Private Aviation 101

Questions and answers about

the world of private aviation
©Copyright 2006 NetJets Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
FOREWORD
NetJets® has received countless aviation-related questions from our customers and
prospects throughout the forty-plus years we have been flying. Questions range from “What
was that sound” to “How do pilots know how to find my destination” to something as basic
as “How does an aircraft fly.” Whether you currently fly privately or are considering flying
privately for the first time, there is so much you can learn about private aviation.

Private Aviation 101 is designed to educate you on the basics of aviation and explain how
NetJets uniquely handles certain aviation matters of importance. It explores questions relating
to the entire flight experience from preflight to landing and everything in between. For some
of you, this will provide interesting facts you can share with your friends, for others it will
add to your flight experience, and for others still it may be the impetus for you to consider
flying privately for the first time.

No matter what your situation, we hope you enjoy the ride – courtesy of NetJets. 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFLIGHT 3

INSIDE THE FLIGHT DECK 7

INSIDE THE CABIN 9

BEFORE DEPARTURE 12

FLIGHT BASICS 16
2
AVIATION WEATHER 21

TAKEOFF AND CLIMB 24

CRUISE 28

DESCENT 32

LANDING 34

CONCLUSION 36
PREFLIGHT
If you have flown commercially or just chartered a private aircraft occassionally, fractional jet
ownership and the private aviation industry as a whole may seem very different to you. When
flying privately, you have many more options when compared to flying commercially. Private
aviation gives you the flexibility to choose airports closer to your final destinations, set your
departure time based on your schedule, and choose your meals based on what you like.

What happens behind the scenes before my flight?

To safely complete a flight, many aviation professionals and specialists must be involved.
Once a flight is booked and all details are confirmed with your private aviation provider,
your request is typically reviewed by a flight dispatcher and a flight plan will be created.
Flight plans for each individual flight are filed with the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) so the flight will be under the supervision of the Air Traffic Control (ATC) system.
Flight plans generally include basic information such as departure and arrival points,
estimated flight time, alternate airports in case of bad weather, type of flight (instrument 3
flight rules or visual flight rules), pilot's name, and number of passengers. The dispatcher
is responsible for considering and analyzing each of these items when creating the flight
plan to ensure a safe and comfortable flight. These topics will be discussed in greater detail
throughout this book.

NETJETS SUPPORT INFRASTRUCTURE – To support every flight, NetJets utilizes state-of-

the-art operations centers in both the United States and Europe. Every flight goes through a
rigorous series of safety checks. Chief Pilots assigned to a specific aircraft type oversee every
flight within that aircraft type to ensure that our strict operating standards are met. NetJets
also employs FAA-certified flight dispatchers, full-time licensed meteorologists, and many
other aviation specialists to ensure the safety and comfort of every flight. Finally, our
dual-release system requires that no aircraft take off until the Pilot-in-Command and an
FAA-licensed flight dispatcher double-check all aspects of the flight and agree that the flight
can be completed safely.
 What does it take to become a
private jet pilot?
Pilots must complete hundreds, if
not thousands, of hours of schooling
and flight training before they can fly
complex aircraft such as modern
private jets. Many private jet pilots
obtain their initial training through
aviation schools, universities, or the
military. After the initial training,
pilots usually gain additional flight experience by working as flight instructors, flying cargo
planes or by serving as co-pilots. After gaining 1,500 hours flight experience, most pilots begin the
process of obtaining the highest level of pilot license available – an Airline Transport Pilot (ATP)
license.
4 NETJETS PILOT REQUIREMENTS – NetJets stringent requirements dictate that each of our pilots
must have a minimum of 2,500 hours of flight experience, including 500 hours at the controls of
multi-engine aircraft and 250 hours flying on instruments. In addition, NetJets requires an Airline
Transport Pilot license and first-class medical certificate. The average pilot hired by NetJets has over
7,000 hours of flying experience at the time of hire. NetJets also requires each pilot to have an FAA-
issued type rating for the jet type they fly. A type rating is an FAA-issued endorsement in addition
to the pilot’s license which allows a pilot to be the pilot-in-command of a specific type of jet aircraft.

Can pilots fly more than one type of aircraft?

Some aircraft providers allow their pilots to fly several different aircraft types. This means that
each time they operate a different aircraft type, they must readjust and adapt to the different
equipment and safety features from aircraft to aircraft.

NETJETS PILOTS ONLY FLY ONE AIRCRAFT TYPE – All NetJets pilots are required to fly only
one aircraft type. We have determined that the safest practice is for each pilot to fly only one
aircraft type because of the differences in equipment and safety procedures from aircraft to aircraft.
Additionally, each NetJets pilot is type rated in the aircraft type they are assigned to, meaning they
are FAA-qualified to be a captain in that aircraft type.
What is a flight simulator and how
does it help with pilot training?
A flight simulator is a highly advanced
training device used by pilots to practice
flying in conditions that would be too
dangerous or impractical to duplicate in
real life. Experiences in the most advanced
type of simulator (full-motion flight
simulators) are extremely realistic and can
be designed to duplicate any possible real
life situation. Training in a full-motion
flight simulator ensures that the pilots are prepared to handle any situation that may occur
during a real flight.

NETJETS TRAINING – The training never stops for a NetJets pilot. In addition to classroom
training and in flight training, NetJets pilots attend simulator training twice per year using
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only the highest level of full-motion flight simulators available, which cost an average of
$18-$22 million each.

Are all private jets basically the same?

Private jets are designed and built for a wide variety of missions. They range from light cabin
jets which usually seat a maximum of seven passengers to large cabin jets seating up to 18
passengers. Some aircraft types are perfectly suited for shorter flights such as New York to
South Florida or Los Angeles to Seattle, while others are designed to connect the continents
with non-stop capability on flights such as San Francisco to Tokyo or New York to Moscow.
In addition, some private jets are designed for high speed flight while others are designed to
operate at small airports with short runways. There are nearly 50 different types of private jets
in production today, and each has its own unique set of characteristics and capabilities.

NETJETS FLEET – The NetJets fleet currently includes 14 types of private jets ranging from light
cabin jets to large cabin jets. The diversity of the NetJets fleet gives our Owners the flexibility to
purchase a share in the aircraft type that best suits their typical travel profile. All NetJets Owners
are able to request an aircraft type for a particular mission that is different than the type they
own. Downgrades are guaranteed. Upgrades are subject to availability.
 What is a Fixed Base Operator (FBO)?
Most private aircraft depart from and arrive at Fixed Base Operators (FBOs). An FBO is a
service center at an airport that offers services including aircraft fueling, cabin supplies, and
aircraft maintenance. FBOs are generally located away from the main commercial airline termi-
nals and offer a much less congested and hassle-free way to begin and end your flights. FBOs
typically include a passenger lounge, crew lounge, and sometimes even restaurants and catering
suppliers.

NETJETS ONSITE REPRESENTATION – NetJets staffs our most popular destination FBOs
with onsite representatives to ensure our Owners’ travel always occurs as smoothly as possible.
In addition, NetJets has invested in private FBOs and lounges reserved exclusively for NetJets
Owners at some of our most popular airports.

How can aircraft maintenance affect my flight?

All aircraft have a schedule for required maintenance, and operators work to complete this
6 scheduled maintenance during times that will least affect their customers. However, as with
all complex machinery, there are instances when unscheduled maintenance events occur on
aircraft. These unscheduled maintenance events may lead to flight delays as the operator
works to fix the problem or bring in a replacement aircraft to complete the flight. Depending
on the size of an operator’s fleet, their maintenance department’s ability to respond to
occurrences in real time, and the severity of the maintenance issue, delays could be anywhere
from a few minutes to several hours.

NETJETS MAINTENANCE – With access to over 600 jets combined with our maintenance
expertise, NetJets is well-equipped to quickly respond to any maintenance event that may
occur. Our fleet size allows us to keep our jets positioned throughout the U.S. and the world,
ensuring that, if a maintenance event should occur, we are able to respond quickly and
provide another nearby jet to complete your flight. The NetJets maintenance team includes
more than 230 FAA-licensed aircraft technicians who maintain our aircraft to the highest
level possible. In addition, the aircraft manufacturers have created specialized response
teams dedicated to supporting NetJets aircraft. These teams are on call 24 hours a day, 365
days a year and are prepared to respond to any type of maintenance issue.
INSIDE THE FLIGHT DECK
Modern business jets have flight decks (cockpits) outfitted with the most advanced
equipment available. To a casual traveler who may be expecting a cockpit full of dials, switches
and knobs, the modern private jet flight deck may appear to be a scene out of a futuristic
movie. The next time you fly, be sure to take a look up front and see what type of avionics
are on the aircraft.

What types of instruments are

found in the flight deck?
The flight deck or cockpit is the
area of the aircraft where the pilots
manage the flight. The flight deck
includes all of the instruments the
pilots need to navigate the aircraft,
communicate with air traffic control,
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and monitor the aircraft’s systems.
Most modern private jets use
advanced and state-of-the-art
technology known as a “glass”
cockpit. Glass flight decks are a
series of screens that display
multiple sets of information and are much easier to read and use than the former round
dial instruments. Glass cockpits consist of Primary Flight Displays (PFDs) and Multi-function
Displays (MFDs).
• PFDs provide flight instrumentation and navigation information to each pilot such
as airspeed, altitude and heading.
• MFDs provide other information including engine instrumentation, weather radar,
and safety instruments such as Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
and Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS).
 NETJETS SAFETY – At NetJets, safety starts before a new jet rolls into our hangar.
As the world’s largest buyer of private jets, we require manufacturers to meet our
standards for design and maintenance. Each new jet comes equipped with a state-of-the-art
cockpit, including:

Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS and TCAS II) are designed to help prevent
mid-air collisions and near-collisions. TCAS II is a more advanced version that supplies the
pilots with audible instructions on how to avoid traffic.

Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) is a system that helps the pilots
avoid flying into rising terrain. The system monitors trends in the aircraft’s movement and
alerts the flight crew if the aircraft’s current flight trend may bring it in close proximity to
mountains or other rising terrain.

Emergency Vision Assurance System (EVAS) is a system that is used when the pilots encounter
8 smoke in the cockpit. EVAS provides a clear space of air around the primary flight instruments,
allowing the pilots to see the instruments even if extremely thick smoke is present.

What type of flight instruments are on an aircraft?

Since an aircraft operates in a three dimensional atmosphere, the pilot needs several special
instruments to obtain the necessary flight information in order to conduct a safe flight.

• The pitot-static instruments operate on the principle of pressure differential to

provide speed, rate of climb or descent, and altitude. These instruments include:
airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator.

• The gyroscopic instruments use gyroscopic principles to provide the aircraft’s

rate of turn, attitude (which displays the position of the aircraft in space)
and heading (which displays the direction in which the aircraft is flying). These
instruments include: turn coordinator, attitude indicator, and heading indicator.
INSIDE THE CABIN
Modern private jets combine unmatched comfort with many of the latest communication
and entertainment offerings. Private jets are typically configured to seat between six and
18 passengers, and many aircraft include leather seats (many of which recline to a fully flat
position for sleeping); fully enclosed lavatories; individual video monitors with DVD, VHS
or even satellite television capabilities; satellite radio; in flight telephones; data ports for
email and internet access; full galleys and much more. The private jet can truly be thought
of as an “office in the sky.”

MAYO CLINIC EXECUTIVE TRAVEL RESPONSE – All NetJets Owners have access to world-
class medical assistance from Mayo Clinic when they are in flight and on the ground. All
NetJets pilots have the ability to connect directly with Mayo Clinic via a dedicated telephone
line in the event of an in flight medical emergency. In addition, all NetJets aircraft carry Mayo
Clinic-designed emergency medical kits with supplies that include an automatic external
defibrillator. All NetJets pilots and flight attendants are trained to use these kits, as well as 9
how to recognize and respond to common aviation medical emergencies. And on the
ground, “Ask Mayo Clinic” provides Owners with 24-hour access to Mayo Clinic medical
professionals for expert medical information and assistance from anywhere in the world.
 How is food prepared on a private jet?
Large private jets are equipped with full galleys that allow a flight attendant to prepare
basically any type of meal, including hot meals, as long as it is requested in advance. For
smaller jets, a variety of colder fare from catering companies is available to passengers.
Generally, the aircraft will be permanently stocked with snacks, water, coffee, tea, soda,
and alcoholic beverages.

NETJETS CATERING – We work with premier aviation caterers around the world to provide
our Owners with top quality meals during their flight. NetJets Owners complete an Owner
Profile which details their preferences regarding food, beverages, music, and movies so
the aircraft is stocked with the amenities of their choice for each flight. Your catering
needs can be customized for each flight.

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Why do my ears “pop” when I’m flying?
Modern private jets have pressurized cabins to allow their passengers to breathe normally
at high altitudes. Jets are designed to fly at these altitudes to maximize their speed, range,
and fuel efficiency, and also to fly above weather and turbulence. One side effect of
pressurization is that there may be a temporary pressure differential between the air in
your ears and the air in the aircraft’s cabin. Your ears “pop” when the pressure is equalized.

Can my pet travel with me?

Yes. Many people choose to fly privately because it allows them the opportunity to bring
their pets in the cabin. Some private jet operators allow pets in the cabin as long as they
are restrained for takeoff and landing. If your pet is small or an anxious flier, it is advisable
to keep the pet in a pet carrier for the duration of the flight. Larger dogs must occupy their
own seat and be secured with a seat belt or special dog harness during takeoff and landing.

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 BEFORE DEPARTURE
Boarding a private jet is a very different experience than boarding a commercial aircraft.
Rather than waiting in line for your seat row to be called, walking down a jet bridge and
waiting for other passengers to be seated before you can get to your seat, boarding a
private jet is a comfortable and pleasurable experience. Generally, one of the pilots greets
the passenger(s) in the passenger lounge of the FBO, verifies their identification, and
informs them that the aircraft is ready for boarding. Then, the pilot takes the luggage and
loads it into the baggage compartment of the aircraft while the passengers walk up the
stairs and into the aircraft. Some private jets have baggage compartments which are
accessible in flight should the need arise. Once the passengers are onboard, the flight crew
gives a safety overview and then the aircraft begins to taxi to the runway. For many people,
this sequence of events is commonplace, but there are many extremely intricate details
that must be completed for an aircraft to depart.

12 What do the pilots do

immediately before a flight?
Before the aircraft departs, the
pilots are required to do a preflight
check to make sure the aircraft is
in sound working condition. The
pilots follow a special checklist
that includes close inspection of
the aircraft systems and the main
components of the aircraft. Only
after the checklist is completed and
the flight crew is satisfied that all
systems are in proper working
condition is the flight cleared to
depart.
Do all airports have control towers?
Contrary to popular belief, the large majority of airports throughout the U.S. do not have
control towers. Generally, only large airports frequented by heavy commercial airline traffic
and the busier general aviation airports have control towers operating for at least a portion
of the day. Many of the airports that are frequented by private jets are much less busy than
the airports commercial airlines use and therefore do not require a control tower.

• Controlled airports have an operating control tower. All aircraft in the vicinity
and on the ground at controlled airports must follow instructions provided by
the Air Traffic Controller.

• Uncontrolled airports require the pilots to self-announce their intentions to

other pilots in the airport vicinity using a radio. The pilots are also responsible for
determining the active runway and how to enter and exit the traffic pattern by
obeying established FAA regulations.
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How many runways do airports have?
Generally, the busier the airport, the more runways it will have. Since aircraft are affected
by winds during takeoff and landing, runways are usually built in the direction of the prevailing
winds. Some airports have multiple runways aligned in different directions to take advantage
of shifts in wind.

What are airport identifiers?

Most airports have both a three and four letter identifier which is a unique code used to
identify each airport. Airlines typically use the three letter codes while most general aviation
operators use the four letter codes. For U.S. airports, the four letter code generally consists
of the three letter code with the letter “K” added before the three letters. For example,
Teterboro’s three-letter identifier is TEB and its four-letter identifier is KTEB.
 How are runways named?
Runways have a two number identifier on each end. These numbers are derived from the
runway’s direction in degrees relative to magnetic north. For example, if the runway identifier
is 09, it means that the aircraft will takeoff or land at a heading of 90 degrees or due east.
If the runway identifier is 27, it means the aircraft will takeoff or land at a heading of 270
degrees or due west. The runway identifiers represent the direction in which the aircraft
will be heading while taking off on that runway. For this reason, each strip of pavement is
actually two runways because each end of the runway has a different name.

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Why do we sometimes taxi onto the runway and not move for a while?
Sometimes an aircraft is instructed by an Aircraft Traffic Controller to taxi into position
and hold. This usually happens when the airport is experiencing a high level of traffic.
For example, an aircraft may have just landed and may still be on the runway from which
your aircraft will depart, or the aircraft must wait because another aircraft may have just
departed ahead of it. Air Traffic Controllers need to keep a safe distance between all aircraft
to minimize the effect of wake turbulence generated by other aircraft. Wake turbulence
(also called wingtip vortices) is created when an aircraft is generating lift and can be
hazardous to other aircraft flying on the same path and in close proximity.
Can Air Traffic Control delay my flight?
Due to flight demand, the National Airspace System (NAS) frequently runs near the limit
of its capacity. When adverse weather occurs, not as many flights can take off and land,
further limiting the capacity and leading to delays. Since the NAS is a national system,
adverse weather or other adverse conditions in one large metropolitan area may lead to
delays at other airports hundreds of miles away because planes cannot stay on schedule.
Delays for business aviation users may also be experienced during NAS peak times such
as the morning and evening rush hour out of the New York area, holidays, special events
(e.g., Super Bowl), and weekend traffic along the East Coast and at Colorado’s ski airports
when demand is greater than the capacity to support the number of flights. Flying on private
jets allows the use of less congested airports which may reduce potential delays.

NETJETS WORKS TO MINIMIZE ATC DELAYS – Private aircraft do not operate on a fixed
schedule like the airlines do. Therefore, the demand on the system created by these aircraft
is not as predictable. To minimize delays caused by uncertainties, NetJets Owners are
encouraged to notify their Owner Services Team as soon as they decide to use an aircraft so 15
that the flight plan may be entered into the system as early as possible. Arriving at the
aircraft 15 minutes before the arranged departure time is also important, so that ATC has
the highest predictability of where and when the aircraft will be operating in the system and
can account for the demand appropriately.

How much luggage can I bring on my flight?

Baggage capacity varies greatly from one type of private jet to another, so it is best to ask
your operator this question well in advance of your flight. Most private jets have adequate
baggage space to accommodate at least one or two suitcases per passenger, but baggage
volume is not the only item to consider. All aircraft have certain limits to the weight of
baggage that can be safely carried on board. Additional items such as skis, golf clubs, or
hunting and fishing gear may limit the amount of other luggage that can be stored on the
aircraft. Again, it is always best to provide your operator with a detailed list of the luggage
and other items you plan to bring on a particular flight as far in advance of the flight as
possible. This will give them adequate time to determine if all items can be carried on the
aircraft or if other arrangements will be needed. Please note that the FAA does not permit
hazardous materials onboard.
 FLIGHT BASICS
Flying is so commonplace these days that it is amazing to think that just over 100 years ago,
flight in an airplane was simply a dream. Today, for many, flying is a necessity. Many
details take place in order for an aircraft to fly safely. This section discusses the basic
components of an aircraft and the nuances of flight.

What are the main components of an aircraft?

There are five main components that make up an aircraft: fuselage, empennage, wings,
powerplant, and landing gear.
• The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft.
• The empennage is the tail of the aircraft. It consists of two flight control surfaces:
the elevator and the rudder. The elevator pitches or steers up and down and the
rudder yaws or steers from right to left.
• The wings are the primary lifting surfaces for the aircraft. The airflow over the
16 wing surface generates the vast majority of lifting force necessary for flight.
• The powerplant or engine generates the power or thrust for the aircraft. Private
jets generally have two engines.
• The landing gear allows the aircraft to takeoff, land, and taxi, and also provides
shock absorbers to enable smooth landing and takeoff. The newest business jets
usually have a type of landing gear known as “trailing link” which allows for
smooth landing and taxiing.
 Empennage

Fuselage Powerplant
(Engine)

Wing

17

Landing gear

How does an aircraft fly?

Flight is made possible by a concept known as pressure differential. Aircraft wings are
designed to create a pressure differential between air above and air below the wing. Due
to the shape of the wing (known as an airfoil), air flows faster above the wing and slower
below the wing creating a difference in pressure known as Bernoulli’s Principle. Bernoulli’s
Principle states that as a fluid travels faster (air is technically a fluid), its pressure drops.
The lower pressure above the wing and consequent higher pressure below the wing allow
an aircraft weighing thousands of pounds to rise like a graceful bird.
 Lift

Thrust Drag

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Weight
(Gravity)

What do aviation terms such as lift and drag really mean?

For an aircraft to fly straight and level, four basic aerodynamic forces must be in equilibrium:
lift, gravity, thrust, and drag. Lift is simply the force generated by airflow over the wings
that acts opposite of gravity which is the force constantly pulling all objects toward the
center of the earth. Drag is a negative force which acts against the thrust generated by the
aircraft’s engines. Drag can be thought of as the resistance of the air against the forward
motion of the aircraft. All portions of the aircraft create drag; it is an unavoidable trait of
any object moving through air. When an aircraft is flying straight and level, the opposing
forces balance each other; lift equals gravity and thrust equals drag. However, the aircraft
uses imbalances between these forces to accelerate, climb and descend.
How does a jet engine work?
There are four basic steps that explain how a jet engine works:

Step 1
Air is drawn into the engine through a large fan at the front of the engine.
Step 2
Behind the initial fan is a series of smaller rotating blades. These rotating
blades compress the air and force it to the combustion chamber.
Step 3
Once the air is compressed and enters the chamber, the air and jet fuel mix
together and are ignited. The burning gases rapidly expand and are forced out the
rear of the engine, producing “thrust.” The thrust pushes the aircraft forward.
Step 4
As the exhaust gas exits, it passes through the turbine which spins a drive shaft
to provide the rotational motion to the compressor, which in turn draws in more
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air and the entire sequence is repeated. In addition to feeding air to the compressor,
the large fan at the front of the engine feeds air through bypass ducts around the
compressor to join the exhaust jetstream in the tailcone. This bypass feature is
what distinguishes a turbofan from a turbojet and it allows the turbofan to be
much more fuel efficient and quiet.
 What are all those moving parts on the wing?
The next time you are on an aircraft, if you are seated over or slightly behind the wings,
you will be able to watch the different parts of the wings work especially during takeoff and
landing. The main parts of the wings include flaps, slats, spoilers, and ailerons.

• Flaps allow the pilot to change the shape of the wing. Flaps can be extended to
increase the wing surface area, creating additional lift. The more curved the wing
is and the more surface area it has, the more lift it will create. Flaps are most
often used during landing and takeoff so the aircraft can fly at a slower
speed during an approach or help generate lift during a departure.

• Slats are located on the front of the wing and are designed to optimize airflow
over the upper surfaces of the wings. Some aircraft do not have this component.

• Spoilers, as the name implies, spoil lift. These devices are attached to the top of
20 the wing and block the airflow on the upper surface of the wing, thus destroying
the lifting tendency. Spoilers are used to control sink rate during descent and are
also sometimes used for roll control.

• Ailerons are movable portions of the wing used for banking and turning. The
ailerons are located on the outer section of the wings, and ailerons on both
wings work together to turn or roll the aircraft. When an aileron on one side of
the aircraft moves down, the aileron on the opposite side of the aircraft moves
up. The wing that has the aileron down will experience more lift than the other
wing and will rise. This motion rolls the aircraft into a turn.

Why does an aircraft need so many different parts?

Since aircraft operate in three dimensional space while in the air, they need several specialized
systems to maneuver. The ailerons, rudder, and elevator allow aircraft to move and turn
through the air. Ailerons allow the aircraft to roll from side to side. The rudder allows the
aircraft to yaw, or turn from left to right. Finally, the elevator allows the aircraft to pitch the
nose up or down. These three systems work together to allow the aircraft to ascend,
descend, and turn in order to reach its destination.
AVIATION WEATHER

There are many types of weather that may impact your flight. A general understanding of
these phenomena and how they affect aircraft operations may help your travel plans run
smoothly and increase your comfort in flight.

Thunderstorms
Storms can be hazardous to aircraft due to high winds, hail, and their generally unpredictable
nature. Pilots, Flight Dispatchers, and Air Traffic Controllers put a lot of time and effort
into trying to avoid storms, which can lead to air traffic delays. When multiple storms
develop in a region, the storms block local air routes. Air Traffic Control centers must then
begin to delay aircraft trying to fly through the affected areas. These delays have the greatest
affect on high traffic areas such as New York and Chicago. Windshear is a sudden and
unpredictable change in wind direction and/or velocity mainly caused by thunderstorms.
Windshear is most dangerous to aircraft during the critical phases of flight including
takeoff, landing, and when the aircraft is flying slowly and low to the ground since it can
21
cause a sudden loss of altitude.

Tropical Weather
The Atlantic Ocean tropical weather season begins in early June and peaks in the fall.
Such weather has the potential to greatly impact the accessibility of affected areas. To
ensure the safety of passengers, operators may temporarily suspend operations in areas
where tropical storms and hurricanes are forecast to make landfall.

Fog
Low cloud base and reduced visibility caused by fog can limit flight operations due to the
more stringent operational requirements (instrument flight rules) for operating in these
conditions. The morning hours are affected most often, but fog often lasts well into the
afternoon. Some of the airports most affected by fog include Nantucket, Martha’s
Vineyard, and San Francisco.
 Snow and Ice
Snow and ice can be a major challenge for aviation. Snow and ice on the aircraft require
de-icing so they do not adversely impact the ability of the plane to fly, and they may cause
departure delays. De-icing is required because ice on the wing or other surfaces of an
aircraft can lead to increased weight and reduced lift capability. Ice on the wing actually
changes the shape of the wing and changes the way the air flows over the wing, which can
lead to a dramatic loss of lifting capability. Reduced visibility and cloud bases during
snowfall limit the use of some airports, especially those in mountainous areas.

Runway plowing
Private jets frequently fly in and out of small airports that have limited facilities and/or
equipment. When there is snow on the ground, some of these airports may not have the
ability to plow regularly. Snow or slush on the runway may cause dramatic increases in
runway length required for landing and takeoff. The adverse weather may lead to runway
condition restrictions that result in an unusable runway or airport closure for days at a time.
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Mountain weather
Whether it’s a major Rocky Mountain snow storm or localized snow shower activity in
Jackson Hole, rapidly changing winter weather conditions can cause last minute changes,
delays, or diversions due to the low visibility and/or poor runway conditions they may cause.

Jet stream
Jet streams are high speed narrow air currents found at altitudes above 35,000 feet. The
jet stream flows from west to the east across North America at speeds typically in excess
of 130 mph during winter months. When flying from east to west, these strong headwinds
caused by the jet stream may result in turbulence and/or extended flight times that may
lead to additional fuel stops. Conversely, flying west to east along the jet stream will
reduce the overall flight time.

NETJETS METEOROLOGY DEPARTMENT – NetJets maintains a staff of full-time

meteorologists. Using state-of-the-art equipment to obtain and interpret data directly from
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s satellites, NetJets meteorologists
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give our pilots and dispatchers up-to-the-minute weather forecasts. Our pilots and dispatchers
use this information to plan the safest and most comfortable routes and to make mid-course
corrections when advisable. NetJets meteorologists are constantly monitoring the paths of
tropical storms and work with our flight operations group to protect the asset of our Owners
and to ensure that all aircraft in the NetJets fleet are moved away from danger. What’s more,
the NetJets Meteorology department has received approval from the FAA to become an FAA
source of weather information for our pilots, just like an FAA Flight Service Station. There
are only a handful of flight departments in the world that have this FAA approval.
 TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
For many passengers, takeoff and climb are the most exciting and interesting portions of
any flight. There are many situations during takeoff and climb that may inspire questions.

Do high altitude/mountain
airports cause performance
problems for aircraft?
There are several factors that affect
the runway performance of an
aircraft. Among these factors are
airport elevation, temperature,
weight of the aircraft, winds and
runway condition (dry, wet, icy, etc.).
As air increases in temperature, its
24 density decreases. This is particularly
problematic for aircraft departing
from high elevation airports
because the air is already less
dense at higher elevations. The less
dense the air is, the more runway
length aircraft require to takeoff. This is because the aircraft’s engines are less efficient
and the wings generate less lift when the aircraft is operating in less dense air. Often, this
“hot and high” scenario may lead to an aircraft requiring more runway length to takeoff
than is available at a particular airport. If this is the case, weight must be removed from the
aircraft to safely takeoff on the available runway length. Reducing weight can be accomplished
in one of three ways (or a combination of the three): removing passengers, removing
luggage, or removing fuel. If fuel is removed, there may not be enough fuel remaining on
board in order to reach your final destination nonstop making a fuel stop necessary.
What does “climb gradient” mean?
A climb gradient is simply a distance covered vertically during climb divided by the distance
covered horizontally over the ground during the same time. This climb gradient is usually
presented as a percentage. Climb gradients are used to ensure an aircraft climbs fast
enough to avoid any obstacles that may be in the vicinity of the airport, even if weather
conditions are such that the obstacles cannot be physically seen by the pilots. Climb gradient
requirements assume the worse-case scenario of an aircraft having only one engine available
for climb. If the weather is such that the climb gradient must be met for a given departure,
it may lead to the aircraft requiring an additional fuel stop due to weight requirements to
meet the gradient.

Can the weight of my luggage impact the flight?

Weight can have a dramatic affect on aircraft performance. Each aircraft has a specific
weight limit (maximum takeoff weight) which cannot be exceeded. If the combined weight
of passengers and luggage is particularly heavy for a certain flight, the pilots and dispatcher
may determine that off-loading fuel is required to keep the aircraft under the maximum
25
takeoff weight. This could lead to additional refueling stops. Alternatively, some baggage
may be removed and shipped separately to reduce weight. In addition, weight has a direct
impact on the aircraft’s takeoff and landing distance. In general, the heavier the aircraft is, the
more runway length it requires for takeoff and landing. Depending on other environmental
factors such as temperature, winds, and runway condition, additional weight could lead to
an aircraft not being able to use a particular airport.

NETJETS WEIGHT REQUIREMENTS – At NetJets, our FAA-certified Flight Dispatchers

calculate the weight for each flight using the “short form” which assumes an average
passenger weight of 190 lbs and 30 lbs of luggage per passenger. If the calculations on the
short form show that the weight may be close to the acceptable limits, the dispatcher then
uses the “long form.” The long form uses the actual weights of the passengers and
luggage for a more precise calculation to ensure that the flight can be completed safely.
 Why do some aircraft need more runway length to takeoff than others?
There are several factors that determine the runway length needed for an aircraft to takeoff,
but the most important are weight, wing design, and engine thrust. Generally speaking,
the heavier an aircraft is, the more runway length it requires to takeoff. The effect of
weight can be offset somewhat by wing design and engine thrust. If the wing of an aircraft
is relatively straight rather than swept-back, this allows the aircraft to takeoff at lower
speeds and therefore requires less runway distance. In addition, more engine thrust allows
the aircraft to accelerate faster and takeoff in less distance. The straight wing design and
higher-thrust engines are helpful for takeoff performance, but they can have different
effects in other phases of flight. For this reason, aeronautical engineers try to find the best
possible balance of all components when designing a new aircraft.

26
Right after the aircraft takes off, why do I hear a knocking noise and feel
a sinking sensation?
The knocking noise you hear is actually the landing gear retracting up into the aircraft.
Later, you may also hear the flaps retracting back into the wing. The sinking sensation is
caused when the pilot reduces the thrust on the engines. The engine power must be
reduced during the initial climb because the engines cannot run at takeoff power for more
than a few minutes. When the power is reduced, the aircraft feels as if it is sinking or
slowing down dramatically.

Should I be concerned about turbulence?

Simply put, turbulence is air in motion that interacts with the aircraft. All aircraft are built
with turbulence in mind, and the wings of the aircraft are made to be flexible to handle
these forces. Due to the high altitudes at which they fly, private jets are usually able to
avoid turbulence and provide a smoother ride. However, turbulence is often unavoidable
during climb and descent. While it may be a nuisance at times, turbulence is an expected
part of most flights. Aircraft are designed to withstand it, and pilots are trained to handle
27
it. In case of unexpected turbulence, passengers should wear their seatbelts when not
moving around the cabin.
 CRUISE
Cruise is the portion of the flight spent flying level and not climbing or descending. Cruise
is usually the longest portion of the flight, and this is when most passengers settle in to
enjoy the entertainment amenities and catering, conduct business, or simply get some
much needed rest.

How high do private jets fly?

Private jet aircraft typically cruise between the altitudes of 37,000 feet and 45,000 feet, which
is above most airline traffic and adverse weather. Cruising at these high altitudes is
advantageous because the skies are less crowded, and there is generally less turbulence.

How fast do private jets fly?

Most private jets cruise somewhere between 480 miles per hour and 560 miles per hour.
The speed is dependent on several factors such as cruising altitude, traffic, and air traffic
28 control restrictions. The fastest private jet, the Citation X, cruises at 590 miles per hour.
Most commercial airliners cruise around 500 miles per hour.
What does “Mach” mean?
The term “Mach” is named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach. Generally, Mach is
used to refer to the ratio of actual speed to the speed of sound. For instance, if an aircraft
is traveling at half of the speed of sound, we would say it is traveling at Mach 0.5, and an
aircraft traveling at twice the speed of sound would be traveling at Mach 2. An interesting
fact relating to Mach number is that the speed of sound actually varies depending on the
temperature of the air. As you probably know, air temperature decreases as altitude
increases, so an aircraft flying at Mach 0.7 at 25,000 feet would actually be flying faster
than an aircraft flying at Mach 0.7 at 41,000 feet.

Why does it take so much longer to get from New York to Los Angeles than from
Los Angeles to New York?
Winds can have a dramatic effect on aircraft during all phases of flight. When flying from
east to west across the Unites States, aircraft are typically flying into the wind (called a
headwind). When flying from west to east, aircraft typically have wind behind them helping 29
to push them along (called a tailwind). A headwind has the effect of decreasing ground speed
and the overall range capabilities of an aircraft. Conversely, a tailwind leads to increased
range and groundspeed. Considering an east-west city pair, the total flight time is generally
longer on the east to west leg than on the west to east leg. An aircraft may be capable of
flying west to east nonstop on a particular city pair due to the tailwind but may require a
fuel stop from east to west due to the corresponding headwind.

Are private jets able to fly across oceans?

Yes. In fact, there are many private jets capable of long range transoceanic flights.
However, not all aircraft are able to be flown for long distances over water. Although an
aircraft may have the capability to fly from one point to another over a large body of water,
safety regulations may prohibit such a flight due to the aircraft’s inability to return safely
to land should an emergency occur.

NETJETS TRANSOCEANIC CAPABILITY – Several aircraft types in the NetJets fleet are
capable of transoceanic flights. NetJets has the most international operations experience
in the fractional aircraft industry. NetJets typically flies to over 140 different countries
every year.
 What does “cabotage” mean?
Each aircraft is registered in a specific country. Cabotage refers to an aircraft transporting
passengers or goods between two points within a country other than its country of registry.
Most countries do not allow passengers flying privately to be carried by a foreign registered
aircraft between two points within their boundaries. Cabotage rules vary from country to
country. Please check with your operator for cabotage rules specific to the country within
which you are traveling.

How do pilots know where they are going when they are flying through clouds?
To better answer this question, it may be helpful to first understand the flight rules aircraft
must follow. There are two types of flight rules under which an aircraft may be operated:
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR).

• Visual Flight Rules require certain minimum weather conditions (visibility, which is
the distance that can be seen horizontally, and ceiling, which is the altitude of the
30 lowest cloud layer) be met in order to conduct flight operations. Depending on the
airport environment in which the aircraft is operating, the visibility and ceiling
requirements will vary.

• Instrument Flight Rules provide guidance for pilots to fly not only in visual
conditions but also through clouds, rain, or other atmospheric conditions. These
conditions are referred to as Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). IMC
describes a condition where the pilots do not have visual cues outside of the
aircraft. The pilots use navigational aides and instruments in the cockpit to execute
the flight safely. These rules must be followed when weather is below VFR minimums
or anytime when flying above 18,000 feet.
What types of flight instruments are used to navigate in IMC?
To navigate in instrument airspace and/or under IMC conditions, pilots use enroute charts
which provide the locations of navigational aids and flight routes. There are numerous
types of navigational aids positioned throughout the world which help guide pilots to their
destinations, usually by using a radio frequency. The enroute charts are basically highways
of the sky that allow the pilots to fly from point A to point B using navigational instruments.
It’s possible for pilots to navigate with precision to almost any point desired due to advances
in aircraft navigational radio receivers, the development of aeronautical charts which show
the exact location of ground transmitting stations and their frequencies, and refined cockpit
instrumentation. In addition, many modern aircraft use global positioning satellite systems
to help them navigate with precision.

NETJETS FLIGHT PLANNING – For increased safety, All NetJets flights are dispatched
with an IFR flight plan. By doing so, all flights are under the supervision of the FAA’s Air
Traffic Control system.
31
 DESCENT
Descent refers to the portion of flight when the aircraft begins to reduce altitude and head
back toward the earth. Descent usually begins approximately one half hour before landing,
depending on the actual conditions of the flight. There are many important details relating
to the descent portion of a flight.

Why do aircraft sometimes continuously fly in circles before landing?

A holding pattern is a repeating route that an aircraft flies until notified by Air Traffic Control
to approach and proceed to landing. Holding patterns are used when airport operations
are unexpectedly delayed due to weather conditions, traffic, or when too many aircraft are
attempting to fly into and out of an airport at the same time.

What are fuel reserves?

As an added safety measure, aircraft carry fuel in addition to the fuel required for each
32 specific flight. This fuel is known as the fuel reserve and is required by FAA regulations.
Before a flight, the pilot and dispatcher calculate the fuel required for the flight and then
add the reserve fuel to the flight fuel. The fuel reserve is always carried and is meant to
only be used in an emergency.

NETJETS FUEL RESERVES – NetJets Director of Operations analyzes the performance

of each aircraft type in our fleet and derives a standard minimum fuel reserve to be used
on all flights for that specific type of aircraft in accordance with FAA regulations. At the
discretion of the Pilot-in-Command, contingency fuel may be added to the fuel reserves for
known or anticipated situations such as arrival at high density airports or when an alternate
airport may be required.
What is an alternate airport?
If the weather is forecasted to be Instrument Meteorological Condition (IMC) at a destination
airport, the pilot and dispatcher will be required to plan for an alternate airport which will
have better weather than the instrument approach minimums. This means the aircraft will
carry additional fuel onboard in addition to the flight fuel and reserve fuel, in case landing
at the destination airport is not possible due to weather conditions.

What is a slot?
A slot is a reservation to arrive or depart at a specific airport at a specific time. The FAA
administers slots for safety reasons. They are implemented to control the rate of arrivals
and/or departures when the airport’s demand exceeds its capacity.

Which airports require slots?

Some airports use slot reservations year-round while others use them during special events
and peak travel times based on anticipated traffic and/or weather. During high demand
periods including holidays and weekends around school vacations, obtaining slots can be
33
challenging. Most people want to land during the same narrow windows of time, whether
flying privately or commercially.

How do you obtain a slot?

Slots are assigned by the FAA through a random lottery process. Commercial airlines
receive their slots first, and then the remaining slots are put into a “lottery.” Slots become
available exactly 72 hours prior to the requested arrival time. Since all general aviation
companies and private parties are vying for the same slots at the same time, the slots are
usually taken within moments of being released. Slots are confirmed 24 hours prior to the
day of travel.
 LANDING
Landing is one of the most exciting phases of flight. Many of the same events that take
place during takeoff also occur during landing but in the reverse order.

How do aircraft land in adverse weather conditions?

In adverse weather conditions, the aircraft are required to fly under an instrument
flight plan. There are several different types of instrument approaches, and not all
types are available at all airports. Some of the approaches are more precise than others
and therefore can be flown under lower weather conditions (lower ceiling and visibility).
By simply using the procedures written in the approach charts and reading the flight
instruments, the pilots are able to fly very close to the runway. If the pilot is not able to
see the runway after flying the procedure, they follow a missed approach procedure that
allows the aircraft to climb safely and avoid any potential obstacle while exiting the
airport environment.
34
What does it mean when a runway has a displaced threshold?
A displaced threshold is when a portion of the runway is not suitable for landing but can
be used for taxi, takeoff, or landing rollout. This situation generally occurs when there is
some sort of obstruction (trees, buildings, etc.) near the end of the runway. This may
affect the aircraft’s ability to operate at an airport since the entire runway length is not
available for landing.

How does weather affect an aircraft’s ability to land?

Weather can play a dramatic role in the operation of an aircraft. If fog, snow, or very heavy
rains are occurring at the time of arrival or departure, the aircraft may not be able to operate.
Even if the aircraft is able to operate, landing or taking off on a runway covered with water,
snow, slush, or ice will cause the aircraft to use more runway length than would be needed
on a dry runway due to the reduced friction between the aircraft tires and runway.
What happens if a runway has a slope?
Many runways are not completely level, which can affect takeoff and landing performance.
When a runway has an up slope or down slope, it is said to have a runway gradient. Up
slope runways provide a retarding force which impedes acceleration and results in a
longer takeoff distance. Landing uphill actually helps as it usually results in shorter landing
distances. Downhill operations have a reverse effect.

NETJETS OPERATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ANALYSIS (OIA) DEPARTMENT – The OIA

department monitors conditions at our destination airports to make sure our rigorous
requirements for a safe flight are met. OIA researches, inspects, and analyzes conditions at
airports we consider potentially problematic before NetJets flights are cleared to land there.

What is the Destination Airport Analysis Program (DAAP)?

FAA regulations state that all Part 91(k) and Part 135 (the regulations under which many
private jet aircraft operate) flights must be able to land within 60% of the available runway
length on any given runway. DAAP allows approved operators to increase the landing
35
requirement to 80% of the available runway, as long as all items on a 22-point “day of
flight” safety checklist can be accomplished for the particular flight. Using DAAP allows
operators to access many of the smaller airports frequented by private aircraft and ensures
that they are safe in doing so. Each operator must have its DAAP approved by the FAA prior
to use.

What is that loud noise I hear just after the aircraft lands on the runway?
The noise you heard is created by a system called a thrust reverser. The thrust reverser
aids in stopping the aircraft by directing the exhaust flow of the engines in the forward
direction. The forward flow of air creates a loud sound you hear just after landing.
 CONCLUSION
We trust that this guide has given you insight to what goes on behind the scenes to make
your NetJets flight comfortable, stress-free, and safe. We also hope that it has given you
the opportunity to learn more about the exciting world of private aviation. You may want
to keep it handy in order to follow along on future flights. As the worldwide leader in the
private aviation industry, NetJets takes pride in our knowledge and experience in private
aviation, and we appreciate the opportunity to share that knowledge with you.

If you have any additional questions about private aviation or if you would like to learn
more about our programs, please contact us at 1-877-NETJETS (638-5387).

36
NetJets Management Ltd. and NetJets Middle East are subsidiaries or affiliates of NetJets Inc. The Gulfstream Large Cabin Fleet is
operated by NetJets International. The BBJ is operated by NetJets Large Aircraft Company. All other aircraft offered by NetJets in the
United States are operated by NetJets Aviation. Each of these operating companies is a wholly owned subsidiary of NetJets Inc. All
aircraft offered by NetJets in Europe are operated by NetJets Transportes Aéreos, SA, an E.U. air carrier. The Marquis Jet Card Program
is operated by NetJets under its FAR Part 135 Air Carrier Certificate. While the representations contained in this guide are accurate, the
actual terms and conditions are subject to the definitive agreements with individual NetJets Owners. NetJets is a registered trademark
of NetJets Inc.
581 Main Street
Woodbridge, NJ 07095

1-877-NETJETS
(1-877-638-5387)
or visit us online at
www.netjets.com

NetJets® Inc. is a Berkshire Hathaway company. BPA10106