foundations in use K one has the floor and apron of gate resting on a combination of piles and layers of boulders and gravel. ,he other one uses piles alone to stengthen the foundation that supports the structure. ,he former design is common in the 1hilippines and Indonesia .hile the latter is found in 2alaysia +0ig. *.9 to *.11-. +g- Cut5off5.alls and aprons must be provided. ,hey must be .ide enough to include portions susceptible to scouring and under5cutting of .ater.

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+h- Adequate reinforcements against side.ise pressure must be provided. (pacing of steel bars should not exceed #$ cm centre to centre. ,he si?e of vertical bars should be 1! to 1% mm and 1$ mm for hori?ontal bars.

0ig. *.9 0oundation support and piling scheme +1hilippines- +1ortion of flooring only-

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0ig. *.1$ 0oundation support plan and piling scheme +2alaysia- +1ortion of flooring only- +After 4hoo" pers. comm." 19 !-

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0ig. *.11 0oundation and elevation plan of concrete main gate +single opening- +After 8enila" 1976-

D.6 De#'8$ &( #e)&$dary a$d "er"'ary 8a"e# a$d &"+er ,a"er )&$"r&l #"ru)"ure#
D.6.1 Se)&$dary a$d "er"'ary 8a"e# ,hese provide the control of .ater to and from the main canal and into the different pond components such as catching ponds" rearing ponds and nursery ponds. ,hese structures are usually made of .ood and can be treated .ith coal tar for durability. (ingle or double opening made of reinforced concrete or hollo. bloc/s can also be used but it is sometimes too expensive +0igs. *.1! to *.1#-. Considerations in the planning and designing of secondary and tertiary gates are the same as those of the main gate except that their respective elevations are dependent upon the elevation of the canal bed .here they are being constructed. ,he usual elevation of the flooring of these gates above the canal is $.1* m. ,he flooring elevation of the farthest gate from the main gate should be chec/ed against the design tide curve to insure that it still is capable of filling the pond .ithin the prescribed time. ,he .idth of opening may vary from $.6 to 1.$ m. ;ing .alls can be provided +0igs. *.1* and *.16- but some existing designs" especially the .ooden gates" do not have these structures +0igs. *.17 and *.1 -. Anti5seep boards at the side of the gate is also a good feature +0ig. *.16-. D.6.5 Cul4er"# &r %'%e#

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,hese structures convey .ater across di/es" roads" and similar emban/ments. A recent innovation for a smaller and less expensive gate is the use of culverts or pipes made of concrete hollo. bloc/s or asbestos cement. Culverts or pipes gates may or may not have .ing .alls +0igs. *.19 and *.!$- and are li/e.ise provided .ith slabs and screens and are even more effective for .ater control in a fishpond" the conduit section may be circular or square in shape +0igs. *.19 to *.!1-. 0or lo.5cost design .ooden culvert may be used +0ig. *.!!-.

0ig. *.1! 8etail of a single opening secondary concrete gate +After 3echanova and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $-

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0ig. *.1% 8etails of secondary gates .ith double opening +After 3echanova and ,iensongrosmee" 19 $-

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0ig. *.1# Concrete hollo. bloc/s sluice gate +single opening 5 Indonesia+After 8@a@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-

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0ig. *.1* ;ooden sluice gate 5 .ith .ing .all in t.o ends side braces and cat .al/ +After 8@a@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-

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0ig. *.16 ;ooden main sluice gate +,op vie.- 5 .ith middle anti5seep board and .ing .all in pond side +2odified after Camandre and <abanal" 197*-

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0ig. *.17 (econdary .ooden gate +Ho .ing .all+After Camandre and <abanal" 197*-

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0ig. *.1 8etail of .ooden tertiary gate" for nursery=rearing ponds +After 3echanova and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $-

0ig. *.19 Cut5out diagram of concrete culvert as secondary gate +.ith .ing .all+After Camandre and <abanal" 197*-

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0ig. *.!$ Concrete culvert +Ho .ing .all+After 8@a@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-

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0ig. *.!1 8esign of a square culvert gate +After B0A< 5 'H81=0A9" 19 1-

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0ig. *.!! ;ooden square culvert +After 8@ad@adired@a and 8aulay" 19 !-

D.C De#'8$ a$d #%e)'(')a"'&$# &( 0a'$ &r %er'0e"er d'*e

,he function of perimeter di/es is to retain .ater for use in the fish farming operation as .ell as to protect the farm ponds" fish crops and other farm facilities from destruction by floods and tidal inundation. 8esign of these emban/ments must be based on sound engineering principles and economic feasibility. ,he design of perimeter di/es are t.o typesA +i- for exposed areasB and +iifor protected areas +0igs. *.!% and *.!#-. D.C.1 L&)a"'&$ &( %er'0e"er d'*e

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0ig. *.!% (ample designs of perimeter di/e .ithin the reach of coastal .aves

0ig. *.!# (ample designs of perimeter di/e located along river or protected area ,he perimeter di/es of a coastal fish farm is usually built along the river ban/s" on the sea.ard side or in certain spots that are vulnerable to flooding. In locating the di/e" the 1hilippines require a belt of mangroves of !$ m from a river ban/" and 1$$ m .ide from seashore to be left for the purpose of protecting the di/es against .aves and currents" and absorption of .ave energy and" to some extent" for flood control and conservation of the environment. Indonesia requires #$$ m of mangrove as green belt of trees along the shore. ,he path of the di/e is determined by survey to avoid +a- crossing of streams or cree/s that have substantial rate of flo.B +b- areas of extremely poor soil .hich result in high construction costB and +c- locating the di/e near an actively eroding line of rivers or coasts. D.C.5 Cr&##-#e)"'&$ &( 0a'$ d'*e ,he cross5section of di/es is described by the cro.n or top .idth" height" side slope and the bottom .idth or base +0ig. *.!*-. 2odifications are made by providing berm and core or puddle trench +0ig. !.6-. Cross5section of the perimeter di/e should be designed toA +a- prevent over5 tapping at high tide combined .ith a maximum flood height from the river systemB and +bprevent failure due to slips and seepage. 8ue to poor and soft foundation soil in coastal s.amps" the emban/ment requires a process of consolidation before it becomes stable. Consolidation is a natural phenomenon and it occurs as a counterbalance bet.een the settlement and bearing capacity of the foundation. (lip and collapse of an emban/ment constructed on poor ground occurs .hen irregularities or unbalanced conditions develop in the foundation. +a- 8etermination of height ,he height of the di/e should be above the highest tide and flood that occur in the site. ,he design flood level is based on the maximum flood .ater that .as observed in the locality to recur .ithin 1$ to 1* years +in Chapter !-.

112

0ig. *.!* (teepness of side of di/e for different values of side slope +3ori?ontal and vertical ratio-

113

0ig. *.!6 8esign of different di/es +After B0A<5'H81=0A9"19 1,he design height of di/e should be provided .ith a freeboard after shrin/age and settlement of $.% to 1.$ m above the highest .ater level. Eiven belo. are the recommended allo.ance for shrin/age and settlementA C&$d'"'&$ 1. !. %. All&,a$)e (&r #"ru)"ure a$d #e""le0e$" -F.

1oor material and poor methods and practices 1*D%$ in construction (oil exceptionally high in organic matter Compacted by construction equipment #$ or more *D1$

,he total height of the main di/e above the ground level can be computed by the follo.ing formula +see 0ig. *.!7-.

114

;hereA 3m 3at Es 2f 0 L(

Gheight of the main di/e Ghighest astronomical tide Gelevation of the ground surface Gmaximum flood level Gallo.ance for freeboard Gpercent shrin/age and settlement

0ig. *.!7 Cross5section of perimeter +main- di/e and basis for determining height $%ample &.! It is required to determine the height of a main di/e .ith the given conditions in the site as follo.sA a. 3ighest astronomical tide K !.$# m b. 7levation of the land K $.91 c. 0lood allo.ance K $.%$ m d. 0reeboard K $.%$ m e. (ettlement=shrin/age K 1*L Solution"

115

3m

G !.$# m +b- 8etermination of side slopes" cro.n and base ,he di/e should also be of adequate .idth so that it could hold .ater inside and prevent flooding from outside .ith appropriate side slope of 1A1 for clay soil and height up to %.$ m. (ide slope of !A1 +hori?ontal to vertical- is used for height greater than #.$ m and even flatter if located along seashore and being sub@ect against .ave action. If available soil permits" provision for a berm +single or both sides- is desirable for additional stability. ,he berm should slope to.ards the di/e .all to trap eroded soil particles during rains. It also serves as small ditch that conveys runoffs to.ards the outlet gate especially .hen acidity of exposed di/e is a management problem. ,he top .idth or cro.n of the di/e should be designed so as to serve its purpose. 0or di/es used as road.ays" top .idth of %.* m to #.$ m can be used but preferably #.$ m. A $.6 m .ide allo.ance should be provided on each side of a road.ay di/e to prevent ravelling. In the 1hilippines" the desirable minimum cro.n for mil/fish culture is at least !.$ m for main di/e. 8i/es sub@ected to .ave action should have a minimum cro.n of approximately equal to the height of the maximum .ave. ,he base +.ithout a berm- is computed in accordance .ith the .idth of cro.n and side slope as follo.s +0ig. *.! -

F'8. D.5> S'0%le %&$d d'*e

116

b G , R !+?d;hereA b G .idth of base" m , G .idth of cro.n" m d G height of di/e" m ? G hori?ontal value of side slope $%ample &.# <eferring to 0igure *.! " determine the .idth of base if the di/e should have a top .idth of cro.n of !.* m" height of 1.% m and a side slope of 1.*A1 +or ? G 1.*-. Solution" 'sing the formula aboveA b G !.* R !+1.*- +1.%G 6.# m +c- Cross5sectional area and volume of di/e ,he cross5sectional area is estimated by adding the .idth of cro.n and base" divide the sum by t.o" and multiplied by the height. ,he height should be the estimated height for main" secondary or tertiary di/e .hich includes allo.ance for shrin/age. ,he volume of soil required to construct the di/e is computed by multiplying the cross5sectional area by the length of di/e. In symbol"

;here

A G cross5sectional area of di/e" m! & G volume of di/e" m% : G length of di/e" m

$%ample &.' 0rom 7xample *.!" the cross5sectional area and volume of a di/e that .ill be constructed 1 !*$ m long areA

D.C.6 Lea*a8e a$d #ee%a8e

117

,o maintain a .atertight pond" lea/age should be given due attention in di/e design and proper construction procedure follo.ed. After the di/e has been constructed" lea/age is usually caused by the damage of the di/e due to crustacean burro.s" particularly the species *!alassina anomala +,ang" 19 !-. ,hey ma/e burro.s in the soft mud under the di/e thereby causing IpipingJ by .hich sand and silt particles are moved by seepage flo.. 7ffective measures for preventing lea/age includeA a. 2inimi?ing the amount of seepage flo. through proper compaction" core trenching" embedding vertical plastic membrane inside di/e" covering di/e .all .ith concrete bric/s" riprapings" etc. b. 2inimi?ing destruction by crustaceans by desalini?ing and drying out the emban/ment soils. ,he rate of seepage through a di/e can be estimated if the follo.ing factors are /no.nA +i- the permeability coefficient of the di/eB +ii- height of .ater level in the pond or canalB +iii- effective .idth of the di/eB and +iv- the nature of di/e foundation .hether permeable or impermeable. 'nder normal conditions" the passage of .ater through a di/e .ith impermeable foundation is only confined .ithin the di/e soil. ;hen the foundation is permeable" the rate of seepage flo. is the sum of the seepage passing through the di/e itself and the quantity passing through the thic/ness of the di/e soil foundation. In brac/ish.ater fish farm" di/e foundation is mostly" if not all" permeable. ,he appropriate formula for estimating seepage flo. is given in Appendix 7. (ince the permeability of alluvial clay is relatively constant" the increase or decrease of seepage flo. in a coastal fish farm depends mainly upon the levels of tidal fluctuation and effective .idth of di/e. ,he effective .idth of di/e can be calculated by constructing the seepage line +Appendix 7-. 0or a value of permeability of the emban/ment and foundation soil of 1.%! cm=hour" .ater level in the pond maintained at %.% m" and tidal level of #. m and $.$ +datum level-" estimates of seepage inflo. and outflo. through the di/es .ith three effective .idths is given by ,ang" 1976 +,able *.1-. ,he table sho.s that as the effective .idth of di/e becomes narro.er" more seepage flo. occurs. 3ence placing linings of impermeable material is more needed in small di/es.

D.D Cr&##-#e)"'&$ &( #e)&$dary a$d "er"'ary d'*e#

,he secondary and tertiary di/es are smaller than the main di/es. (econdary di/es are usually provided on both sides of the canals and should be able to contain the mean high .ater springs. ,ertiary di/es are partition di/es that separate the ponds and should be able to contain the desired .ater levels in the ponds. Table D.1 See%a8e (l&, "+r&u8+ d'*e# ,'"+ "+ree e((e)"'4e ,'d"+# D'0e$#'&$ &( d'*e# T&% ,'d"+ M'$'0u0 #ee%a8e '$(l&, '$ r'#'$8 "'de# Ra"e &( #ee%a8e (l&, M'$'0u0 #ee%a8e &u"(l&, '$ ebb "'de# E((e)"'4e d'*e ,'d"+ Ra"e &( #ee%a8e (l&,

He'8+" Sl&%e E((e)"'4e -0. d'*e ,'d"+

118

-0. !.$ !.$ !.$ !.$ !.$ !.$ %A1 !A1 1A1 11.$ .$ *.$

-0. $.1

-)06?+r. $.1% $.!9 1# 1$ 6

-0. $.!

-)06?+r. $.%! $.69

D.D.1 De"er0'$a"'&$ &( +e'8+" ,he equation belo. can be used for the determination of di/e heightsA +a- Secondar& di)es +0ig. *.!9-

;hereA 3s G height of the secondary di/es above the ground surface 3st G mean high spring tide 2r G maximum rainfall .ithin !# hours $%ample &.' If the mean high spring tide above the ?ero datum is 1.%* m" the ground elevation at the side of di/e is 1.$$ m" and maximum !#5hour rainfall in the locality for 1*5year interval is 1! cm. 8etermine the height of secondary di/e needed. 1rovide !*L allo.ance for shrin/age and %$ cm freeboard. Solution" +<efer to 0ig. *.!9-

G 1.%$ m +b- *ertiar& di)es +0ig. *.%$-

;hereA 3t G height of the tertiary di/e above datum 8.l G desired .ater level above datum

119

0ig. *.!9 ,ypical cross section of secondary di/e sho.ing ground elevation" .ater levels and basis for determination of height

120

0ig.*.%$ ,ypical cross section of tertiary di/e sho.ing ground and .ater levels and basis for determining height $%ample &.( 8etermine the height of a tertiary di/e if the desired .ater level in the pond is 1.%* m from the ?ero datum and the ground elevation is 1.$$ m. ,he maximum !#5hour rainfall is 1! cm" allo.ance of shrin/age is !$L and freeboard is %$ cm. Solution" +<efer to 0ig. *.%$-

G $.96 or rounded to 1.$ m D.D.5 S'de #l&%e; )r&,$ a$d ba#e ,he top .idth of secondary and tertiary di/es are narro.er than the perimeter or main di/e. ,op .idth of 1 to ! m are common for the secondary di/e and even less than one meter for the tertiary di/e.

121

,he side slope is usually 1A1. (ide berms in secondary di/e may be provided if there is excess soil in order to reduce the cost of hauling. 1uddle trench in the di/e base is provided .hen necessary. ,he computation of the .idth of base is done in the same .ay as in the perimeter or main di/e. ,able *.! gives values of base for different values of di/e height" cro.n and side slopes.

D.E De#'8$ &( 4ar'&u# "y%e# &( %&$d# a$d %&$d b&""&0
0ishponds are designed to have the best environment for the cultured species K through efficient .ater management" ease in the cultivation of food organisms and manipulation of stoc/ for good gro.th and production. ,his ob@ective could be attained .hen the arrangement of the pond compartments" .ater control structures and all other facilities mutually complement each other. 1roduction ponds are designed independent of each other by providing each .ith individual .ater supply and drainage gates. ;ithin the compartment" pond bottoms are designed to further fit the environmental requirement of cultured species. ,he .hole bottom should slope to.ards the drainage gate to facilitate removal of .ater. ,his sloping bottom can be modified and improved by providing bottom ditch .ithin the pond running along and close to the base of the di/e. ,his ditch collects and leads the .ater to the catching pond .here the drainage gate is also located. In this scheme" a slope divide is provided at the centre of the pond +0ig. *.%1-. 0or much larger compartments" a middle ditch connecting the peripheral ditch may be provided +0ig. *.%!-. 1onds designed purposely for shrimp culture usually have t.o separate gates K supply +inletand drainage +outlet- gates. 1eripheral canals are provided mainly to serve as shelter for the shrimpB to increase the pond bottom surface areaB and to have better .ater circulation. 0acilitating drainage is only secondary in the purpose. 3ence" more canals or bottom platforms are sometimes provided +0ig. *.%%- and some 0igures in Chapter #-. Table D.5 Rela"'&$#+'% a0&$8 "+e "&% ,'d"+; b&""&0 ,'d"+ a$d +e'8+" &( d'*e ,'"+ 8'4e$ #'de #l&%e# He'8+" -0. 1.* ! % ! ! ! T&% ,'d"+ &r )r&,$ -0. * 6 11 &""&0 ,'d"+; 0 a" 8'4e$ #'de #l&% 1:1 6.* 1$ 1# 1:D:1 5:1

122

0ig. *.%1 1eripheral ditch or canal in bottom of shrimp pond +Hot dra.n to scale-

123

0ig. *.%! A central ditch in addition to peripheral ditch in shrimp pond +Hot dra.n to scale-

124

0ig. *.%% A flo.5through type of pond bottom design for shrimp pond +After 1ini@" pers.comm." 19 !+Hot dra.n to scale1ond bottom for shrimp culture may or may not be cleared of tree stumps depending on harvesting method. (tumps may @ust be cut short .ell belo. the pond .ater level +0ig. *.%#-. 2il/fish ponds" ho.ever" require that the pond be totally cleared of stumps to facilitate harvesting by gillnet seine. ,his method of harvest" ho.ever" is not common in the 1hilippines" because it removes some of the scales" thus reducing the quality of fish.

D.= De#'8$ &( ,a"er )a$al# &r )+a$$el#

;ater from the outer sea is dra.n into the fishpond at the specified rate and time through the canal and discharged into the outer sea also through the same canal. In the design of the canal" it is necessary to give consideration on the follo.ing criteriaA

0ig. *.%# 8i/e5canal type pond +2odified after Coo/" 1976a. ,he cross5section is determined to effect the flo. of required amount of .ater in rational .ay. ,hat is" the most effective section in terms of hydraulicsB .ithin the possible minimum time. b. If the canal is to be used for other purposes than .ater conveyance" it should be designed to fulfill such purpose. D.=.1 !'$d# &( ,a"er )+a$$el Canals in fish farms are usually made of soil material. ,hey may only vary in si?e depending on its location and purpose. A canal may serve the purpose of supplying and draining .ater to and from the ponds. a. #ain (ater suppl& canal2 K ,his starts from the main gate and usually traverses the central portion of the fish farm. ,he si?e of the main canal should consider the emergency discharge of .ater from the entire fish farm and surrounding area" if any" during heavy rain.

125

b. Secondar& (ater suppl& canal2 K ,his serves the portions .here main canal cannot reach. It starts from the main canal and traverses the inner portion of the fishpond. It is usually constructed in large fishpond areas and is smaller than the main canal. c. *ertiar& canal2 K ,his is the canal that usually supply .ater in the nursery and transition ponds. Because of the small si?e" it is sometimes said to be a part of the nursery pond system. ,he tertiary canal may be modified to serve as catching pond. 'sually the bed .idth is 1.$ to 1.* m. d. Diversion canal2 K ,he purpose of this canal is to protect the farm from being flooded .ith runoff .ater coming from the .atershed. It should have the capacity to carry at least the pea/ runoff from the contributing .atershed for a ten5year frequency storm. ,he slope of the diversion canal should be such that the .ater flo.s to.ard the drainage area or around the fish farm to a convenient and prepared outlet. e. Drainage canal2 K A separate drainage canal is recommended in intensive culture" especially of shrimps" in order to effect flo.5through system. ,his is usually located at the other side of the pond" opposite and parallel to the supply canal" if provided. D.=.5 Cr&##-#e)"'&$ &( )a$al bed ,he cross5section of the canal is generally of trape?oidal shape .ith side slope of 1A1 for the alluvial clay soil +0ig. *.%*-. ,he depth of the main canal ranges from the level of mean higher high .ater +excluding the height of freeboard- for mixed tide or mean high .ater +for diurnal-" to the mean lo.er lo. .ater +the datum plane-B and the secondary canals from the designed pond .ater level to the mean tide level. ,he lo.er limit of the .ater canals depends on the range of tide. Eenerally" a smaller tide range requires a lo.er canal bed.

126

0ig.*.%* 8esign of different canals +After B0A<50A9='H81"19 10or the most efficient cross5section" canal bed should be.

;hereA b G canal bed d G depth of canal excluding freeboard ? G hori?ontal value of side slope $%ample &.& 'sing the above formula" if the .ater depth inside a canal that has side slope of 1A1 is 1.$ m" the bottom .idth .ould be $. % m. &alues of bottom .idth for other depths and side slopes are given in ,able *.%. ,he table also includes the cross5sectional area.

127

D.=.6 De#'8$ 4el&)'"y &elocity of .ater on canals should be designed properly to avoid soil erosion and siltation on the canal bed. &elocity should be slo. to prevent excessive erosion but not too slo. to prevent siltation. In most soils" design velocity of .ater in canals should not be lo.er than $.% m=sec to avoid silting. ,he usual velocities in canals are .ithin $.* to $.7 m=sec. ,he nature of velocity of flo. in a canal during tidal inflo. is different compared to the velocity during drainage of pond .ater at ebb tide. ,he former is an unsteady flo. and .ater is flo.ing against the direction of canal slope. ,he latter is a flo. of .ater in the same direction of slope. It is still an unsteady flo. or flo. that changes .ith time because of the falling depth of .ater in the ponds during drainage. ,he opposite of unsteady flo. is steady flo.. ,his flo. does not fluctuate or change .ith time. An example of a steady flo. that exists in brac/ish.ater fish farm is .hen pumping .ater from a river or a .ell and discharging in a canal that delivers the .ater to the ponds. ,he flo. in the canal is further called uniform flo. because the depth of .ater does not change and flo.s by gravity or in the direction of the slope. Table D.6 Cr&##-#e)"'&$al area; A &( "ra%ez&'dal ear"+e$ )a$al a" 8'4e$ #'de #l&%e; z:1H ,a"er de%"+; dH a$d b&""&0 ,'d"+; b S'de #l&%e 1:1 zI1 d 0 $.!* $.*$ $.7* 1.$$ 1.!* 1.*$ 1.7* !.$$ !.!* !.*$ !.7* %.$$ b 0 $.!$7 $.#1# $.6!1 $. ! 1.$%* 1.!#! 1.##9 1.6*6 1. 6% !.$7$ !.!77 !.# # A 05 $.11# $.#*7 1.$! 1. ! !. *6 #.11% *.*9 7.%1! 9.!*# 11.#!* 1%. !# 16.#*! b 0 $.1*! $.%$! $.#*% $.6$# $.7** $.9$6 1.$*7 1.!$ 1.%*9 1.*1$ 1.661 1. 1! 1.D:1 z I 1.D A 05 $.1%! $.*!6 1.1 # !.1$# %.! #.7%# 6.### .#16 1$.6*! 1%.1*$ 1*.91! 1 .9%6 b 0 $.1%% $.!6* $.%97 $.*%$ $.66! $.79* $.9!7 1.$6$ 1.19! 1.%!* 1.#*7 1.*9$ 1.=D:1 z I 1.=D A 05 $.1#! $.*7$ 1.! # !.! $ %.*6! *.1%$ 6.9 1 9.1!$ 11.*#1 1#.!*$ 17.!#1 !$.*!$ b 0 $.11 $.!%6 $.%*# $.#7! $.*9$ $.7$ $. !6 $.9## 1.$6! 1.1 $ 1.!9 1.#16 5:1 zI5 A 05 $.1** $.61 1.%91 !.#7! %. 6% *.*6! 7.*71 9. 1!.*1* 1*.#*$ 1 .69* !!.!#

128

'nder the condition of steady and uniform flo." the velocity of .ater in the canal can be calculated by using 2anningOs formulaA

;hereA & G

velocity" m=sec

< G hydraulic radius" A=1" m ( G canal bed slope" m=m n G roughness coefficient of the canal .all A G 1G cross5sectional area of the canal .etted perimeter or cross5sectional length of side .all of canal that is in contact .ith the .ater" m

,he design discharge or capacity of a canal for steady and uniform flo. is calculated by using the continuity equationA F G A&" .here F G discharge or rate of flo. in m% sec. $%ample &.) 8etermine the bottom .idth and capacity of an earthen canal .ith .ater depth of $.7* m and side slope of 1.*A1. ,he canal has a bed slope of $.$$1$ or 1 1 $$$. Solution" 0rom ,able *.%" for d G $.7*" and side slope of 1.*A1" the bottom .idth of the canal for an efficient cross5section is $.#*% m. ,he velocity of flo. at bed slope of 1 1 $$$ is $.## m=sec +,able *.#-. In ,able *.%" the corresponding area for d G $.7* and b G $.#*% m is 1.1 # m!. ,herefore" the capacity of the canal is 1.1 # m! Q $.## m=sec G $.*!1 m% sec. D.=.C De#'8$ re/u're0e$" (&r 0ul"'%le u#e ;hen canals are used for temporary holding of fish" the si?e of the canal .ill be calculated by the quantity of fish to be held. 'nder normal conditions" the maximum quantity of mil/fish that can be held by tidal .ater is about 1.% to 1.7 /g=m%. If the length and depth of canal are fixed" then the .idth should ad@ust in order to satisfy the required volume of .ater for a given quantity of fish to be held. ,he bottom of the canal if intended for temporary holding of fish should be %$ cm lo.er than the pond bottom or secondary gate. Table D.C 1el&)'"y &( ,a"er -0?#e). '$ "ra%ez&'dal ear"+e$ )a$al '$ )lay #&'l a" 8'4e$ #'de #l&%eH

129

r&u8+$e## )&e((')'e$"; $ I 2.25DH de%"+; dH a$d b&""&0 ,'d"+; b S'de #l&% I 1:1 CANAL SLOPE De%"+ -0. $.!* $.*$ $.7* 1.$$ 1.!* 1.*$ 1.7* !.$$ !.!* !.*$ !.7* %.$$ $.!* $.*$ $.7* 1.$$ 1.!* 1.*$ 1.7* !.$$ !.!* !.*$ !.7* %.$$ $.!* &""&0 ,'d"+ -0. $.!$7 $.#1# $.6!1 $. ! 1.$%* 1.!#! 1.##9 1.6*6 1. 6% !.$7$ !.!77 !.# # $.1*! $.%$! $.#*% $.6$# $.7** $.9$6 1.$*7 1.!$ 1.%*9 1.*1$ 1.661 1. 1! $.1%% $.#* $.%7 $.%! $.! $.!6 $.!# $.!! $.!1 $.!$ $.19 $.1 $.71 $.* $.*$ $.#* $.#1 $.% $.%* $.%% $.%! $.%$ $.!9 $.9% $.76 $.66 $.*9 $.*# $.*$ $.#6 $.## $.#! $.#$ $.% 1.1% $.9! $. $ $.71 $.6* $.6$ $.*6 $.*% $.*$ $.# $.#6 1.%1 1.$7 $.9! $. % $.7* $.7$ $.6* $.6! $.* $.*6 $.*% 1.# 1.!1 1.$* $.9# $. 6 $.79 $.7# $.7$ $.66 $.6% $.6$ 1.6# 1.%# 1.16 1.$% $.9# $. 7 $. ! $.77 $.7% $.7$ $.69 1.79 1.#6 1.!6 1.1% 1.$% $.96 $. 9 $. # $. $ $.76 $.7% 1.9# 1.* 1.%7 1.!! 1.1! 1.$% $.97 $.91 $. 7 $. % $.79 !.$ 1.69 1.#7 1.%1 1.!$ 1.11 1.$# $.9 $.9% $. $. * !.!1 1. 1 1.*6 1.#$ 1.! 1.1 1.11 1.$# $.99 $.9# $.9$ !.%# 1.91 1.66 1.# 1.%* 1.!* 1.17 1.1$ 1.$* 1.$$ $.96 $.#* $.%7 $.%! $.! $.!6 $.!# $.!! $.!1 $.!$ $.19 $.1 $.#7 $.%9 $.%# $.%$ $.!7 $.!* $.!# $.!! $.!1 $.!$ $.19 $.6! $.*1 $.## $.%9 $.%6 $.%% $.%1 $.!9 $.! $.!6 $.!* $.67 $.** $.# $.#! $.%9 $.%6 $.%# $.%! $.%$ $.!9 $.!7 $. 7 $.71 $.6! $.** $.*$ $.#7 $.## $.#1 $.%9 $.%7 $.%6 $.99 $. 1 $.7$ $.6! $.*7 $.*% $.#9 $.#7 $.## $.#! $.#$ 1.$9 $. 9 $.77 $.69 $.6% $.* $.** $.*! $.#9 $.#7 $.#* 1.!$ $.9 $. * $.76 $.69 $.6# $.6$ $.*6 $.*# $.*1 $.#9 1.!9 1.$6 $.9! $. ! $.7* $.69 $.6* $.61 $.* $.** $.*% 1.%9 1.1% $.9 $. $. $ $.7# $.69 $.6* $.6! $.*9 $.*7 1.# 1.!1 1.$* $.9# $. * $.79 $.7# $.7$ $.66 $.6% $.6$ 1.*1 1.! 1.11 $.99 $.9$ $. # $.7 $.7# $.7$ $.67 $.6# $.#* $.%7 $.%! $.! $.!6 $.!# $.!! $.!1 $.!$ $.19 $.1

S'de #l&%e I 1.D:1

S'de #l&%e I 1.=D:1

130

$.*$ $.7* 1.$$ 1.!* 1.*$ 1.7* !.$$ !.!* !.*$ !.7* %.$$ $.!* $.*$ $.7* 1.$$ 1.!* 1.*$ 1.7* !.$$ !.!* !.*$ !.7* %.$$

$.!6* $.%97 $.*%$ $.66! $.79* $.9!7 1.$6$ 1.19! 1.%!* 1.#*7 1.*9$ $.11 $.!%6 $.%*# $.#7! $.*9$ $.7$ $. !6 $.9## 1.$6! 1.1 $ 1.!9 1.#16

$.71 $.* $.*$ $.#* $.#1 $.% $.%* $.%% $.%! $.%$ $.!9 $.9% $.76 $.66 $.*9 $.*# $.*$ $.#6 $.## $.#! $.#$ $.% 1.1% $.9! $. $ $.71 $.6* $.6$ $.*6 $.*% $.*$ $.# $.#6 1.%1 1.$7 $.9! $. % $.7* $.7$ $.6* $.6! $.* $.*6 $.*% 1.# 1.!1 1.$# $.9% $. * $.79 $.7# $.7$ $.66 $.6% $.6$ 1.6# 1.%# 1.16 1.$% $.9# $. 7 $. ! $.77 $.7% $.7$ $.67 1.79 1.#6 1.!6 1.1% 1.$% $.96 $. 9 $. # $. $ $.76 $.7% 1.9% 1.* 1.%7 1.!! 1.1! 1.$% $.97 $.91 $. 6 $. ! $.79 !.$ 1.69 1.#7 1.%1 1.!$ 1.11 1.$# $.9 $.9% $. $. * !.!1 1. 1 1.*6 1.#$ 1.! 1.1 1.11 1.$# $.99 $.9# $.9$ !.%# 1.91 1.66 1.# 1.%* 1.!* 1.17 1.1$ 1.$* 1.$$ $.96 $.# $.%9 $.%# $.%$ $.! $.!6 $.!# $.!% $.!1 $.!$ $.!$ $.71 $.* $.*$ $.#* $.#1 $.% $.%* $.%% $.%! $.%$ $.!9 $.9% $.76 $.66 $.*9 $.*# $.*$ $.#6 $.## $.#! $.#$ $.% 1.1% $.9! $. $ $.71 $.6* $.6$ $.*6 $.*% $.*$ $.# $.#6 1.%1 1.$7 $.9! $. % $.7* $.7$ $.6* $.6! $.* $.*6 $.*% 1.# 1.!1 1.$# $.9% $. * $.79 $.7# $.7$ $.66 $.6% $.6$ 1.6# 1.%# 1.16 1.$% $.9# $. 7 $. ! $.77 $.7% $.7$ $.67 1.79 1.#6 1.!6 1.1% 1.$% $.96 $. 9 $. # $. $ $.76 $.7% 1.9% 1.* 1.%7 1.!! 1.1! 1.$% $.97 $.91 $. 6 $. ! $.79 !.$ 1.69 1.#7 1.%1 1.!$ 1.11 1.$# $.9 $.9% $. $. * !.!1 1. 1 1.*6 1.#$ 1.! 1.1 1.11 1.$# $.99 $.9# $.9$ !.%# 1.91 1.66 1.# 1.%* 1.!* 1.17 1.1$ 1.$* 1.$$ $.96

S'de #l&%e I 5:1

131

CHAPTER E CONSTRUCTION OF A FISH FARM

E. CONSTRUCTION ACTI1ITIES; EJUIPMENT AND METHODS
E.1 Pre-)&$#"ru)"'&$ a)"'4'"'e#
E.1.1 Pr&8ra00'$8 &( a)"'4'"y a$d #"a(('$8 &( "+e %r&7e)" ,he purpose of pro@ect programming is to have a clear flo. on ho. the pro@ect .ill be implemented" the starting and completion time for a given amount of .or/" and labour force. ,his is done by estimating the amount of labour force available and their daily output in order to determine the number of days a piece of .or/ can be finished. ,he preparation of the development programme=schedule requires careful evaluation and realistic calculations that .ould result in an efficient and economical implementation of @ob activities. 1robable constraints that .ould hamper the smooth implementation of the pro@ect should be anticipated and solutions presented. In assessing the availability and quality of manpo.er in the vicinity of pro@ect site" considerations are given to the quantity and experience of s/illed .or/ers" time of availability +year round or seasonal-" rate and condition of payment" and .or/ing arrangements prevailing in the locality. In the event of manpo.er shortage" importation of .or/ers from ad@acent places becomes li/ely and the same assessment survey should be done. As an example" the follo.ing is a simplified proposed programme of .or/ for a %$5ha mil/fish farm. A)"'4'"'e# 1. (ite clearing 'nder brushingB a- removal of tree trun/s and debrisB 9&r* Da'ly lab&ur Dura"'&$ E/u'%0e$"?T&&l# arra$8e0e$" re/u're0e$" -day#. 8aily basis 1$$ 7* 1. Chain sa. !. Bolo %. Ax

132

b- 1ath of perimeter di/e !. Construction of gates abConstruction of temporary di/e Construction of foundation 5 Eate site excavationB 5 Bamboo piling" boulders and gravel filling Construction=installation c- of .ooden forms and reinforcing bars d- Concreting <emoval of forms" plastering" soil ebac/filling" removal of temporary di/e Eate curing" f- conditioning and construction of screens Construction and installation of secondary g8aily basis and tertiary .ooden or concrete gates and pipes %. 7arth.or/ +manuala- Construction of di/es b- Construction of canals c- 'prooting stumps d:evelling pond bottom +cut and fill8aily basis Contract .or/ #* 1%$

#. Bamboo raft All tools provided by contractor" such as concrete mixer or mixing form" digging tools" boat" .ater container" carpentry tools" masonry tools" steel sa.

As in a5f and % %$ 1*$ %$ 16$ 1. 8igging blade !. 0latboat %. 0lashboard #. (ta/es" plastic hose" side slope model 1. Concrete mixer or mixing form

Construction of careta/erOs Contract #. hut" storage and .or/ing .or/ shed" chilling tan/

!*

6*

!. 8igging tools %. 2asonry tools #. 1lumbing tools

133

*. <oad di/e

Contract .or/

1. 8ump truc/ # !$ !. 1ayloader %. Erader

Based on the programme of .or/" a schedule of construction activities is also prepared. 8evelopment schedule should consider nature of funding and time elements. If funding is obtained through loan from the ban/" the time of payment for the interest should be included in the development strategy. Ban/s usually charge interest payment on fish farm development loan t.o years after the first release. It is li/ely that during the second year" production .ould not be enough to pay for the interest. Chances are that unforeseen shortage of .or/ers exists during construction or there may be a delay in pond conditioning especially if it is acidic. 'nder this situation" pond development should proceed ensuring thatA +i- the ponds are secured against flood and other destructive forces of natureB and +ii- it must produce at the start of the second year" enough to pay for the loan interest and other financial requirements. ,hus" schedule of construction of pond compartments should be phased such that one or more rearing ponds are already complete and functional" so that by the end of the year" production can start .hile the other portions are still being completed. An example of general development schedule for a %$5ha farm is as follo.sA A)"'4'"'e# :a$ Feb Mar A%r May :u$ :ul Au8 Se% O)" N&4 De)

1reparation of 1. feasibility xxxx xx study !. %. Acquisition of ban/ loan <elocation survey xxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx xxx

Canvassing of #. materials and labourers 1rocurement and stoc/ *. piling of materials Construction of .or/erOs 6. temporary shelter 7. (ite clearing

xx

xxxx

xxxx xxxx xxxxx xx

134

7stablishment of mar/ers

xx

Construction of main gate and 9. temporary enclosure di/e 1$. Construction of main di/e

xxxxx xx

xxxxx xxxx xxxx xxxxx xxxx xxxx xxxx

Construction 11. of partition di/es Construction 1!. of secondary gates Construction 1%. of tertiary gates Construction 1#. of supply canal 1ond 1*. excavation and levelling Construction of careta/erOs 16. hut and storage shed 17. <oad di/e and others xxxx xxxx

xxxx xxxx xxxx

xxxx

xxxx xxxx

xxxx xxxx xxxx

xxxx

E.1.5 Pr&)ure0e$"?#"&)*%'l'$8 &( 0a"er'al# ,he purchase and stoc/piling of materials should also be accomplished according to the construction schedule. Costs should be .eighed against availability and transport of materials under different climatic conditions. (ome materials li/e gravel" sand" cement" lumber" and bamboo poles should be purchased and transported to the pond site during dry .eather. ,ransporting them at this time is easier and cheaper. Bamboos have to be purchased during dry season to get good quality poles. (ome equipment li/e the cement mixer" hollo. bloc/s machines" vibrators" steel cutters" and .ater pumps should be acquired or leased at the proper time. All these .ill require a cash flo. .hich should be indicated in the construction schedule.

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7xperience in 2alaysia indicates that since .ater control structures are generally small and .idely scattered over the pond site" it has been expensive to transport material and construction plant to the various locations. In many cases" transport cost of material have exceeded the actual cost of material itself +4hoo and (anthanara@" 19 !-. E.1.6 S'"e )lear'$8 Initial clearing begins .here the main di/e and main gate are to be located. 0ull scale clearing then continues as the construction of main di/e and main gate proceeds. ,he entire area of the fishpond site should be cleared of all grasses" trees" roots and stumps. All cleared materials should be thoroughly removed from the site of .or/. (ite clearing can be accomplished by any or combination of the follo.ing methodsA a. 8nderbrus!ing2 In underbrushing" vegetation including nipa trees and shrubs" of less than 1$ cm in diameter are cut .ith the use of bolo. ,his operation must be done systematically in bloc/s and be completed immediately before the perimeter di/e and the main gate are completed. ,his is to prepare the pond for the next process. 'nderbrushing is done by manual labour and the .or/ begins as soon as the foundations of the main di/e and the main gate have been established. b. 7it!ering +9ptional-. ;ithering is to /ill the trees by filling up the pond .ith .ater. It has been found that mangrove trees" specially the group of !i"op!ora" usually die out .hen their trun/s are constantly soa/ed .ith .ater at a depth of more than $.* m for a period of # to 6 months. ,he fallen leaves serve as fertili?er. c. 3alling2 0alling is simply cutting do.n big trees left after underbrushing. ,he falling operation should commence .hen the tree bar/ begins to peel" but before the leaves and branches fall. ,he prerequisite of falling is to dry and harden the ground" .hich can be done by /eeping the .ater table of the entire pond area at $.% to $.* m belo. the surface for a period of 1 to % months" depending on the .eather conditions. 7ither manual or mechanical method" or a combination of both" can be employed for falling. A chain sa. is effective in falling big trees and cutting logs. It is a fast method and economical to use. d. 8prooting of stumps. Complete removal of tree stumps and root system embedded in the soil is done by manual labour or by the use of small machines. 2anual labour is effective and economical in areas having small stumps and roots" but for big stumps and larger areas" it is more economical to use a .inch and pulley bloc/ +0ig. 6.1- or a mechanical tree puller +0ig. 6.!-. ,he mechanical puller consists of a .inch and its accessories. ,he .inch is po.ered by to 16 3p gasoline engine for lightness and portability. ,he .inch and the engine are set on a common steel base provided .ith an anchor" holdfast or a log5deadman +0ig. 6.%-. ,he steel cable" provided .ith a quic/5detach shac/le" is then tied securely to the stump. ;hen the engine is started the .inch .ill pull out the stump. 0or extra large trees" roots opposite the .inch may have to be cut if the .inch cannot pull the tree out entirely.

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,he mechanical puller is moved from place to place" until all the stumps have been uprooted. ;hen pond is flooded .ith tide .ater" the uprooted stumps .ill partially float and can thus be removed from the pond.

E.5 C&$#"ru)"'&$ e/u'%0e$"

E.5.1 E/u'%0e$" (&r 0a$ual )&$#"ru)"'&$ +a- Digging blade2 2anual construction of di/e is usually done by piling soil bloc/s that have been cut by a digging blade. A soil bloc/ measures approximately %$ cm Q %$ cm Q 6$ cm .hich is cut by a hand tool locally called ItagadJ in the 1hilippines +&isayas- and IsarapJ in Indonesia +0ig. 6.#-. In ,hailand" they also use this type of digging blade" .ith a slightly different construction. ,here are also other hand tools for digging soil found in the region and these are sho.n in 0ig. 6.*.

0ig.6.1 (/etch sho.ing ho. to use a .inch and a pulley bloc/ for manual destumping +After 2aar and 2ortimer" 1966-

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0ig.6.! A mechanical tree puller +After Camandre and <abanal" 1966-

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0ig.6.% ,ypes of anchor for manual destumping +After 3echanova and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $-

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0ig. 6.# ,ypes of digging implements for fishpond construction +After Camandre and <abanal" 197*-

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0ig. 6.* Additional digging tools in Indonesia for fishpond construction and repairs +After <anoemihard@o" 19 !+b- Bamboo raft' dugout boat' flatboat2 ,he soil bloc/s are transported from the digging site to the path of the di/e by a bamboo raft" dugout boat or a flatboat. ,he bamboo raft" ho.ever +0ig.

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6.6-" has a much smaller load capacity than the flatboat +0ig. 6.7-. ,he flatboat is presently considered the best method of hauling soil bloc/s because of the follo.ing advantagesA i. ii. iii. iv. 8oes not require much effort to loadB Construction is simpleB 2aneuverable" easy to tilt and dump the soil +0ig. 6. -B and <equires minimal maintenance K only periodic tar coating.

0ig.6.6 Bamboo raft for transporting soil bloc/s in di/ing +After 8enila" 1977-

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0ig. 6.7 0latboat for transporting soil bloc/s +After 8enila" 1977-

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0ig. 6. ,.o .ays of unloading flat boat +After Camandre and <abanal" 197*+c- 7ooden mallet or tamping device. ,his tool is used to compact the soil bloc/s on top and sides of di/es. ,his is made of a short log about %$ cm long and %$ cm in diameter. ,he end that gets in contact .ith the soil is cut into a .edge of #*P angle and provided .ith a handle about 1. m long. ,he device is manually raised and made to fall against the di/e surface repeatedly. 1roper soil moisture condition is needed for using the mallet effectively. E.5.5 Hea4y e/u'%0e$" (&r )&$#"ru)"'&$ +a- Dragline. (ingapore and 2alaysia generally use dragline. ,he operations consist of bringing to site a trac/5mounted crane. ;ith the crane are many $.1 Q $.% Q #.$ to *.$ m plan/s .hich are self5laid by the crane for its o.n base. As .or/ progresses" the plan/s are self5shifted by the crane so that it is resting at all times on a series of platform plan/s preventing it from bogging do.n in mud. ,his particular equipment is particularly good for di/e construction" canal digging and deepening +0ig. 6.9-. 3ence" it is suited for excavating shrimp trapping ponds in order to have deeper .ater. 3o.ever" it is not practical for large5scale .ithin5compartment5levelling because of its being too slo. and un.ieldy. Its use is also limited .here mass hauling of earth in some areas for di/e

144

building is involved. It is by design" an equipment for in5place .or/ing. ,here is no. in the mar/et a crane mounted on :E1 +lo. ground pressure- trac/s. ,his ma/es the crane more maneuverable in s.ampy areas and cuts its non5productive plan/5transferring time by half. ,his crane can be equipped .ith clam shell buc/ets.

0ig. 6.9 <ange diagram and limits of .or/ of drag line as defined for the construction of the perimeter di/e +After 3echanava and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $,he cost of using draglines vary .ith the /ind of soil material and its si?e. ,he effective .or/ing range depends on the length of boom +0ig. 6.9-. +b- Do"er/cra(lers +0ig. 6.1$-. ,his particular equipment is good for levelling provided the load5 bearing capacity of the soil can support the equipment .eight. <ecent designs of these equipment are provided .ith mechanisms .hich improves speed and maneuverability" thus

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cutting do.n construction time. ,he effective .or/ing range of most do?ers in dry soil conditions vary from !$ to #$ m.

0ig. 6.1$ (ome heavy equipment for fish farm construction +After ,arnchalanu/it" 19 !2ost cra.ler manufacturers have no. incorporated :E1 trac/s to their line of cra.lers to enable it to .or/ on .et soils. 9n :E1" the ground pressure usually is around $.! /g=cm!. ,he :E1 cra.lers come in a variety of si?es" ranging from !$ to !$$ B3p. 9ne has therefore a good choice to suit the area to be developed or the transport situation to the .or/ area. In some instances" small :E1 do?ers are chosen over a large one for convenience in transporting the equipment to the @ob site by raft or passing on bridges .hich have limited load capacity. +c- 4&draulic excavators' bac)!oe' s!ovels' cranes' pa& loaders +0ig. 6.1$-. ,hese are equipment that can also be used to advantage in fishpond pro@ects. 9ne advantage the hydraulic equipment

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have over cable cranes are their fast action and flexibility to adapt to a variety of situations. ,hese can also be adapted .ith clam shells and grapplers and can be used for uprooting small tree stumps. +d- Scrapers' dump truc)s' (!eel/t&pe loaders +0ig. 6.1$-. ,hese may also be used effectively .here soil conditions permit. +e- Suggestions on mec!ani"ation2 2uch .aste has been observed in the use of mechani?ed equipment. In order to be able to adopt this method .ith success" one must /no. the follo.ingA +i- capacityB +ii- limitationsB +iii- limit of maximum operating rangeB +iv- ground pressureB +v.or/ing conditionsB +vi- amount of .or/ to be doneB +vii- type of .or/ requiredB and +viii- cost per unit of .or/ accomplished. ,here are equipment no. especially fabricated for reclamation and s.amp .or/. ,hese types can be used in mangroves effectively. 3o.ever" one should be conversant .ith the different types of equipment and be able to @udge critically the type of equipment needed after seeing the pro@ect area. ,here are some large equipment .hich can be ta/en apart into several components and reassembled at @ob5site. (ome cranes and hydraulic lifters are also designed to be barge5 mounted .ith their trac/s on .hile on the shore. In addition" the economical or effective range of the equipment should also be /no.n. At .hat distance should one consider a loader and a dump truc/ combination over a cra.lerV It .ould be uneconomical beyond about %* m due to its trac/ .ear and long cycle time. Beyond %* m on volume of soil movement" one might .ant to employ combination pay loaders .ith several dump truc/s. ,he economics of this operation should be .or/ed out. (crapers +self5loading and cra.ler5assisted- are ideal for large pro@ects. 8redges can be used effectively too. 'nder special situations" @etting pumps can effectively facilitate uprooting of stumps. All of the above require a thorough /no.ledge of the pro@ect site peculiarities as .ell as the different equipment available" their specifications" capacities and limitations. An expertOs advise in this field is usually necessary.

E.6 C&$#"ru)"'&$ 0e"+&d#

E.6.1 C&$#"ru)"'&$ &( re'$(&r)ed )&$)re"e &r +&ll&, bl&)* 0a'$ a$d #e)&$dary 8a"e# ,he main gate is constructed ahead of the main or perimeter di/e to allo. time for curing of concrete and have it used .hile the main di/e is being completed. All the materials needed should be in the site prior to construction. 8uring construction" the design specifications must be follo.ed particularly in the construction of gate foundationB the provisions against undercutting of .ater" the spacing and si?e of reinforcements against side and bottom pressuresB and the proper mixture and curing of the concrete or bric/ +hollo. bloc/-. Construction begins by preparing the site. ,he exact location is measured and sta/ed out. 7nough .or/ing space of 1 to ! m around the gate foundation should be provided.

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A reference point for chec/ing the elevations of gate flooring" heights" soil excavations and others must be established. A temporary but strong di/e capable of .ithstanding tidal .ater pressure must be constructed to enclose the site and .or/ing space. 7ntrapped .ater inside the site is removed manually or by pumping. +a- *!e gate foundation2 Construction is guided by follo.ing either of the t.o illustrations in 0igures *.1$ and *.11. In 0igure *.1$" the site is excavated to $.6 m deep from the reference point. <emoval of roots" stumps and mud or soft soil is done" if any. 7xcavation should include the portion .here the toes of the gate .ill be constructed. 7xcavation is done manually or by dragline or a bac/hoe on trac/s in mechani?ed construction. ,he spacing and lengths of bamboo base" mangrove or .ooden piles that support the structure should be observed. A common practice by fish farmers is to drive t.o lengths of piles verticallyA the %5m length is driven at one5meter interval .hile the shorter +one to t.o5meterlength is driven !* to %$ cm apart .ithin the longer piles. :eave at least !* cm of the pile head above the soil surface. ,his exposed ends should be in level. In some designs" .ooden plan/s .ith pointed ends measuring * cm Q 1* cm Q 1 $ cm are also used in addition to bamboo piles. ,hese plan/s are driven side by side along the centreline of side and .ing .alls and both ends of aprons. ,hese plan/s extend the depth of concrete cut5off or toe .alls and further help in preventing undercutting of .ater. Boulders are laid about !$ cm thic/ bet.een the piling to form a floor. Eravel layer of * cm thic/ is spread on top of the boulders" and then compacted. ,he exposed ends of the piles should be level .ith the surface of the gravel layer. +b- 3orms and reinforcing bars. After the foundation" the forms for the slab or flooring and toes are constructed. ,he reinforcing bars are laid as per plan. ,he elevation of flooring should be chec/ed if still .ithin the prescribed value. Initial pouring of mixed concrete along the footing is done to /eep in place the vertical reinforcements for side and .ing .alls including collars. ,hen the hori?ontal bars are tied .ith Ho. 16 .ires .ith the vertical bars as per plan. In addition" reinforcements for cat.al/ or bridges are also installed. ;hile installing the reinforcements" the forms for .alls" bridges and collars are being prepared. ,he forms are properly set and should be rigid to stand the .eight of poured concrete and to avoid bulging of sides. ,he reinforcement bars should be centred .ithin the forms. ,he forms are spaced apart to have a finished concrete .all of at least 1* cm. +c- Concrete mixture' pouring and curing2 Concrete mixture should be in proportion of 1A!.# +cementAsandAgravel- for all concrete .or/s. If concrete hollo. bloc/s are used +for small main and secondary gates-" the mixture should be 1A7 +cementAsand-.

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1rior to pouring of concrete mixture" the .ater that have seeped into the gate construction site should be drained out. ,hen pouring of mixture follo.s continuously until completed. 8uring pouring" concrete vibrator or a piece of iron or firm .ood should be used to compact the mixture to prevent hollo. or void spaces and to insure smooth concrete surface upon removal of the forms. (alt.ater should not come in contact .ith the concrete .hile still .et. Allo. the concrete to set in and harden for ! to # days before removing the forms. 1lastering the surface may be done as necessary. 1lastering mortar of 1A% +cementAsand- ratio should be applied at a thic/ness of 6 to 1$ mm. (oil bac/filling of excavated areas is done to have a finished ground surface around the structure. 1roper compaction bet.een .alls of the structure and ad@acent soils should be observed. Continuous curing of the concrete structure should be done for ! days. Curing is done by covering it .ith @ute sac/ or similar materials and sprin/ling fresh.ater to ma/e it moist throughout the day for the .hole curing period. ,he temporary di/e may be removed after %$ days. Condition the structure by letting tidal .ater to come in and out of the gate. E.6.5 C&$#"ru)"'&$ &( 0a'$ #e)&$dary a$d "er"'ary ,&&de$ 8a"e# a$d %'%e# ;ooden gates have much shorter life span than concrete. ,his is preferred for reasons of economy or .hen initial capital is limited the use of .ooden gate is resorted to until such time that the o.ner decides to replace it .ith concrete. ,he parts" shape" height and inner dimensions of .ooden gates are also similar .ith concrete. ,hey are ho.ever" easier and faster to construct. Construction is carried out as follo.sA ,he materials used are either regular lumber" stripped= .hole coconut or palm trun/s and bamboo. ,hese materials are selected for qualityB they must be adequately shade dried for ! to % .ee/s before construction. ,he .ood are planed to have smooth edge and surfaces. ,he materials are then cut as per plans and specifications of the gate. ,o prolong the life of the .ood" thic/ coating of coal tar is applied. Creosote or other similar .ood preservatives may also be applied. (ome gate builders mix coal tar and cement and the mixture is painted in t.o coatings to the materials" then left under the sun for drying. ;hile drying the .ood materials under the shade" the usual reference mar/ for chec/ing the elevation of the gate should be established as .ell as preparation of the foundation. ,he foundation may not be as strong as in concrete gate. 7xcavate the site according to desired elevation. Bamboo base or mangrove piles are driven to support the structure if needed +0igs. 6.11 and 6.1!-.

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0ig. 6.11 ;ooden gate construction +Ho middle anti5seep board+After Camandre and <abanal" 197*-

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0ig. 6.1! ;ooden gate frontal vie." no .ing .all but .ith anti5seep board +2odified after Camandre and <abanal" 197*,he various parts of the gate such as the .alls" flooring" cut5off .alls" anti5seepboard +0ig. 6.1!are separately nailed to the respective braces" pillars or supports. ,his is done outside the site. ,he component units +side .alls" flooring" cut5off .all" etc.- are then assembled together by using galvani?ed nails" or bron?e nails" if available" to form the gate after the preparation of the foundation +0igs. 6.11 to 6.1%-. In some cases" the .hole gate unit is already assembled outside the site and @ust lifted and placed properly on top of the site" but sometimes the the finished gate is quite heavy. ,he .alls and flooring of the gate are tightly nailed side by side. ;ater tightness improves the moment the .ood is soa/ed in .ater and expands. 3o.ever" there are also .ater sealant compounds that further insure .ater tightness. In Indonesia" some secondary gates are designed and constructed .ithout nailing the flooring" the side and .ing .alls. ,he .allings are vertically piled one on top of the other and tightly sand.iched bet.een the vertical supports or pillars and the di/e soil. 7ven the cleats or grooves

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for the screens are not nailed permanently. ,he ma@or advantage of this design is convenience in repair or replacement of decayed .ood member. ,he member to be replaced is @ust pulled out easily and then the replacement is immediately inserted.

0ig. 6.1% ;ooden gate construction" preferably preservative5treated .ood and copper or galvani?ed iron nails +After Camandre and <abanal" 197*After installing the gate" the space bet.een the excavations and .alls are mud5pac/ed by soil bloc/s arranged in layers. ,hen the soil is allo.ed to dry and harden. Conditioning the gate is done by allo.ing tidal .ater in and out of the pond. Chec/ing for seepage is also being done at this time. E.6.6 C&$#"ru)"'&$ &( %er'0e"er &r 0a'$ d'*e ,he most important component of the fishpond system is the di/e enclosing the entire pond area. ,he perimeter di/e is the first di/e to be constructed to free the area from the danger of floods. ,he utility of the pond system .ill depend on the strength and lifetime of the perimeter di/e.

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Construction may be done by manual method .ith light implements and by using heavy equipment. +a- #anual construction2 2ain di/e passing across rivers" cree/s and lo. areas should be constructed first. Construction should be done by arranging soil bloc/s properly in bet.een staggeredly driven bamboo or mangrove piles as reinforcement. ,he arrangement of soil bloc/s and piles are sho.n in 0igure 6.1#.

0ig. 6.1# Closing of river or cree/ +After 8enila" 1977HoteA ,his is not advisable but done only if necessary and possible adverse effects compensated As the first step" construction of all di/es is preceded by thorough clearing of the path of di/es and their immediate vicinity. ,he .idth of clearing is slightly .ider than the base of the di/e to be constructed. ,rees" roots" stumps and undecomposed organic matter should be removed out of these path. Clearing is guided by sta/ing out the centreline of the di/e. After the clearing" the base and top .idth of the di/e are properly mar/ed .ith sta/es on the ground. Construction of the core or puddle trench along the main di/e follo.s in order to provide a good /ey bet.een the di/e soil and the foundation as .ell as minimi?ing seepage through the di/e. ,he puddle trench is constructed by excavating a trench measuring at least $.* m .ide by $.*D1.$ m deep along the centre path of the main di/e. ,he excavated trench is then bac/filled to the same ground level .ith a ne. soil .hich is .et enough to be puddled by feet or compacted by a .ooden mallet or tamping device. ,he importance of puddle trench is .ell recogni?ed but sparingly practiced

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probably due to the added cost. Although costly" it cuts a lot of .ater management problems in the future. Construction of main di/e proper follo.s. ,he sta/es set for the si?e of di/e guide the proper arrangement or piling of soil bloc/s .hich are ta/en from higher grounds and are being transported by flatboats or rafts. 9ther methods of transporting soil bloc/s are by the line system and sliding system. In the line system" .or/ers form a single line +0ig. 6.1*-. 7ach .or/er is positioned at 1 to ! m apart. ,he line extends from the source of soil to the di/e construction site. (oil bloc/s are relayed to each man until it reaches the piler. ,he sliding system applies .hen the source of bloc/s is close to the site +0ig. 6.16-. ,he .or/er thro.s the bloc/ on the board letting the soil slide do.n to the base of the di/e. Among these methods" the use of flatboat is considered the best.

0ig. 6.1* 0ive .or/ers .or/ing in group in pond .ith .ater +After 8enila" 1977,he piler of bloc/s sees to it that they are tightly placed end to end. Compacting each layer of soil bloc/s by feet or tamping device is recommended. ,he proper placement of soil are sho.n in 0igure 6.17. ,he recommended finished form of di/e is sho.n in 0igure 6.1 .

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0ig. 6.16 ,he sliding board method of moving soil bloc/s +After 8enila" 1977-

0ig. 6.17 1roper .ay of piling soil bloc/s for di/e +After 8enila" 1977-

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0ig 6.1 Arrangement of soil bloc/s and proper form of di/e in manual method of construction +After 8enila" 1977,he proper side slope must also be observed in the piling of bloc/s. ,he base and top .idth sta/es as .ell as a side slope model +0ig. 6.19- serves as guide in chec/ing the correctness of side slope. ,he height or elevation of the top of di/e should also be chec/ed" if done according to specifications. It is important to have uniform elevation of top of di/e in every compartment. ,o accurately measure this" a 1!5mm transparent plastic hose" !* to %$ m long is filled .ith .ater. 9ne end is held by a man at the starting point .hile the other end is held by another man. ,he

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.ater level at the t.o ends of the hose must be the same. ,his level is properly mar/ed and is chec/ed against the finished elevation of the top of di/e. ,he same procedure is done in subsequent stretch or station of !$ to !* m until the entire length of di/e is covered. ,he plastic hose .ith .ater is also used in laying out the bed slope of canals of a fish farm. +b- *eam (or) versus individual (or) in di)e construction. (ome construction .or/ers group themselves as a team in .or/ing. ,he team is usually composed of four members. each .ith distinct functions K the soil piler" the soil bloc/ digger" raft or flatboat pusher" and the carrier. ,he carrier receives the soil bloc/s transported and unloaded by the boat pusher at the site" and passes them to the piler.

0ig. 6.19 (ide slope model made for di/e slope of 1A1 +After 3echanova and ,iensongrusmee" 19 $9ther .or/ers prefer to .or/ individually. 7ach .or/er is provided .ith flatboat and does the digging" transporting and piling +0ig. 6.!$-. It is claimed that one s/illed .or/er .ith flatboat can finish a di/e .ith si?e of 6 to 7 cu.m in to 9 hours" compared to %.* cu.m only for each member in the team .or/ +8enila" 1977-.

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0ig. 6.!$ 9ne man 5 one flat boat operation +After 8enila" 1977E.6.C C&$#"ru)"'&$ &( #e)&$dary a$d "er"'ary d'*e# Construction of secondary and tertiary di/es follo.s the same procedure as in construction of perimeter di/es. 1uddle trench is also recommended to be included in the construction. ,he di/es may have berm to accommodate excess soil from the pond and to decrease soil erosion and .ater turbidity after a heavy rainfall. ,his berm is also a good .or/ing space during repair of di/e lea/s or seepage rather than doing repairs by staying on the cro.n. E.6.D C&$#"ru)"'&$ &( ,a"er )a$al# ;ater canals are constructed follo.ing the same procedure as in di/e construction. Canal bottom is" ho.ever" excavated deeper than the pond bottom and secondary gates if the channel or canal is purposely designed for filling and draining the fishpond. E.6.E P&$d le4ell'$8 1ond levelling is the final step in fishpond construction. (ome operators pay little attention to pond levelling and thin/ that construction of fishpond is finished after the main and the secondary di/es have been constructed. 9ne of the ma@or reasons for lo. pond productivity is due to rough or poorly levelled pond bottom.

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:evelling the pond @ust after the di/es are constructed is quite expensive. It is advisable to .ait for t.o to three years until the root systems of the trees have partially decayed before levelling is started. ,his .ill lessen the capital outlay. 1artial levelling may be done @ust after enclosure" but excavation should be limited only to portions .here there are no trees. ,he soil excavated should be dump in lo. portions that cannot be drained. After t.o to three years" final levelling can be completed. After a topographic survey has been made" the pond bottom elevations should be determined. :i/e.ise" the volume of soil to be cut and the portions to be filled should be mar/ed out by sta/es. In the 1hilippines" a simple method of pond levelling is done by using the tidal .ater. ,he procedure for this is as follo.sA a. Bring the .ater do.n to the desired pond elevation and place a bench mar/ to identify it +0ig. 6.!1-. Beside the bench mar/" place another sta/e about 7.* cm .ide" !.* cm thic/ and ! m long" mar/ed from $ to 1$$ cm +0ig. 6.!!-. ,he ?ero mar/ of the gauge should be level .ith the bench mar/. ,he gauge indicates the depth of .ater and serves as a levelling guide during filling of lo. spots and in cutting soil from high places.

0ig. 6.!1 Illustration of procedure in determining depth of soil above 9 tidal datum using .ater level" staff gauge and depth gauge

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0ig. 6.!! (taff gauge as benchmar/ +After delos (antos" 19 $b. 7stablish stations by mar/ing principal locations of high grounds or above the ?ero elevation mar/ as .ell as the lo. areas to be filled. c. Allo. .ater in to a depth of about %$ cm so that the flatboats are afloat and start excavation. All vegetative cover is stripped and loaded to the flatboats and dumped outside the pond. ,he standard length for one handle length of the digging blade is %$ cm so that if the handle is placed in the .ater and the ground level is 1* cm above the ?ero mar/" *$ percent of the handle length should be excavated. In areas of extensive excavation" the soil can be loaded directly on flatboats and placed in the di/es" in lo. spots or areas that are belo. ?ero elevation. ,he remaining soil on either side can be levelled easily using spades +0ig. 6.!%-. 9ne to t.o .or/ers should be at the receiving end to supervise the dumping of soil in the deep portions. ,he receivers chec/ the depths by a depth gauge +0ig. 6.!#-. 7ach receiver can supervise !$ flatboats.

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d. ;hen all mar/ed portions have been excavated" bring do.n the .ater to $ elevation. ;ith the use of a spade the final levelling can be done. e. ,he process is repeated for other stations or locations until all other lo. portions are filled. f. 8uring the final levelling" .ith the .ater at elevation $" all .ater poc/ets should be connected by small canals. In levelling .or/ consisting of excavations and filling of lo. areas" a .or/er can have a finished @ob output as follo.sA 9&r*'$8 ra$8e -(r&0 eA)a4a"'&$ "& ('ll'$8 area. -0. +a+b+c1$D1$$ 1$1D%$$ %$1D*$$ Le4elled?('lled area -05. #$D*$ %$D#$ !$D%$

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0ig. 6.!% (tripping method of levelling +Cut and fill+After Camandre and <abanal" 197*-

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0ig. 6.!# A simple depth gauge +After Camandre and <abanal" 197*-

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CHAPTER = EJUIPMENT AND FACILITIES FOR FISH FARM OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT
Coastal fishponds require some essential equipment and facilities .hich are used for varied purposes. (uch equipment may be used for maintenance and repairs" harvesting the crop" monitoring and maintaining .ater quality" excluding predators and pests" and other miscellaneous facilities for maximi?ing the use of various inputs.

=.1 E/u'%0e$" (&r 0a'$"e$a$)e a$d re%a'r#

=.1.1 D'88'$8 "&&l#
2ost of the maintenance and repair .or/s in fish farms are devoted to di/es. 1ractically" the same implements in manual construction .or/ are also being used in ma/ing repairs of di/es. 8igging tools" flatboats" .ooden dugouts and rafts as previously mentioned +0igures 6.# to 6. in Chapter 6- are most appropriate for .or/ li/e digging out trenches and bac/filling them .ith puddled soil to repair lea/age=seepage" and for deepening canals and other similar @obs. 2aintenance of digging tools are easily done by cleaning and rubbing .ith oil or grease to prevent them from rusting. Boats should be protected against the sun by putting them under the shed. 8ugout boats" .hen not used" may also be filled .ith .ater to prevent the .alls from crac/ing .hen exposed under the sun.

=.1.5 Le4ell'$8 "&&l#

1ractical and simple equipment have also been devised for levelling fishpond bottoms. ,he simple manual mud ra/e is a good example +0ig. 7.1-" .hile in Indonesia" a levelling board manned by four or more men is also used +0ig. 7.!-.

164

0ig. 7.1 A .ooden mud ra/e +After <abanal" 19*1-

165

0ig. 7.! 1ond mud bottom levelling board used in Indonesia

0ig. 7.% 0ingerling seine +A- and operational vie. +B- +After 2otoh" 19 $-

=.1.6 De#'l"'$8 e/u'%0e$"

0or manual removal of silt in fishpond bottoms or canals" a simple metallic or .ooden shovel has been devised and used in ,hailand and Indonesia +0ig. 6.*-. If the area to be desilted is extensive" a type of silt or sludge pump can be used. ,his can be a small unit so that it can be portable and can be transferred to the various areas of the pond system.

=.5 Ne"# a$d "ra%#

=.5.1 F'$8erl'$8 #e'$e
,he industry has designed various types of nets for use in fishpond operations. ,he fingerling seine" .hich is used for catching mil/fish fingerlings and shrimps @uveniles" is a fine5meshed rectangular net" about t.o to four meters long by one meter .ide. It is supported by t.o poles at both ends .ith floats of .ood" rubber or synthetic material on the upper side and sin/ers of lead on the opposite side +0ig. 7.%-.

=.5.5 F'$8erl'$8 #u#%e$#'&$ $e"

A fingerling suspension net is usually a standard equipment in brac/ish.ater fish farms. ,his is a rectangular or square net ! to % meters .ide by % to * meters long. 8ouble line of coarse t.ine line the margins" the net has meshes of $.* to 1.$ cm square mesh. It is used to hold fingerlings during counting or before transport +0ig. 7.#-.

166

=.5.6 G'll$e" #e'$e

,his is a harvesting net of about 1.* to !.$ m .ide by %$ to *$ m long +0ig. 7.*-. It should have a float line at one of the long sides and lead line on the opposite side. It is made of coarse thread of nylon .ith mesh of # to * cm square mesh. ,o catch fish" this seine is dragged over the pond from one end to the other. ,he fish are gilled on the net but some @ump over .hile small ones pass through the net meshes so that this net is usually used for partial harvesting.

0ig. 7.# (ample of fingerling suspension net

167

0ig. 7.* 1art of a gill net for partial harvesting

=.5.C S)ree$# &$ ,a"er )&$"r&l #"ru)"ure#

0ine5meshed nylon or 2anila hemp cloth are used as screens on frames on gates. ,hese screens are usually framed .ith the .ooden frame set on the gates to reinforce the bamboo screens on the frame +0igs. 7.6a and 7.6b-. 0or pipes" a fitting bamboo screen bas/et is used for mil/fish nurseries in the 1hilippines +0ig. 7.7a-. 8uring the early stages of fry rearing" this is further coated .ith nylon mesh or 2anila hemp cloth. (ometimes" only a fine5meshed net bag is tied to the .ater control pipe to screen5off un.anted organisms +0ig. 7.7b-.

168

0ig. 7.6 (oil5sealed gates .ith screens +After delos (antos" 197 -

169

0ig. 7.7 Hetting screens in .ater gates and pipes

=.5.D Har4e#"'$8 ba8$e" &$ 8a"e#

Bagnets so constructed so that their openings could fit the .ooden frame for screens on gates are made for use in harvesting. ,hese are installed on the frames during lo. tides .hen .ater is drained from the ponds .hich .ere previously fully flooded during the previous high tide. ;ith the force of the current" the stoc/ of shrimp from the ponds are led into the bagnet .here they are collected. ,hese harvesting bags for shrimp are used in the shrimp trapping ponds in 2alaysia and in mil/fish=shrimp polyculture ponds in the 1hilippines +0ig. 7. -.

170

0ig. 7. 3arvesting net .ith la?y line5arro.s indicate .ater flo. +After A(7AH Hational Coordinating Agency of the 1hilippines" 197 -

=.5.E Ca#" $e"

,he net is a versatile net for fishermen as .ell as for fish farmers for small5scale individual catching or sampling. In fish farm" this net can be used for sampling stoc/ of fish or shrimp to monitor gro.th or for partial harvesting .hen required +0ig. 7.9-.

=.5.= a0b&& #)ree$ "ra%

Bamboo screen traps have been devised for partial harvesting in coastal fishponds" especially for penaeid shrimps. In Indonesia" the shrimp fy/e +bubu udang- is .idely used +0ig. 7.1$a-. ,his consists of a fabricated catching fy/e and an antechamber and a leader of bamboo screen set perpendicular to the pond di/e. (eries of the shrimp fy/es may be set in the pond during harvest. In the 1hilippines" a similar trap is used but the catching end is formed in place rather than a pre5 devised catching fy/e +0ig. 7.1$b-.

171

0ig. 7.9 A cast net for sampling or partial harvest

172

0ig. 7.1$ ,raps for use in shrimp ponds

173

=.6 E/u'%0e$" (&r 0&$'"&r'$8 a$d 0a'$"e$a$)e &( ,a"er /ual'"y

=.6.1 9a"er )'r)ula"'&$ a$d aera"'&$
1ortable .ater pump is usually used to effect .ater movement .henever needed in the pond system. ,his is often necessary .hen .ater circulation is needed and the tide condition is not conducive for this operation such as in alleviating stagnation or lac/ of oxygen.

0ig. 7.11 ,he ,hai5made paddle.heel aerator to.ed by tractor +After 2enasveta and :eeviriyaphanda" 19 !1addle .heels set in the ponds can remedy critical oxygen condition. ,hese devices can be po.ered by electricity or by small portable engines +0ig. 7.11-. Better aeration of the pond .ater may also be accomplished through the gates .ith the use of the closure slabs +0ig. 7.1!-.

0ig. 7.1! Aeration by manipulation of closure slabs +After delos (antos" 197 -

=.6.5 A$aly#'# *'"

174

;ater and soil analysis /its are no. available in the mar/et. 0or coastal fish farms a set that could monitor dissolved oxygen" salinity" p3" are most essential. Additional useful observations involve nutrient5content +H5154-" depth of visibility +turbidity-" etc. (imple visibility observations can be done using the (ecchi disc +0ig. 7.1%-. 8irect salinity readings using refractometers is easy to do but the equipment is quite expensive +0ig. 7.1#-. Improvised hydrometers may be used after standardi?ing them .ith a salinometer +hydrometer- or refractometer +0ig. 7.1*-.

0ig. 7.1% 2easurement of depth of visibility by (ecchi disc.

175

0ig. 7.1# 3ydrometer and refractometer for measurement of salinity

176

0ig. 7.1* An improvised salinometer +After I01" 197#-

=.C O"+er (a)'l'"'e#

Chilling chamber or box has become a standard facility in coastal fish farms. ,hese are made of concrete" .ood or galvani?ed iron sheets forming shallo. tan/s" square or rectangular in form scarcely $.* m deep set .ithin the fishpond premises. It may be ! to % m .ide by % to * m long by $.# m deep. 8uring harvest" this is filled .ith clean .ater and some crushed ice. ,he harvested fish or shrimp are placed in this box to .ash and chill before pac/ing them for the mar/et +0ig. 7.16-. 0ertili?er platforms +0ig. 7.17- .here the sac/s of inorganic fertili?ers are placed so that the nutrient substances dissolve slo.ly into the .ater instead of chemically reacting .ith pond soil are useful facilities of the fish farm.

177

0ig. 7.16 Chilling tan/ for ne.ly harvested mil/fish

178

0ig. 7.17 0ertili?er platform +(ourceA Anonymous" 1976,here are a number of devices designed to exclude predators and pests. ,he crab hoo/ +0ig. 7.1 a- is used to catch mangrove crabs that may have made burro.s into the fishpond di/e. 7el hoo/s +0ig. 7.1 b- are used on moist pond bottoms to catch the mud eels that may persist to stay in the pond bottom after harvest. 0or predatory birds" various scaring devices are used. :ines of .hite t.ines are usually set over mil/fish nurseries. (carecro.s may be set or other scares such as those using mirrors +0ig. 7.19-" noise scares" moving scares" etc. A trap has also been devised for the mound5forming mud lobster" *!allasina anomala +0ig. 7.!$-.

179

180

0ig. 7.1 8evices used to get rid of pests

0ig. 7.19 Bird scaring device +0rom Coo/" 1977-

0ig. 7.!$ Bamboo trap for mound5building mud lobster

181

CHAPTER > 9ATER PUMPS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF COASTAL FISH FARMS
>. PUMP SELECTION AND INSTALLATION FOR AJUACULTURE
,he present use of pumps in aquaculture areA a. As a total or supplementary means of obtaining .ater for the purpose of maximi?ing production per unit area or volume" say in ponds or tan/s. b. As aerators" .ater circulation device or for effecting continuous flo. system in intensive culture .here .ater quality deteriorates rapidly and becomes a limiting factor. c. 0or lifting .ater in sites .here the elevation is beyond the ample reach of tidal fluctuationB .here the source is ground5.ater" .hether saline or freshB or .here the cost of excavation is more expensive than the cost of pump and its operation.

>.1 Ter0'$&l&8y u#ed '$ %u0%#

A number of technical terms can be helpful in understanding the selection" installation and operation of pumps for coastal aquaculture. a. Suction !ead. <efers to the vertical distance from the surface of .ater +including dra.do.n" if any- to centreline of the pump impeller. b. Disc!arge !ead. Is the vertical distance from the centreline of the impeller to point of discharge. c. *otal D&namic 4ead +,83-. Is the sum of the suction head" discharge head" hydraulic head losses and the velocity head. d. Dra(do(n. Is the lo.ering of .ater surface belo. the static level during pumping. e. Static level. Is the .ater level before pumping begins. f. 4&draulic loss. Is loss due to pipe .all friction" elbo. design" @oints" gate valves" sudden reduction or enlargement of pipe si?e. ,his is expressed in its equivalent height or head of .ater loss. g. Disc!arge or capacit&. <efers to the rate of flo. or the volume of .ater pumped per unit time such as gallons per minuteB cubic feet per secondB cubic meters per minuteB liters per secondB etc.

182

h. $erformance curves. Is the variation of head .ith capacity at a constant impeller speed. It also includes efficiency and bra/e horsepo.er curves.

>.5 Ty%e# &( %u0%# (&r a/ua)ul"ure

Coastal aquaculture operations may require both fresh.ater and brac/ish.ater. 0resh.ater may be needed for maintaining salinity of .ater during dry months due to rapid evaporation or for staff use or for domestic animals in an integrated farming set5up. 3ence" pumps suitable for fresh.ater and brac/ish.ater are discussed. 1umps may be differentiated in ho. the .ater is forced from the inta/e to the discharged side" as .ell as the height of .ater lift and corresponding discharge. 'nder this differentiation" there are three main types" namelyA +i- centrifugalA +ii- deep5.ell turbineB and +iii- propeller. >.5.1 Ce$"r'(u8al %u0% ,his pump is characteri?ed by operating at lo. head and lo. discharge. 0or best performance" the pump should be set close to the .ater level .ith a total suction lift usually not more than 6 m. ,he pumps operates on the principle of centrifugal action. A motor or driver rotates an impeller .ith vanes immersed in .ater and enclosed in a casing. ;ater that enters the case is immediately engaged in by the rapidly rotating impeller. ,his rotation causes a flo. from the centre of the impeller to the rim or outside of the case .here pressure head is rapidly built up. ,o relieve the pressure" the .ater escapes through the discharge pipe. ,he centrifugal pump .ill only operate if the case is entirely full of .ater or primed and air5tight. ,he /inds under this category are the volute centrifugal pumps .hich include self5priming models +0ig. .1 and .!-. >.5.5 Dee%-,ell "urb'$e %u0% ,his is capable of operating at high head and lo. to high discharge. It is used in cased .ells or situations .here the .ater lift is belo. the practical limits of a centrifugal pump. (uccessful installations have been made for lifts up to %$$ m and capacities up to 7 $$$ gpm or ##1 liters per sec. 8eep5.ell turbines are much more expensive than centrifugal pumps and are more difficult to inspect and repair.

183

0ig. .1 3ori?ontal centrifugal pump cross section

184

0ig. .! (elf5priming volute pumps ,he turbine has three main partsA +i- headB +ii- pump bo.lB and +iii- discharge column +0ig. .%-. ,he pump bo.l is al.ays placed beneath the .ater surface of the .ell. 0luctuation in the .ater table is determined prior to installing the pump so that the bo.ls of the turbine can be placed belo. the farthest dra.do.n point +0ig. .#.-. ,he depth at .hich the bo.ls are located is called depth of setting. (ince .ell diameters are relatively small" it is often necessary to use more than one impeller or one5stage pump. ,he head or height of lift produced by a multi5stage pump is proportional to the number of stages or bo.ls.

185

0ig. .% 8eep5.ell turbine pump

186

0ig. .# ,urbine pump installation >.5.6 Pr&%eller %u0% ,his pump has the characteristic of operating at lo. head but delivering large volume of flo.. In almost all brac/ish.ater aquaculture farms" ponds are constructed close to the .ater or .ithin the tidal range. ,his ma/es the total dynamic head +,83- to be as lo. as possible .ithin the range of pumps designed for lo. head and large discharge. (ingle5stage propeller pumps are limited to pumping against heads of around % m. By adding additional stages or bo.ls" 9 to 1! m heads are obtainable. ,here are three basic designs of propeller pumps namelyA +i- radial5flo.B +ii- mixed5flo.B and +iii- axial flo.. All these three pumps have shaft to .hich impeller bo.ls are attached and submerged .ith the pump operating at proper submergence depth. A brief characteristic of the three pumps are given in ,able .1.

187

Table >.1 C+ara)"er'#"')# &( d'((ere$" "y%e# &( %r&%eller %u0%# Pr&%eller %u0% 1. <adial flo. +0ig. .*D'((ere$"'a"'$8 )+ara)"er'#"')# ;ater enters the pump and thro.n at 9$P angle to.ards the .all of the bell. 8elivers flo. at higher heads than the other t.o but less volume for the same po.er. Hormally operates at speeds up to % 6$$ rpm" generally higher than the t.o. ;ater entering the pump is thro.n to the bell .all at an angle of #$P to $P of the shaft. 0orce imparted is combination of centrifugal and displacement energy.

!. 7nergy or force imparted to the liquid is all centrifugal. %. #. 1. !.

2ixed5flo. +0ig. .6-

%. Available at capacities over %$ $$$ gpm. Hormally operates at speed of 1 76$ rpm. ,he usual speed #. of electric motorB hence" suitable to install .here electricity is available. ;ater enters the pump parallel to the shaft and is lifted 1. also parallel .ith the shaftB hence" all force imparted is displacement energy. !. 3ydraulic head range is up to 6 m per stage. %. Available at capacities up to *$$ $$$ gpm. #. 9perates at speed of about 1 16$ rpm and higher.

Axial5flo. +0ig. .7-

188

0ig. .* <adial flo. propeller pumps

189

0ig. .6 2ixed flo. propeller pumps

190

0ig. .7 Axial flo. propeller pumps Among the three propeller pumps" the axial5flo. .ith ,83 of up to 7.* m per stage falls .ithin the usual range of operation necessary in brac/ish.ater fishponds. 9ne stage is only needed as the head required seldom exceeds % m ,83" because tidal fluctuation are slightly greater than ! m only. >.5.C S%e)'al "y%e# &( %u0%# ,here are t.o main types of special pumps developed in ,hailandKthe so5called dragon5.heel pump and the push pump. Both pumps are being used in shrimp ponds and suitable for lo. lifts of .ater such as from tidal .ater.

191

+a- Dragon/(!eel pump2 ,his is a simple type of pump .hich delivers .ater into the pond by using a .ooden trough. Inside the trough is a series of blades connected by flexible @oints and being moved by an axle .hich is being turned by a .heel. ,he .heel is connected by belt to the driving engine or .indmill. ,he lo.er end of the pump is al.ays submerged in .ater. As the series of blades moves along the trough" .ater is trapped and lifed to the pond +0ig. . -. ,he specifications of existing .heel pumps as given by ,harnbuppa +19 !-" are as follo.sA

0ig. . 8ragon .heel pump run by engine and .indmill +After ,amiyavanich" 1977Par"# &( %u0% 1. 7ngine +diesel" lo. rpmD'0e$#'&$?#'ze %.*B D1$ hp

192

!. %. #. *.

;heel diameter :ength of axle ;ooden troughA Blade .idth length .idth

11#D1!7 cm %m *D6 m 17. D%$ cm 1*.!D!7.9 cm

+b- $us! pump. ,his type is suitable for lifting .ater at an inclination of not more than !$P. ,his type has been used in ,hailand .ithin the last 1$ years and some data on existing installation and area capacity are sho.n in ,able .!. ,he .ater is being pushed up by means of a propeller through a tube or pipe such as asbestos" to a .ater conveyor in large volume. ,he propellers are made to rotate at a third or fourth of the engine rpm +%$$ to *$$ rpm- +Camandre" 1977-. It .as estimated that the rate of flo. using a 1!$53p engine is about * 196 m% per hour +,harnbuppa" 19 !-. ,he pump unit consists of five main parts and accessories as follo.sA +i- diesel engineB +iipropeller shaft .ith length of 6 to mB +iii- propeller" !D% bladesB +iv- pipe" concrete or asbestosB and +v- propeller shaft @oints +0ig. .9-. Table >.5 S&0e da"a &$ %u#+ %u0% '$#"alla"'&$ '$ T+a'la$d -a("er T+ar$bu%%a; 1<>5. S'ze &( Fuel D'a0e"er &( S+a(" e$8'$e )&$#u0%"'&$ #+a(" )a#'$8 d'a0e"er -+%. -1?+r. '$. -)0. '$. -)0. #$D7* 1!$D 1*$ 6 1$D1! !D% +*D % +7.6% +7.61 +!.*1.* +%. ! +*Pr&%eller d'a0e"er '$. -)0. 1! +%$.*16 +#$.6!$ +*$. P'%e )&lu0$ d'a0e"er '$. -)0. 16 +#$.6!$ +*$. !# +6$.916 Area )a%a)'"y -+a. #

1 $ to !!$ 1$D1! or more

193

0ig. .9 1ush pump and installation +After ,harnbuppa" 19 !,he si?es of engine for push pumps are some.hat oversi?ed because they are reconditioned automotive diesel engines of truc/s that are repaired and bought cheap. ;here electricity is available" electric motors are used instead of diesel engine. At least !$ 3p motor should be used for the pump. ;here the engine is over5si?ed for the driven push pump" the extra po.er may be used for another purpose such as pumping underground .ater for mixing .ith sea.ater to reduce pond .ater salinity and for household use. An exmple set5up is to add a unit of air compressor in the engine5push pump assembly. In this set5up" the engine .ill operate the air5compressor .hile also operating the push pump. 0rom the compressor the high5pressured air is introduced into the pipe casing of a .ell above the .ater surface. ,he air pressure .ill then push the .ater into another pipe in the casing .hich is the .ater supply type +0ig. .1$-. ,his follo.s the principle of operation of an airlift pump. 1ush pump is also to gather shrimp fry from the tidal canal for the pond aside from being a supplementary .ater source for the pond system. ,he shrimp seeds are dra.n through the pump column and mortalities are estimated to be less than !$ percent due to the lo. impeller rpm. ,he gathered fry are then treated .ith saponin .hich selectively /ills finfish species but not the shrimp fry. ,he fry are then allo.ed to enter the pond for culturing.

>.6 Sele)"'&$ &( %u0%

,he above discussion on pump provides a general basis in the selection of the type of unit. ,he final selection of pump is enhanced if one has /no.ledge of the characteristic performance curves of a particular pump .hich is usually available from the manufacturer. 7xamples of pump performance curves for the turbine propeller pumps are sho.n in 0igs. .11 and .1!.

194

0ig. .1$ Combination pump +After ,harnbuppa" 19 !,he characteristic performance curves provide a guide in the proper operation of a pump and indicate .hat could be expected of it or .hat it can do for different capacities at various speeds. ,he curve has t.o5fold purposesA +i- selection of a pump that .ill give maximum efficiency under any local conditionB and +ii- adapt the pump to the best operating condition at the lo.est possible cost or best efficiency. 0or the pump installation in 0ig. .# and pump characteristic performance curves in 0ig. .1!" a verification .hether given data are accurate may be made as follo.sA

195

0ig. .11 1erformance curves for propeller pumps +After Camandre" 19 !-

196

0ig. .1! 1ump characteristic performance curves for deep.ell turbine pump 1. ,he discharge F G 1 !$$ gpm. !. ,he total dynamic head +,83- as determined from the pump installation can be verified from the data belo.. Fee" a- (uction head b- 8ischarge head 0riction head in discharge and suction pipeline" %7* +%!$ R **- of S pipe at c1 !$$ gpm G %7* x !.!=1$$ ft=ft5+from ,able .%- .!* R +!.*10riction head in fittings K equivalent length of t.o #*P angle fitting" S ddiameter +,able .#- is 1$ Q ! G !$ ftB loss is !$ x !.!=1$$ ft=ft &elocity head at end of discharge" S diameter and 1 !$$ gpm" velocity is e- about 7 ft=secB ** !* .!* +16.77+7.6!+!.*10

$.## $.76 9.#*

+$.1%+$.!%+!7.!6-

An analysis of the pump characteristic curves +0ig. .1!- sho.s the follo.ingA At F G 1 !$$ gpm" head capacity G 9$ ft +!7.# m- and bra/e horsepo.er G %%" the efficiency is ! percent. ,he comparison sho.s that at the given requirements of the installation" the pump has the necessary head capacity and is about at pea/ efficiency.

197

>.C C&0%&$e$"# &( a %u0%'$8 %la$"

,he components of a pumping plant in coastal fish farm are as follo.sA a. $ump and prime mover foundation. ,he bearing capacity of the concrete foundation must be sufficient to carry the .eight of the pump and engine or motor driver. Considerations in the layout and elevation of pump and the prime mover must be given to theA +i- suction lift limitationB +ii- highest flood levelB and +iii- accessibility and economy. b. Suction sump. A sump is a basin provided at the foot of the pump column suction end. ,his protects the system against excessive debris" floatsam and also minimi?es silting. c. Distribution canals. ,hese consist of main and secondary canals of the fishponds including a stilling basin or pool to .hich the pump directly discharges.

>.D De#'8$ &( #u)"'&$ #u0%

,he design of suction sump should considerA +i- strainers and trash rac/B +ii- spacing bet.een a number of pump unitsB +iii- sump inta/e or flo. patternB +iv- submergenceB and +v- clearance from floor and .alls. Correct and incorrect location and spacing of suction ends are illustrated in 0igures .1% and .1#. 1roper depth of submergence of suction bell is to be observed in order to avoid cavitation and vortices in suction sump. ,he lo.er edge of the suction bell must have a depth of submergence of at least 1.* m for usual velocity of .ater in pipes of about ft per sec +!.# m=sec.-. 0or other velocities" 0igure .1* may be used. ,he minimum allo.able should be equal to the diameter of the suction bell. ,he suction bell" on the other hand" should not be less than t.ice the impeller hub in order to /eep the pump self5priming during operation time +Camandre" 1977-. ;hen vortices appear" baffles may be provided in the sump to avoid it. 0igure .16 provides some idea on the location or design of baffles for some arrangement of suction pipe. Adequate floor and .all clearances bet.een the suction bell and the sump should be provided. ,his clearance should be equal to the diameter of the bell itself. 0igure .17 illustrates the flo. pattern or distribution at the entrance of a suction bell in relation to its distance from the suction floor and .all. Table >.6 Fr')"'&$ l&## &( ,a"er; '$ (ee" %er 122 (" &( )lea$ ,r&u8+"-'r&$ &r #"eel %'%eK Fl&,; 8%0 * 1$ 1# N&0'$al d'a0e"er &( %'%e; '$. 1 1L 1M 5 5M 6 C D E > 12 15 1.9% $.*1 . 6 1.77 $. % 1!. %.! 1.*% $.!* $.11 $.#* $.19

198

!$ !# %$ #$ *$ 7* 1$$ 1!$ 1*$ 17$ !$$ !!$ !6$ ! $ %$$ %#$ #$$ *$$ 6$$ 7$$ $$ 9$$ 1 $$$ 1 1$$ 1 !$$ 1 %$$ 1 #$$ 1 *$$ ! $$$ % $$$ # $$$ * $$$

!*.1 6.%# !.9# %*.6 .9! #.1# *#.6 1%.6 6.!6 %6.$ 16.# %*. 6!.!

$. 7 $.%6 $.1% 1.!$ $.*$ $.17 1. ! $.7* $.!6 $.$7 $.## $.1! $.$6 $.1! $.$ $.1! $.17 $.!! $.%$ $.$ $.%6 $.$9 $.#9 $.1% $.*6 $.1# $.6# $.16 $. 1 $.!1 1.$9 $.! $.$9 $.$6 $.$ $.11 $.1# $.17 $.!1 $.!* $.%$ $.%# $.#$ $.#* $.7 1.6 !.9! 1.66 $.#! $.1# !.%# $.6$ $.19 %.1% $. $ $.!6 *.$* 1.!7 $.#1 6.17 1.*6 $.*$ 7.#1 1. 7 $.*9 .76 !.!$ $.7$ 1$.! !.*6 $. ! 11. !%. !.9* $.9# *. 6 1. # 1!. #.$$ !!.6 6.99 1%.* %.%7 1.$7 $.!$ #.67 1.9# $.66 $.1 1$.1 #.1% 1.%9 $.! 17.# !#.7 1$.$ %.%7 $.

!%.* 1$.79 %.1$ 1.!

.*1 !.%9 $.6! $.!$

% .$ 1*.# *.1# 1.%! $.%% # .# 19.6 6.*% 1.67 $.*# 66.% !6.7 .9$ !.!7 $.7# %!.! 1$.7 !.7! $. ##.* 1#.7 %.!# 1.!$ *1.% 16.9 #.%$ 1.% 19.! #. 9 1.* !#. %%.9 6.19 !.$$ .#7 !.7! 1 .6 *. !*.$ 7.9% #$. 1!.9 19.$ !!.*

*!.* 1%.$ #.16

%!.# 1$.!! #.$% 1.$! $.%% *$.! 1*.

1$. $ #.#7

199

N <eprinted from I,entative (tandards of 3ydraulic Institute" 1ipe 0riction"J Copyright 19# by the 3ydraulic Institute" 1!! 7. #!d (t."He. Mor/" He. Mor/" 1$$17.

0ig. .1% Correct and incorrect sump designs for minimum entrained air into suction line +After Camandre" 19 !Table >.C Le$8"+ &( #"eel %'%e; '$ (ee"; e/u'4ale$" "& ('""'$8# a$d 4al4e#K

200

N&0'$al #'ze; '$ I"e0 9$P elbo. #*P elbo. Close return band Eate valve Elobe valve Chec/ valve 0oot valve 1 !. 1L 1M 5 5M 6 C *.$ D 6.! E 7.* > 12 15 %.7 #.% *.* 6.# 6.! 11.$ 1%.* 1$.$ !1.$ !6.$ %!.$ 1$.$ 1%.$ 1*.$

1.% 1.7 !.$ !.6 %.$ %.

,oo" side outlet *.6 7.* 9.1 1!.$ 1%.* 17.$ !!.$ !7.* %%.$ #%.* **.$ 66.$ 6.% .# $.! 1%.$ 1*.$ 1 .* !#.$ %1.$ %7.$ # .$ 6!.$ 7%.$ $.9 1.! 1.# 1.7 !.* %.$ %.* 6%.$ #.* *.7 6.

$.6 $.

!7.$ %7.$ #%.$ **.$ 66.$ !.$ 11*.$ 1%*.$ 1$*.$ !1*.$ ! $.$ %% .$ 1$.* 1%.! 1*. !1.1 !6.# %1.7 #!.% *!. 1.$ 1$*.$ 1!*.$ !#.$ %%.$ % .$ #6.$ **.$ 6#.$ 7*.$ 7$.$ 7$.$ 7$.$ 7$.$ 7$.$

N Courtesy the Eormon53upp Company

201

0ig. .1# (ection sump design sho.ing proper spacing +After Camandre" 1977-

202

0ig. .1* 2inimum suction pipe submergence for various pipe flo. velocity +(ourceA Eoulds pumps manual-

203

0ig. .16 Baffle arrangement for vortex prevention +After Camandre" 1977-

204

205

0ig. .17 0loor and .all clearances bet.een sump and suction bell +After Camandre" 1977-

>.E P&,er re/u're0e$"

,he capacity or discharge of a pump" its efficiency" and the total dynamic head are the necessary information in determining po.er requirement. ,he pump discharge is determined from the flo. requirement of the fish farm" the efficiency at a given discharge rate and head from the manufacturerOs pump characteristic performance curves +for different /inds of pumps-" and the total dynamic head by obtaining the necessary measurement as implied in the example problem and 0ig. .1!. ,he bra/e horsepo.er is computed by the formulaA

;hereA Bhp G 7G FG

the bra/e horsepo.er that must be supplied by the prime mover to the pump to operate it at the required capacity and given efficiency. pump efficiency discharge of pump in gallons per minute

,83 total dynamic head in feet G % 96$ a constant of conversion G ;hen the prime mover is an engine" it should be operated at 7* percent of its full load capacity. ,he required engine horsepo.er is thereforeA

>.= Sele)"'&$ &( %r'0e 0&4er

Available prime movers of pump to choose from areA +a- Engine2 Internal combustion engine are run either by gasoline or diesel fuel. In deciding .hich to use bet.een the t.o" consideration should be given to the initial engine cost" fuel cost" cost and availability of spareparts" and availability of repair mechanic in the area. (ince diesel engine has higher initial cost than the gasoline" it is advisable to use it more hours per season than the latter in order to be economical. ,he bra/e and engine 3p in the preceding problem .ill beA

206

+b- Electric motor2 ,his is preferable if electricity is cheap and no frequent po.er interruptions occur. ,he advantage of electric motor is its long life" dependability" lo. maintenance cost" quiet and easy to operate and it is usually ta/en as 1$$ percent efficient. If an electric motor is required to drive the pump in the preceding example problem" the needed 3p .ill be only %% 3p.

>.> A))e##&r'e# a$d &"+er de4')e#

,here are some accessories and devices that are important in the operation of pumps. ,hese are as follo.sA a. 3oot valves2 Centrifugal pumps usually need foot valves in order to hold .ater during priming. ,his valve is not necessary in propeller" turbine pumps and self5priming pumps. b. 5ear drive2 9ne of the accessories in propeller pumps is the Igear driveJ. ,his device does three things +0ig. .1 -A +i- change the direction of drive from vertical to hori?ontal for attachment of other prime moversB +ii- change input rpm to the desired or designed pump rpmB and +iii- provides alternative hori?ontal drive .here there is already a vertical electric motor driving the pump. ,he gear drive" ho.ever" may cost as much as the pump itself.

207

0ig. .1 Illustration of the function of a gear drive +After Camandre" 1977c. Cross 6oints and s!afts2 ,hese may be used instead of the gear drive. ,his is done by installing pump in a slanting position +0ig. .19-. d. 4&draulic driven pump2 ,his is a system .here the prime mover drives a hydraulic pump and the high pressure transmitted through hydraulic hoses drives a hydraulic motor attached to the impeller. 9ne advantage of this system is that it becomes flexible as it eliminates the need for long drive shafts that need careful alignment +0ig. .!$-. It also eliminates the shaft as an obstruction in the pump column.

208

0ig. .19 Cross @oint and shaft assembly +After Camandre" 1977e. $ump columns2 Careful consideration on the /ind of material for pump column in brac/ish.ater is important to avoid or minimi?e corrosion. 1ump columns are usually made of cast iron and not steel because it is less affected by salt.ater. ,here are pumps" ho.ever" that have columns made of stainless steelB some have thic/5coating of ?inc ma/ing it durable and rust5resistant. 0iberglass columns" .ood and concrete are also available in some pumps.

209

0ig. .!$ 3igh discharge hydraulic driven pump +After Camandre" 1977-

>.< Pu0% '$#"alla"'&$# '$ )er"a'$ )&$d'"'&$#

a. Vertical and slanting installations2 ,hese are illustrated in 0igs. .19" .!$ and .!1.

210

0ig. .!1 ,ypes of propeller pump installations +After Camandre" 1977b. -nstallation (!ere pond ma& be filled or drained irrespective of tidal conditions2 Camandre +1977- suggested and designed propeller pump and open channel combination" and system of gates valves to flood and drain ponds at .ill. 0igure .!! illustrates the pump installation and elevation of bottom of t.o ad@acent channels provided .ith system of gates for chec/ing the passage or entry of tidal .ater. ,he discharge pipe can discharge .ater in either direction in the channel through the manipulation of the gates.

211

In 0ig. .!% the pump can .ater the pond .ith valves 1 and % close" and ! and # open. ;ith valves 1 and % open" and ! and # closed" the pump can drain the pond.

0ig. .!! (et5up for filling and draining pond .ater irrespective of tidal level +After Camandre" 1977-

212

0ig. .!% Eate valve system for filling and draining fishpond regardless of tide level +After Camandre" 1977Being able to fill and drain the pond at .ill offers several advantagesA a. 7nables harvesting of crop .hen prices are good .hile other pond o.ners have to .ait for appropriate tidal condition. b. 8rain lo. oxygen .ater and replenish .ith fresh and highly oxygenated .ater. c. 7nables greater stoc/ing densities or intensive culture in ponds.

>.12 E)&$&0')# &( %u0% u#e

,he use of pumps in coastal aquaculture as an alternative solution to some of the problems associated .ith tidal fishponds is becoming popular. Although some of these problems could be remedied by proper pond construction and efficient management" they are not entirely eliminated and the costs involved significantly affect the financial viability of the fishpond enterprise.

213

1robably" the use of pumps is a better alternative. 3o.ever" before a decision is made or .hether to use pumps or not" a close examination of the costs associated .ith their use should be made. Information regarding the use of pumps in brac/ish.ater fishpond culture is very scarce. 9ne such study made in 2alaysia +Eedney" (hang and Coo/" 19 !- offers significant information. 8esigns for both tidal and pumped5operated pond culture systems .ere prepared and a comparative cost analysis of expense items .hich are different bet.een the t.o systems .ere made. ,hese items are interest and principal payment of pond construction and pumping" maintenance and land. <esults of this particular study sho.ed that a pump5operated system is more economical than a tide5operated system because of the savings in costs of construction and operation. ,he specific preliminary conclusions of the study identified the follo.ing advantages of pump5 operated system over tide5operated systemA a. :ess construction cost because of smaller di/es and reduced time of construction. b. Better land utili?ation due to greater effective .ater area and use of lots other.ise not feasible under a tidal fishpond system. c. 2ore efficient management .hich allo.s for flexibility in filling" draining and harvesting and easier pond maintenance.

214

CHAPTER < DE1ELOPMENT COSTS OF COASTAL FISH FARMS

<. COST ITEMS IN THE DE1ELOPMENT OF A FISH FARM
9ne of the ma@or constraints that impede the development of coastal aquaculture not only in the region but also throughout the .orld is the high initial cost involved in site selection" planning=design activities" and actual construction of fishpond facilities. ,he initial cost of fishpond development comes from t.o sources" namelyA cost of land and the cost of feasibility planning and designing activities. (ubsequently" the ma@or engineering cost consists of the actual construction.

<.1 C&#" &( la$d

,he cost or value of land depends primarily on its earning capacity or in this case specifically on its suitability as a fishpond site. Hormally" land value is a function of the amorti?ed net returns of the products that can be produced from the land. :and for fishpond development can be acquired by purchase from a private o.ner or through lease of public land. ,he acquisition of land by purchase is an important decision to ma/e and an un.ise @udgement can lead to disastrous results. 1rospective land buyers should determine" regardless of the mar/et value" .hether the production potential of the land @ustifies the purchase. In most countries in the region" potential areas for coastal aquaculture are public or government property. ,heir acquisition by leasehold contracts are governed by the countryOs respective leasehold policies and regulations. In the 1hilippines" for example" the Bureau of 0orest 8evelopment and Bureau of :ands in cooperation .ith the Bureau of 0isheries and Aquatic <esources +B0A<-" all under the 2inistry of Hatural <esources +2H<- are in charge of the disposition of public lands for fishpond development. Applicants must comply .ith certain requirements and must adhere to established terms and conditions before the lease contract is issued. ,he annual lease rental is 1%$=ha=year. 2aximum area that can be leased is *$ ha for individuals and *$$ ha for associations or corporations. 0ishpond sites can be leased for !* years and rene.able. ,here are no general recommendations as to .hether it is better to buy or lease land. ,he decision depends on the assets of the developer" the availability of land for sale and for lease" rates and preferences.

215

<.5 Fea#'b'l'"y %la$$'$8 a$d de#'8$'$8 )&#"

,he lac/ or absence of a proper plan and .or/able design for a coastal fishpond has often resulted in .aste of money" time and effort. 8espite recent advances made in coastal aquaculture development" especially in the field of culture management practices" there have been increasing problems in the planning and implementation of construction of pro@ects. In order to come up .ith an integrated approach in the design and engineering of fish farm" the ideas of biologists" engineers" and economists should be considered. <.5.1 Pre-)&$#"ru)"'&$ e4alua"'&$ ,&r* (uitability of a particular area for fish culture is site specific and depends upon numerous factors. (ites are to be pro5rated in terms of their technical suitability and li/elihood of economic viability and freedom from possible social constraints. ,he pre5construction evaluation is made up of the above analyses. <.5.5 C&#"# 0easibility planning and design of a small5scale fish farm is usually done by the proponent himself. 3o.ever" large fish farms require the services of s/illed and trained personnel. ,here are groups of specialists .hich speciali?e in this /ind of .or/ for .hich a fee is paid for their services. ,here are no standard rates of charge for this /ind of .or/. ,he cost generally depends on the extent of .or/ that is required but in most cases" a fee of about 1$ percent of the overall development cost is charged.

<.6 C&$#"ru)"'&$ )&#"

,he ma@or cost in coastal fishpond development is the cost of construction .hich is made up of three components" namelyA cost of land clearing and grubbing" expenses for earth.or/" and cost of construction and installation of .ater control gates and other structures. ,hese .or/s comprise about *$D7$ percent of the total development cost. In carrying out the construction .or/" a detailed plan and budget is required. It is also important that a construction schedule is prepared. 1unctual execution of .or/ activities according to the specified timetable .ill be necessary. <.6.1 La$d )lear'$8 a$d 8rubb'$8 Cost estimates for this operation depend largely on the type and density of vegetation in the area. 0actors that affect .or/ efficiency such as number" si?e" .ood density and rooting system of trees and other vegetation are ta/en into consideration. 9ne estimate of the total manual labour requirement for clearing a typical tidal forest according to specifications for fish farm development is 1#$ man5days=ha +,ang" 1977-. ,he rate per day can vary for different areas" and if heavy equipment is used the costing .ill be different.

216

Eenerally" cost estimates are made on a per unit area basis +per ha or per acre-. (ometimes" costs are computed in a per individual tree basis +e.g." 7 1hilippine 1esos per tree of !$ cm or more trun/ diameter in A/lan province" 1hilippines-. Approximately" 1$D1! percent of total construction cost is spent for this aspect of the construction .or/. <.6.5 Ear"+,&r* 7arth.or/ for coastal fishpond development includes the construction of di/es" .ater supply and drainage canals and pond excavation and levelling. ,hese operations constitute the ma@or actual construction cost and the bul/ of the construction .or/ +estimated at about *$ percent or more-. 8i/es are measured by volume. ,he volume for each /ind of di/e +main" secondary and tertiaryare estimated separately follo.ing the example given in Chapter *. ;hen the canals of the pond system have their o.n separate di/es or are not parts of the pond di/es" their volumes are also added to the total estimate. In outline form" the estimate for total volume is done as follo.sA Ty%e &( d'*e 1. 2ain perimeter !. (econdary %. ,ertiary #. Canal +if separate unit,otal volume" m% 1ond excavation and levelling is done after the di/es have been constructed. ,he @ob includes a cut5and5fill method .here certain areas are cut excavated and filled and dumped into the lo. areas. 8etermination of the volume of soil to be moved can be determined from a prepared topographic map. 3o.ever" an alternative method is being used .hich is done by manipulating the .ater level .ith the help of an ordinary .ooden depth gauge +0ig. 6.!#-. ,he procedure is as follo.sA ,he .ater level at the staff gauge or benchmar/ +0igs. 6.!1 and 6.!!- is lo.ered to the desired level of pond bottom. At this point" the .aterline of all portions of the proposed pond that are exposes are sta/ed out. ,he area of the exposed ground must be determinedA this represents the excess elevation of the pond bottom and hence" must be removed by excavation. After sta/ing out the exposed area" the .ater level is again raised up to the highest portion of the ground. <andom measurement of .ater depths by the depth gauge .ithin the limits of the exposed area follo.s in order to determine the average depth. ,he data obtained can be used in determining the average thic/ness of soil to be excavated and the volume of excavation. ,he earth.or/ cost is estimated based on the needed time to finish the @ob or on the volume of soil or earth needed for the construction of di/es" supply and drainage canals and excavation=levelling according to the required engineering specifications. In manual Cr&##-#e)"'&$al area -05. Le$8"+ -0. 1&lu0e -06.

217

construction" the total cost is usually calculated based on the actual earthmoving expenses for labour including construction tools. If machinery is used" the cost is estimated based on volume of earth moved" per unit area or per unit of time including equipment rent" operating costs and a profit margin for the o.ner. <.6.6 C&#" &( ,a"er )&$"r&l 8a"e# a$d &"+er #"ru)"ure#? (a)'l'"'e# ,he cost of construction and installation of .ater gates and other structures ran/ next to earth.or/ as the ma@or expense items in the actual construction of coastal fishponds. ,he cost estimates for these items depend on the design and specifications proposed for the area. Approximately" !$ percent of the total development cost is spent for these items. ,here are three types of gates commonly constructed in tidal fishponds. ,hese are the main" secondary" and tertiary gates. Construction materials to be used can either be concrete" .ood" or combination of both. ,he cost of .ater control gates can be calculated based on the design +si?e" volume and type of construction materials- and the labour for construction and installation. 7stimating the cost for .ater control gates can be done follo.ing the suggested method by the B0A<5'H81=0A9" 19 1. +a- 3or concrete gate +i- 'se the follo.ing formula to calculate the area and volume of the .alls" .ings" floor" bridges" toes" aprons and cut5off5.alls. AG :Q; &G AQt &, G (um & G &1 R &! R &% R W R &n A G area & G volume &, G total volume ;hereA : G length ; G .idth t G thic/ness +ii- 'se the follo.ing to determine the number of bags of cement" and volume of gravel and sand plus 1$ percent allo.ance for .astage. ,his is based on class A mixture .hich has a proportion of one part cement" t.o parts sand" and four parts gravel. Ho. of bags of cement &olume of gravel &olume of sand G +&, Q 7. *- 1.1$ G +&, Q $. - 1.1$ G +&, Q $.##- 1.1$

218

+iii- 'se the follo.ing to estimate the number of reinforcement bars using a standard length of !$ ft +6 m- per bar. Bars of $.!* inch +$.6 cm- or $.*5inch +1.% cm- diameters are usually used" based on engineerOs choice. 0or the floor and toesA Ho. of bars G +Af R At- 1.* ;here Af G area of floor At G area of toes 0or the .alls" .ings" etc.A

A. G area of .alls ;hereA Ax G area of .ings An G other areas on gate not previously included +iv- 'se the follo.ing to calculate the .eight +/g- of tie .ire +Ho. 16- required" multiply the total area of gate from +i- by the factor $.%. ;eight of tie .ire +/g- G A, Q $.% ;hereA A, G total area of gate +v- ,he volume of boulders needed is calculated by multiplying the floor area .ith the thic/ness of fill. +vi- 0orm lumber is calculated by multiplying the area of .alls" .ings and bridges by !. 1ly.ood can be used as form .hile !S Q %S +* Q cm- lumber can be used as form support or braces. +vii- Bamboo trun/s +base- as pilings are calculated based on the floor area. In general" about !$ pieces of bamboo per m! are sta/ed at about $.!* m intervals. +viii- (creens and .ooden slabs are calculated based on the design of the gate. +ix- Assorted nails needed for the construction is calculated based on the thic/ness of the form lumber used. +x- :abour cost is estimated based on %* to #$ percent of total cost of materials. +xi- A contingency cost of 1$ percent of the total cost of material is also included in the total cost estimate for the construction of a concrete gate. +b- 7ooden gate

219

+i- 8etermine si?e and number of lumber for the sidings and flooring based on the plan of the .ooden gate. Compute for the total board feet +applicable in the 1hilippines .here lumber dealers still use this unit- using the follo.ing formulaA

: G length of lumber in feet ;hereA ; G .idth of lumber in inches , G thic/ness of lumber in inches +ii- Compute for the total board feet required for the pillars and braces based on the design and specification of the gate. +iii- 8etermine si?e and number of lumber needed for slabs and screen frames and compute the total board feet. +iv- Calculate the assorted nails +bron?e- needed based on the lumber used. +v- Calculate the coal tar requirement in liters or number of containers based on their capacity. +vi- 7stimate the cost of nylon and bamboo screens needed. +vii- 7stimate labour cost at %$ to #$ percent of total material cost. 7xamples of cost estimates for the construction of a concrete main gate" secondary .ooden gate" and tertiary .ooden gate are presented in ,able 9.1. +c- 9t!er structures and facilities2 A fish farm includes not only the pond system but also other support facilities. ,hese include a careta/erOs house" .or/ing shed" storage space" chilling tan/s and others. ,o be able to ma/e an accurate estimate" there must be a plan for these various facilities. Cost estimates depend on the floor area and type of construction material to be used. Cost of other structures and facilities comprise about % to # percent of the total development cost. <.6.C O"+er )&#"# In addition to the ma@or expense items in coastal fishpond construction" there are other costs that are incurred in the development stage. Among these are the follo.ingA Table <.1 EAa0%le &( e#"'0a"e &( 0a"er'al a$d lab&ur re/u're0e$" (&r ,a"er )&$"r&l 8a"e# -a("er FAR-UNDP?FAO; 1<>1. 1. 8ouble opening main concrete gate !. (econdary .ooden gate %. ,ertiary .ooden gate

220

Ma"er'al# 1. Cement

Jua$"'"y 1#$ bags

Ma"er'al#

Jua$"'"y

Ma"er'al#

Jua$"'"y

1. 1ly.ood 5 a- 1S Q %# pc 1$S Q 1#O

1ly.ood" 1. 1S Q 1!S !$ pc Q 1$O (labs" !. 1S Q 1!S Q 1$O % pc

!. (and

1$ cu.m.

%. Eravel

!$ cu.m.

b- 1S Q 1$S Q O

pc

1illars and %. braces" 1# pc !S Q %S Q 1$O Erooves and screen #. 1 frames" 1.*S Q !S Q O *. Hails 6 +assorted1

#. Boulders

cu.m.

(labs" 1S !. Q 1!S Q ! 1#O 1illars %. and braces

pc

pc

*.

<einforcement bar a- $ > x !$O $ pc

/g can

a- !S Q %S # Q 1$O b- !S Q %S 7 Q O c- !S Q %S ! Q 1#O

pc pc pc

6. Coal tar

b- $ %= B x !$O %* pc 6. 1ly.ood form" #9 pc +XS Q #O Q O-

d- %S Q #S 1! pc Q 1$O 7. :umber +(#(a- !S Q !S Q 1!O b- !S Q %S Q 1!O c- 1S Q !S Q 1!O d- 1S Q 1!S Q %$ pc 16 pc 1$ pc 6 pc #. (creen frames a- !S Q %S ! Q 16O b- 1.*S Q 1 !S Q 7O pc pc

Eroove" *. 1.*S Q !S 16 pc Q 1$O 6. Hylon sq.

221

1!O

screen" mesh si?e Ho. 16 Bamboo screen" % 7. 6 m long +.hole. Hails +assorted!

m.

. Assorted nails 1$ /g E.I. ;ire Ho. !$ /g 16

pc

9.

/g cans :abour +%$L of material cost-

1$. Bamboo base #$$ pc :abour +#$L of material costContingencies +1$L of material cost-

9. Coal tar

:abour +%$L of material cost-

+a- $urc!ase of equipment. 7quipment are necessary in the proper operation and management of a fishpond. Cost for these items are normally included in the initial development cost. Among the important equipment required are fish nets" digging blades" shovels" scoop nets" cutting equipment" carpentry tools" and others. ,he required equipment should be listed do.n and their corresponding costs are estimated. Additional details on these equipment are given in Chapter 7. +b- Contractor+s tax' labour and profit. In some cases" fishpond investors hire the services of a private contractor to do the overall development of their fishpond pro@ects. 'nder these circumstances" a fee is agreed beforehand bet.een the o.ner or investor and the contracting party. ,he fee is composed of three ma@or components. ,hese are the commensurate payment of labour of the contractor plus a reasonable amount of profit. (ince the fee represents the contractorOs earning" it is a taxable income. It is common practice that the equivalent tax is borne by the investor and included in the total payment for the contractorOs services. +c- Contingencies. A contingency fund is normally set aside specifically intended for unexpected additional expenses. 0or example" a certain amount must be allocated to cover inceases in prices of materials" cost of labour and for other expense items not included in the original cost estimate. At least 1$ percent of the total development cost is assumed for contingencies.

<.C E#"'0a"'$8 de4el&%0e$" )&#" -EAa0%le# <.1 a$d <.5.

1resented in the follo.ing outlines are examples in estimating construction and development costs of coastal fishponds. ,he outline includes the sources of expenditures under each ma@or cost item" bases for computing costs and estimated percentage cost composition. Cost estimates for the improvement=renovation of an existing fishpond depend on existing physical conditions= development and the extent of additional .or/=improvement to be done.

222

1re5development feasibility analysis may or may not be underta/en. ,hus" the ma@or expense items are expenses for construction and other costs. ,he follo.ing are the possible sources of expenditures for a typical improvement=renovation .or/ for an existing fishpond. Additional details on pond renovation are also given in Chapter 7. EAa0%le <.1. De4el&%0e$" &( a $e, bra)*'#+,a"er ('#+ (ar0 C&#" )a"e8&ry?#&ur)e &( eA%e$d'"ure I. 1re5development 1. 0easibility study !. Construction of temporary shelter for labourers %. Construction of flatboats and dugout canal #. 9thers +representation and transportation expenses" etc.II. Construction cost 1. :and clearing and grubbing abCutting" chopping" burning and removal of trees +based on per unit area'prooting and destumping +based on per unit area or per individual tree+**Construction of di/es +based on volume of earth deposited in placeConstruction of .ater supply and drainage canals +based on volume of earth moved7xcavating and levelling +based on per unit area or volume of earth moved+1*1$ +1$+6D1$+1+1+1$ Per)e$" &( "&"al )&#" 1$

!. 7arth.or/ abc%.

;ater gates and other structures=facilities +based on type of construction materials used-

III. 9ther costs 1. 7quipment +nets" digging blades" containers" tools" etc.!. Contingencies ,otal

1$$

223

EAa0%le <.5. I0%r&4e0e$"?Re$&4a"'&$ &( a$ eA'#"'$8 ('#+%&$d C&#" )a"e8&ry?#&ur)e &( eA%e$d'"ure I. Construction cost a- 'prooting and destumping b- 7arth.or/ +i<aising and .idening of di/es +ii- <epair of .ater supply and drainage canals +iii- 7xcavation and levelling +iv- Construction or repair of .ater control gates II. 9ther costs a- 7quipment b- Contingencies ,otal 1$$ 1*D!$ Per)e$" &( "&"al )&#" $D *

224