Chapter 2: Fluid Statics

Pressure at a point
Basic equation for pressure field
Pressure variation in a fluid at rest
Measurement of pressure
Manometer
Mechanical and electronic pressure measuring device
Hydrostatic force on a plane surface
Pressure prism
Bouyancy, flotation and stability

What is fluid statics?
Fluid either at rest or moving in such a manner that
there is no relative motion between adjacent
particles
No shearing stresses in the fluid is involved
Note : the assumption of zero shearing stress is valid as long as the fluid
element moves as a rigid body, i.e. there is no relative motion between
adjacent element
The only forces develop on the surfaces of the
particles will be due to pressure
Pascals Law

Pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in
motion, is independent of direction as long as
there are no shearing stresses present.
Basic Equation for Pressure Field
How does the pressure in a fluid in which
there are no shearing stresses vary from point
to point?
The general equation of motion in which there
are no shearing stresses is as follows


where a is the acceleration of the element
a k = V

p
x
z
y
i

Applies to both fluids at

rest and moving fluids
Has 3 components :
x, y, z
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
For a fluid at rest, a=0, it can be shown that
pressure does not depend on x or y and



The equation above shows that pressure
changes with elevation and that pressure
decreases as we move upward
x
z
y
i

=
dz
dp
Valid for liquids ( is
constant) and also for gases
( may vary with elevation)
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest :
Incompressible fluid
For incompressible fluid, is constant.
Hence resulting in hydrostatic pressure distribution
which is



o
p h p + =
h is the pressure head
and is interpreted as the
height of a column of fluid
of specific weight
required to give a pressure
difference p
1
-p
2
.
2 1
p h p + =
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest :
Incompressible fluid (cont.)
The equation also shows that pressure is
independent of the size and shape of the
container.


Example 1
Calculate the force acting
on the bottom area of the
cylindrical containers in the
figure. Each container holds
water to the 20 ft height
indicated.
Example 2
A pump delivers water to a
cylindrical storage tank as shown in
the figure. A faulty electric switch,
which controls the electric motor
driving the pump allows the pump
to fill the tank completely. This
causes a pressure, P
1
near the base
of the tank to build up to 15 psi.
What force does the water exert on
the top of the tank?
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest :
Compressible fluid
For compressible fluid, such as gases, varies with
elevation.
Assuming isothermal condition, i.e. temperature has
constant value over z
1
to z
2
then



( )
(

=
o
RT
z z g
p p
1 2
1 2
exp
Measurement of Pressure
Absolute pressure is measured relative to
perfect vacuum whereas gage pressure is
measured relative to local atmospheric
pressure.
Absolute pressures are always positive but
gage pressure can be either positive or
negative.
Negative gage pressure is also referred to as a
suction or vacuum pressure.
Measurement of Pressure : Mercury
Barometer
The measurement of atmospheric pressure
(simplest method) is usually accomplished
with a mercury barometer where
vapor atm
p h p + =
Assumed zero since it is
very small
(p
vapor
=0.000023 lb/in
2

(abs) at temp. of 68
o
F)
Figure 1 : Mercury Barometer
Example 3
How long must a tube of barometer be if water were used instead of mercury?
Example 4
The gasoline tank for an
automobile contains a fuel gage
whose reading is proportional to
the pressure at the bottom of the
tank. As shown in the figure, the
tank is 350 mm deep and
contains a pressure gage at its
bottom. The tank, which is vented
to the atmosphere, inadvertently
contains 30 mm of water. If the
gage registers a full tank, what
percent of the tank volume is
filled with gasoline?
Manometer
Devices which use liquid columns in vertical or
inclined tubes to measure pressure.
Three common types of manometer
Piezometer tube
U-tube manometer
Inclined tube manometer
Mercury barometer is an example of one type
of manometer - the Piezometer

Manometer : Piezometer Tube
Simplest type of manometer
Pressure is given as (using gage pressure, i.e. p
o
=0 )

Disadvantages
Suitable only if the pressure in the container is greater
than atmospheric
Pressure measured must be relatively small
Fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be
measured must be liquid rather than gas
1 1 1
h p p
A
= =
Figure 2 : Piezometer tube
Manometer : U-Tube Manometer
Another type of manometer which is widely used
The fluid in the manometer is called the gage fluid
Pressure is given as

Advantage

Gage fluid can be different from the fluid in the container
in which pressure is to be measured
Fluid in A can be either liquid or gas. If gas,
1
h
1
is
negligible, hence p
A
~p
2
=
2
h
2


1 1 2 2
h h p
A
=
Figure 3 :
Simple U-tube
manometer
Because for
gas is relatively
small
Manometer : U-Tube Manometer
(cont.)
To measure the difference in pressure
between two containers or two points in a
given system, we use a Differential U-tube
manometer.

B A
p h h h p = +
3 3 2 2 1 1

Figure 4 : Differential U-tube
manometer
Example 5
Water and SAE 30 oil flow in two pipelines as shown. Using the double U-tube
manometer as connected between the pipelines, find the pressure difference,
P
A
-P
B
.
Manometer : Inclined-Tube
Manometer
Widely used to measure small pressure
changes
B A
p h h p = +
3 3 2 2 1 1
sin u
Figure 5 : Inclined-tube manometer
Manometer : Inclined-Tube
Manometer
If pipes A and B contain a gas, then the
contributions of the gas columns h
1
and h
3
can
be neglected and hence

u sin
2 2
=
B A
p p
Figure 5 : Inclined-tube manometer
Mechanical and Electronic Pressure
Measuring Device
Manometers are not well suited for measuring
very high pressure or pressures that are changing
rapidly with time
Bourdon pressure gage can be used to measure
negative or positive gage pressure
Makes use of the idea that when a pressure acts on an
elastic structure, the structure will deform and the
deformation is related to the magnitude of pressure
Mechanical and Electronic Pressure
Measuring Device (cont.)
Pressure transducer can be used to
continually measure pressure that is
changing with time
Converts pressure into an electrical output
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane
Surface
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces
develop on the surface due to the fluid
For fluid at rest, the force must be
perpendicular to the surface since there are
no shearing stresses.
Moreover, the pressure will vary linearly with
depth if the fluid is incompressible.
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane
Surface (cont.)
For horizontal surface, the magnitude of the
resultant force is

Since the pressure is constant and uniformly
distributed over the bottom, the resultant force acts
through the centroid of the area
tank open an is it if where h p pA F
R
= =
Figure 6 : Pressure and resultant
hydrostatic force developed on the
bottom of an open tank
P - uniform
pressure on
bottom
A area of
bottom
Example 6
An open tank has a trapezoidal vertical cross section as shown. If the tank is 5 m
long and is filled with water, find the
(a) Weight of the water in the tank
(b) Resultant force acting on the tank bottom
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane
Surface
For a general case in which a submerged
plane surface is inclined, at any given
depth, h, the force acting on dA is dF=hdA
and is perpendicular to the surface. The
magnitude of the resultant force is




A h Ay
ydA
dA y hdA F
c c
A
A A
R
u
u
u
= =
=
= =
}
} }
sin
sin
sin
For constant
and u
First moment of
the area
h
c
=vertical
distance from
fluid surface
to centroid of
the area
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane
Surface (cont.)
Figure 7 : Notation for hydrostatic
force on an inclined plane surface of
arbitrary shape
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane
Surface (cont.)

From the equation, it can be seen that the
magnitude of the force is independent of the
angle, u.
The magnitude of the force depends on
Specific weight of fluid
Total area
Depth of the centroid of the area below the
surface


Hydrostatic Force on a Plane
Surface (cont.)
The resultant force passes thru the center of
pressure given as


I
xc
is the second moment of area with respect to an
axis passing thru its centroid parallel to the x-axis
I
xyc
is the product of inertia with respect to an
orthogonal coordinate system passing thru the
centroid of the area and formed by a translation of
the x-y coordinate system
c
c
xyc
R c
c
xc
R
x
A y
I
x y
A y
I
y + = + = ,
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane
Surface (cont.)

Example 7
Determine the force acting on the circular gate located in the inclined wall of the
open tank in the figure. The gate has a 2 ft diameter, and the tank contains water
to the height indicated.
Pressure Prism



A 3-D representation of the pressure distribution
Altitude at each point is the pressure
Magnitude of the resultant force acting on the
surface is equal to the volume of the pressure prism
Figure 8 : Pressure prism for vertical
rectangular area
( ) bh h volume F
R

2
1
= =
Pressure Prism (cont.)
The resultant force must pass thru the
centroid of the pressure prism
If the surface pressure of the liquid is different
from atmospheric pressure (such as in a
closed tank), the resultant force acting on the
submerged area will be changed in magnitude
by an amount, p
s
A, where p
s
is the gage
pressure at the liquid surface.
Example 8
A rectangular gate of dimensions 6 ft
high and 4 ft wide is mounted in a
vertical wall of an open rectangular
tank, as shown. The tank is filled
with SAE 30 oil at 60
o
F. Determine
the minimum force Q that must be
applied to the top of the gate to
keep it closed if the gate is hinged
at its bottom edge.
Buoyancy and Flotation :
Archimedes Principal
When a body is completely submerged in a
fluid, or floating so that it is only partially
submerged, the resultant fluid force acting on
the body is called the Buoyant Force.


V F
B
=
Due to greater
pressure from below
compared to the one
acting from above,
there would be a net
upward vertical force.
Volume of body
Buoyancy and Flotation :
Archimedes Principal (cont.)
The buoyant force passes through the
centroid of the displaced volume
The point through which the buoyant force
acts is called the center of buoyancy


Note : Buoyant force is the net effect of the pressure forces
on the surface of the body. Hence, do not include both the
buoyant force and the hydrostatic pressure effects in your
calculations, use one or the other.
Example 9
A 6 in. cube, completely submerged in water, is balanced by a 10 lb weight on
the beam scale. Determine the specific gravity of the cube material.
Stability
A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium position if,
when displaced, it returns to its equilibrium position.
For completely submerged bodies
if the center of gravity falls below the center of buoyancy,
then the body is in stable equilibrium
if the center of buoyancy falls below the center of gravity,
it is in unstable equilibrium position
Stability (cont.)
For floating bodies, the stability problem is more
complicated since as the body rotates, the location of
the center of buoyancy may change.
The determination of stability of submerged or
floating bodies also depend on
geometry
weight distribution of the body
external forces such as those induced by wind gusts or
currents