Manufacturing Technology (ME461)

Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya

Review of Previous Lectures

1.CNC programming using word format. 2.Example problems with different geometries for CNC codes.

Example problem of NC Code

Solution

Solution

Advanced Features
With the progress in controller capabilities, several advanced features are becoming available on NC machines. Among these are the following: 1. Ability to take a portion of the program and execute it in a rotated or mirrored position. 2. Ability to scale the program and produce larger or smaller features than those programmed. 3. Capabilities such as three dimensional circular interpolation, helical interpolation, parabolic and cubic interpolation for producing free form designs. 4. Ability to execute part of the program more than once.

Loading the program

For the NC program to be executed, it has to be loaded into the MCU. One of the most widely used methods of program storage among the various methods used in the 1in.-wide punched paper tape. Punched tape uses a binary based representation code that is efficient for the machine to read and provides a compact storage medium. Numbers in the program are represented in a modified binary form called binary coded decimal. Non numeric characters are also assigned specific codes in this representation scheme. The digit 1 in the BCD representation of a number is represented by a punched hole on the tape, whereas the digit 0 is represented by the absence of a hole.

Loading the program

BCD is slightly less efficient for data storage than pure binary but is easier for humans to interpret if need arises. Two standard coding schemes have emerged and are widely used in industry. One is the electronic Industries Association (EIA) standard RS-244A and the other is the American standard code for information interchange (ASCII) standard. With each standard a character is represented by a series of holes punched across the width of the tape. Each character is represented by a specific pattern of holes. A total of eight tracks are available across the width of the tape for punching holes.

Loading of the program

In each coding scheme, one of the eight channels is reserved for checking the accuracy of the punched information. This is done by using a scheme called parity check. The EIA scheme uses odd parity which requires every row of the tape to have an odd number of punched holes. If the character represented in that row in fact has an odd number of ones, nothing needs to be done. If, however the actual no. of holes (or ones) for a particular character is even, an extra hole is punched in the parity channel so that this, together with the holes for the character , results in an odd no. of holes.

Loading of the program

Thus, the system can make a rough check on the accuracy of the punched data by counting the no. of holes. For example, if an even number of holes is found in a given row of the tape in this case, it is recognized as an error. The ASCII scheme follows the same logic but uses even parity.

Conventional Numerical Control

With the conventional numerical control, once the program is on tape, it is read into the MCU by a tape recorder on the controller. The program is read and executed one block at a time. At the end of the program, the tape is physically rewound to get ready for machining the next component. (Remember the % and EOB as indicators) The tape then has to be stored if it is to be used for making more parts in the future . Perforated paper tape is fragile and can be difficult to handle and store conveniently, especially at a facility with large number of programs of different lengths. Another problem is that if a program has to be altered for example because of program errors or engineering changes, the complete tape must be replaced. Once a program has been verified and there are no errors in it, a more durable material such as Mylar is sometimes used for the production tape. Another important aspect of conventional numerical control is that, in general, the MCU has only a limited range of capabilities. Most of the functionality of the controller is fixed in the way the controller is built; in other words, the various capabilities are hardwired and cannot be changed. For example, some early NC controllers were capable of incremental programming but not absolute programming; others were capable of linear interpolation but not circular interpolation. The greater the range of capabilities desired in a given controller, the more expensive it was to buy.

Direct Numerical Control

In the 1960s a solution to the problems associated with punched tape was found with the use of a central time-sharing computer to store NC programs. The central computer was hardwired to the controller of one or more NC machines on the shop floor. The part program would then be downloaded from the central computer directly to the NC machine, during the actual machining of a component, one block at a time. Several machines could be controlled simultaneously in this way because of the high speed capabilities of the computer. This eliminated the need to use punched tapes. Among the other advantages a large no. of programs could be stored more conveniently on the computer, and if a change in the program was required, it could be accomplished easily using a text editor. There were several disadvantages with this type of direct numerical control (DNC) however. For example, if a problem developed in the central computer, all the machines would shut down. Also, the wiring between the central computer and the machines was vulnerable to significant voltage variations in the manufacturing environment, and the central computer itself was very costly.

Computer Numerical Control

With the computer numerical control (CNC), a local dedicated microcomputer with its own memory is used to control the operation of each machine. This is in contrast to the centrally controlled computer used in direct numerical control (DNC). Perhaps even more significant , the fall in cost of computing power that led to the advent of CNC also made it possible to write many of the MCU functions into the software that controlled the MCU rather than having them physically hardwired into the design. This software called the executive program, is loaded into the CNCs memory and controls how a particular controller operates. The executive program of a CNC unit is analogous to the operating system of a computer. It thus became possible to provide far greater flexibility in the MCU by writing more sophisticated executive programs. For example the controller could be switched between absolute and incremental programming, or linear and circular interpolation, rather than having these as hardware functions that could not be changed. With the CNC approach, the NC program is read from a storage medium such as punched tape and stored in the memory of the local computer. The program can then be executed by the MCU reading one instruction at a time from memory, rather than from the original storage medium. With the use of computer diskettes, it became possible to store multiple programs more conveniently.

Distributed Numerical Control

Distributed numerical control is known by the same acronym as Direct Numerical Control. As mentioned earlier, the original concept of DNC was superseded with the development of CNC. In its current incarnation as distributed, DNC is an attempt to combine the best features of CNC and those of the original (i.e., direct: DNC). Modern DNC still uses a central time-sharing computer capable of communicating with several machines on the shop floor and storing part programs that are downloaded to individual machines as needed. The important difference is that because modern NC machines have CNC capability, they have memory and therefore a complete program can be downloaded into the memory of the local computer of the CNC machine rather than one block at a time as in original DNC. Thus, the local machine can run autonomously and does not depend on the central computer for execution for each step of the program. The central computer need only play a supervisory role, monitoring the operation of the various machines, archiving programs, and downloading appropriate programs to scheduled machines as needed. Thus, the individual machines can continue to operate even if the central computer fails.

Programmable logic controllers

Uptil now we have seen the control of manufacturing at process level. We were interested in the technical details of how the manufacturingoperation is accomplished on a step by step basis. There is a different level of control,however, at which our focus is not on the details of the process itself but rather on issues such as whether a given operation has been successfully completed, whether the retinent conditions for the next operations has been satisfied, whether the parts required to fill an order have been made etc. At this level of control we are more interested in governing the operation of the system than in technology. The logical relationship between various parameters determine what the next action should be. Logical relationships can be represented by logical operators, which in turn can be implemented by using hardware components called logic devices.

Logical Controllers
PLCs are used widely used in manufacturing as a means of implementing logical control of manufacturing systems. Control actions are taken by making decisions depending on the values associated with various inputs or variables and the control logic in the program. If a particular decision can be made by answering yes or no, go or nogo or 0 and 1 (binary system) they are referred to as decision by attributes. These may include the following: 1. Is the machine turned on? 2. Is the gate to the work cell open? 3. Has the AGV arrived at the docking station? Etc. If a particular decision cannot be made by answering yes or no to a question, it is referred to as decision by variables. Generally these types of decisions are based on values that can vary widely. Examples include: How deep is the hole? What is the cutting speed? What is the required surface finish? How many parts are to be made?

1. 2. 3. 4.

Logical Control
Attribute type questions can generally be considered as candidates for automation using logical control, whereas variable type questions would be less amenable to logical control.
A variable type question can be made suitable for logical automation, however, it can be broken down into a series of elementary attribute type questions. An attribute type question (having a yeas/no kind of answer) can always be expressed as a logical variable and relationships between such variables constitute a logical expression and they are governed by the laws of Boolean algebra. Three basic logical operator exist and these are the AND, OR and NOT as described in the table below as a relationship between variables X and Y. Relationship X AND Y X OR Y NOT X Meaning Both variables are true Either one of the variable is true The specified variable is not true

Logical Control
The logical relationships can be expressed in a diagram form called a logic network diagram whose symbols are expressed below. The devices implementing the various logical relationships are what we refer to as logic devices. These logic devices are used in constructing PLC Although the logic network diagrams could be used to represent the logic in a PLC control program, another logic diagramming technique is known as ladder logic diagram.

These are more widely used in the industries and they were retained as PLCs got introduced from a convenience point of view of the technicians who were involved in wiring the various systems that were being controlled.

Ladder Logic Diagram

The ladder logic daigram makes use of representations similar to electrical circuits in which a series of connections represents a logical AND and a parallel connection represents a logical OR. A ladder logic diagram is made up of inputs and outputs connected accroding to appropriate logic. Each rung in the ladder represents a set of logical relationships between the inputs that lead to a particular output. The output from one rung of ladder could be used as an input in another rung of the same ladder. Except when special provisions are made it is considered that all rungs in a given ladder logic diagram are executed simultaneously, so the order of the rungs on the ladder in general does not matter.

Solved Example
A robot is to be used to unload finished parts from a machine onto an AGV and to load raw parts from the AGV to the machine. Assume that there are sensors at the AGVs docking station to indicate the arrival of the vehicle and onboard sensors on the vehicle to indicate whether the vehicle has actually brought some raw parts to be machined and whether the AGV has space to carry away a finished part. Also, assume that there are sensors on the machine to indicate whether the machine is loaded with a part and also a signal for the completion of part processing. The robot is required to unload a processed part from the machine onto the AGV, pick up a new part for processing from the AGV, and load it onto the machine. The AGV is to be dispatched after the completion of the cycle. Construct a ladder logic diagram.

Solution
I/O 01 Meaning/ Associated Action AGV has arrived

02
03 04 20 21

AGV is carrying a new part to be processed

AGV has space to store a processed part Machine has a finished part to be unloaded Unload old part from the machine onto the AGV Pick new part from the AGV and load onto the machine

22

Dispatch the AGV

Solution

1. The first rung states that if inputs 01, 03, and 04 are all true, then output 20 is true. This is interpreted as meaning that if AGV has space to store a processed part, and the machine has a finished part to be unloaded, then the robot should unload the old part from the machine onto the AGV. 2. The second rung states that if (input 20 is true AND input 02 is true), OR (input 01 is true, and input 04 is not true, and input 02 is true), then output 21 is true. This rung thus illustrates the use of OR in a ladder logic diagram. The rung is interpreted as meaning that if the machine has been unloaded, and the AGV is carrying a new part to be processed, then the robot should load the new part from the AGV onto the machine. In this case there are two scenarios in which the same output may be obtained. Note in particular that output 20 from the previous rung is being used as an input on the current rung.

3. The third rung contains the logic for dispatching the AGV after it arrives at the docking station

Counters and Timers

Counters can be used in manufacturing to measure quantities such as production stock, inventory, and packaging. The counter accomplishes its task by counting voltage pulses, which can be generated by a sensor set to detect the event whose occurrence is to be noted. Every time a pulse is received the count is changed by one. For example the production stock can be counted with this technique. With the timers the main difference is that they are used specifically to count clock pulses. As a result, timers can be seen as clock driven whereas regular counters are event driven. A counter can be constructed to count up or down or both. Counters typically may have another input line to reset the counter to its initial value (usually zero). Dependent on the intended application, the counter may have more than one output. For example some counters may have CARRY (when the counter exceeds its maximum set limit) or BORROW (when the counter goes beyond its lower minimum set limit). Such counters can be connected in cascade fashion with a CARRY/BORROW from one counter connected to the input of the next counter, increasing the overall range of counting.

Example Problem
During the powder metallurgy process, a punch is used to press blended metal powder into a compact inside a die. A push button is used to start the process. Whn the start button is pressed, the die is filled with powder. The punch is then advanced and it applies pressure to the powder for a duration of 10s, after which it is retracted. The pressed compact is then ejected from the die and the cycle repeats itself. The cycle can be interrupted by pressing the stop button. If the stop button is pressed the punch is required to retract (if it had been advanced) before the process is stopped. We are required to construct a ladder logic diagram.

Solution
I/O 01 02 T1 30 31 32 34 35 Meaning Start Button Stop Button Timer (with a limit of 10s) Fill die Advance punch Retract punch Eject part (i.e., compact) Stop cycle

Solution
When the start button is pushed to initiate the process, or if a part has been ejected successfully from the die, and if the stop button has not been pushed, the die is filled with predetermined amount of powder. After the die is filled, the punch is advanced to start applying pressure on the powder. The pressing time is to last for 10s, after which the timer resets itself. After the 10s, or any time the stop button is pressed, the punch retracts. After the punch retracts and provided the stop button has not been pressed, the part is ejected. After the part is ejected, the cycle repeats from the beginning. When ever the stop button is pressed the punch gets retracted and the cycle is stopped.