Air pollution and its abatement and control in chemical industry

Group Members Name Uzair Wahid Saif ur Rehman Khayaam Manzoor UW-10-BSc-Ch.e-041 UW-10-BSc-Ch.e-009 UW-10-BSc-Ch.e-004 Reg.no

Table of Contents
Ch#1 Understanding the basics .......................................................................... 5 1.1. What is air pollution? ................................................................................. 5

1.1.1. What are pollutants? .............................................................................. 5 1.1.2. Main sources and effects of pollutants? ..................................................... 7 1.2. What is industrial air pollution? ..................................................................... 7 1.2.1. Chemical composition of normal air .......................................................... 7 1.2.2. Comparison of pure air and polluted atmosphere ....................................... 8 1.3. A brief history of air pollution ........................................................................ 8 1.3.1. Ranges of Concentrations of Gaseous Pollutants A Historical Record from 1956 ............................................................................................................. 9 1.3.2. Annual production of air pollution in 1998 ................................................. 9 Ch#2 Effects of air pollutants on human health ............................................... 10 2.1. Effects on human....................................................................................... 10 2.2. Specific pollutants...................................................................................... 11 2.3. Safety and protection factors that must be used ............................................ 12 2.3. Persons Needing Special Protection .............................................................. 12 2.4. Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Teratogenicity .......................................... 13 Ch#3 Environmentally Relevant Air Pollutants ................................................. 13 3.1. Sulfur Dioxide ........................................................................................... 13 3.1.1. Nature ................................................................................................ 14 3.1.2. Quantity ............................................................................................. 14 3.1.3. Sources .............................................................................................. 14 3.1.4. Methods for controlling sulphur dioxide emissions .................................... 15 3.1.5. Conversion of SO2 to SO3 and then to H2SO4 ........................................... 17 3.1.6. The sulphuric acid mist ......................................................................... 17 3.1.7. Effects of SO2 on Human Health and the Environment: ............................. 18 3.2. Nitrogen Oxides......................................................................................... 18 3.2.1. Nature, Effects on Human Health and the Environment ............................. 19 3.2.2. Quantity ............................................................................................. 19 3.2.3. Sources .............................................................................................. 19 3.2.4. The Fate of Atmospheric NOx: ............................................................... 20 3.3. Ozone ...................................................................................................... 20 3.4. Carbon Monoxide ....................................................................................... 21 3.5. Dusts ....................................................................................................... 21

3.6. Lead ........................................................................................................ 22 3.7. Cadmium .................................................................................................. 23 3.8. Arsenic ..................................................................................................... 23 Ch#4 Industrial air pollution sources and its prevention ................................. 24 4.1. Potential sources of air pollution in chemical industry ......... Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.2. Air pollution from chlor-alkali plants ............................................................. 27 4.2.1. Its prevention ..................................................................................... 27 4.3. Air pollution from agro-industry chemicals .................................................... 28 4.3.1 Mixed Fertilizer Plants............................................................................ 28 4.3.2. Its prevention ..................................................................................... 28 Ch#5 Air pollution control equipment .............................................................. 31 5.1 Wet scrubbers ............................................................................................ 33 5.1.1. Diagram ............................................................................................. 33 5.1.2. Advantages ......................................................................................... 34 5.1.3. Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 35 5.1.4. Collection mechanisms and efficiency ..................................................... 35 5.2. Dry cyclone collectors ................................................................................ 37 5.2.1. Diagram ............................................................................................. 38 5.2.3. Collection mechanism ........................................................................... 38 5.2.3. Advantages ......................................................................................... 39 5.2.4. Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 39 5.2.5. Typical cyclone dimensions ................................................................... 39 5.3. Electrostatic precipitators ........................................................................... 40 5.3.1. Diagram ............................................................................................. 41 5.2.3. Collection mechanism ........................................................................... 41 5.3.2. Advantages ......................................................................................... 42 5.3.3. Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 42 5.4. Fabric filter collectors ................................................................................. 43 5.4.1. Diagram ............................................................................................. 43 5.4.2. Collection mechanism ........................................................................... 44 5.4.3. Types ................................................................................................. 44 5.4.4. Advantages ......................................................................................... 44 5.4.5. Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 45 5.5. Settling Chambers ..................................................................................... 45 5.5.1. Diagram ............................................................................................. 46 5.5.2. Collection Mechanism ........................................................................... 46

5.5.3. Advantages ......................................................................................... 47 5.5.4. Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 47

Ch#1 Understanding the basics

.1. What is air pollution?

Air pollution occurs when the air contains gases, dust, fumes or odour in harmful amounts. That is, amounts which could be harmful to the health or comfort of humans and animals or which could cause damage to plants and materials .

1.1.1. What are pollutants?

The substances that cause air pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants that are pumped into our atmosphere and directly pollute the air are called primary pollutants. Primary pollutant examples include carbon monoxide from car exhausts and sulfur dioxide from the combustion of coal. The main primary pollutants known to cause harm in high enough concentrations are the following: Carbon compounds, such as CO, CO2, CH4, and VOCs Nitrogen compounds, such as NO, N2O, and NH3 Sulfur compounds, such as H2S and SO2 Halogen compounds, such as chlorides, fluorides, and bromides Particulate Matter (PM or aerosols), either in solid or liquid form, which is usually categorized into these groups based on the aerodynamic diameter of the particles 1. Particles less than 100 microns, which are also called inhalable10 since they can easily enter the nose and mouth. 2. Particles less than 10 microns (PM10, often labeled fine in Europe). These particles are also called thoracic since they can penetrate deep in the respiratory system. 3. Particles less than 4 microns. These particles are often called respirable 12 because they are small enough to pass completely through the respiratory system and enter the bloodstream.

4. Particles less than 2.5 microns (PM2.5, labeled fine in the US). 5. Particles less than 0.1 microns (PM0.1, ultrafine). Further pollution can arise if primary pollutants in the atmosphere undergo chemical reactions. The resulting compounds are called secondary pollutants. Photochemical smog is an example of this.

1.1.2. Main sources and effects of pollutants?

Air pollutants mainly occur as a result of gaseous discharges from industry and motor vehicles. There are also natural sources such as wind-blown dust and smoke from fires. Some forms of air pollution create global problems, such as upper atmosphere ozone depletion and global warming. These problems are very complex, and require international cooperative efforts to find solutions. The table listed below gives some information about some main pollutants and their effect on human health.

1.2. What is industrial air pollution?

Pollution resulting from an industrial plant discharging pollutants into the atmosphere that are injurious to health.

1.2.1. Chemical composition of normal air

Substance N2 O2 Ar CO2 Ne He CH4 Kr N2O H2 Xe Table 1.11 Table 1.1 records the chemical composition of air. Air normally contains water vapor which would be somewhere around 1% by volume of the total mixture. The concentrations in Table 1.1 remain nearly constant or vary slowly. The following are variable in their concentration: 2 Water > variable 1.0% by volume Meteoric dust Pollen % by volume in dry air 78.09 20.94 0.93 0.03 0.0018 0.00052 0.00022 0.00010 0.00010 0.00005 0.00008

Bacteria Sodium chloride Spores Soil Condensation nuclei NO2 formed by electric discharge SO2 volcanic oxygen O3 formed by electric discharge HCl volcanic origin HF of volcanic origin

1.2.2. Comparison of pure air and polluted atmosphere

Table 1.2

1.3. A brief history of air pollution

Media reports about air pollution might lead us to think of air pollution as being something that developed in the second half of the 20th century. But this is not so. The kind of air pollution to which human beings have been exposed has changed with time, but air pollution has been known in larger cities at least from the 14th century when people first started using coal for heating their homes.

During World War II a new type of air pollution had been discovered in the Los Angeles atmosphere. New effects were manifest in the form of eye and skin irritation and plant damage not evident from simple smoke pollution. It was the result of a photochemical smog that was at first attributed to the oil refineries and storage facilities. When controls of these facilities did not result in a significant reduction of the problem, it was then discovered that the internal combustion engine was a major cause of this new type of pollution. The result of photochemical oxidation is seen in the brown haze apparent in the upper layer of the atmosphere.

1.3.1. Ranges of Concentrations of Gaseous Pollutants A Historical Record from 1956

Table 1.3

1.3.2. Annual production of air pollution in 1998

Fig.1.13

Ch#2 Effects of air pollutants on human health

2.1. Effects on human

Air pollution has always been an undesirable byproduct of human activities, and has presumably had harmful effects on human health ever since the cave dwellers lit their first fire. Continuing structural change in post-industrial society, including a decrease in classical industrial operations (e.g., the coal and steel industries) and a simultaneous increase in the importance of the service industries, has led to considerable changes in the release of emissions, with consequent reductions in the extent to which the population is exposed to air pollutants. The effects of air pollutants on humans can range from simple nuisance (e.g., an odor) to serious health damage A large number of substances cause air pollution, and their concentration in the air varies greatly with time and location, depending on weather conditions (transmission effect) and the various types of emitters involved. Today, their concentrations are in general very low (e.g., compared with those at the workplace), so that an assessment of health damage can only be carried out by considering combination effects in the low ose range. Competing effects from the private actions of individuals (e.g., smoking, medication) and exposure by other routes (e.g., water and food) must also be considered. Especially when long-term (chronic) effects are being investigated, epidemiological studies on representative population groups are carried out. The respiratory tract, with its large inner surface area, is the main site of damage by air pollutants. However, there can also be effects on the heart and circulatory system, blood formation, the kidneys, the immune and nervous systems, and the skin. Air pollutants relevant to environmental medicine include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, dusts, heavy metals, and a wide range of hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Of special significance are air pollutants that are regarded as potential carcinogens. Important substances of this type include arsenic, benzene, cadmium, diesel motor emissions (DME), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and 2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin).4

2.2. Specific pollutants

It is considered that an effect on humans by an environmental pollutant has been caused if reversible or irreversible changes to normal physiological processes are caused in the human organism. In the case of substances that have an irreversible, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or allergenic effect, it is assumed that an effect threshold does not exist.

Since a risk is present even at low concentrations, special efforts must be made to reduce or limit such pollutants. The specific characteristic effects of a substance are mainly a function of a combination of dose, exposure time, the nature of the effects, and the fundamental mechanism of these effects. In the context of environmental pollutants, effect means any change which is brought about by a substance after acute or chronic exposure. Damage to health means reversible or irreversible undesired changes caused by a substance or factor. Toxicity is the ability of a substance or factor to cause such damage, depending on the applied dose and exposure time. Risk is defined as the probability that a given damage occurs in that part of a population exposed to a harmful agent.

2.3. Safety and protection factors that must be used

A safety margin in the estimation of a no effect level Interindividual differences (toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic differences) Interspecies differences (toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic differences) simultaneous effect of several substances, or their combined effects Variation in the sensitivity of persons (special risk groups) Severity of the effects Exposure by other routes (e.g., food contamination)5

2.3. Persons Needing Special Protection

Because of their general sensitivity to the pollutants, children, old and ill persons, and persons with a genetic predisposition must receive special consideration when assessing the effects of (air) pollutants. For example, persons with chronic bronchitis or bronchial hypersensitivity are especially susceptible to substances which attack the respiratory tract or lungs. This is exacerbated in children, because they have higher volume per minute respiration rates per unit body weight than adults, and are more sensitive to infections. Persons sensitive to (air) pollutants also include allergic persons for whom the frequency and severity of allergic reactions can be intensified by certain nonallergenic foreign substances in the air. Thus, the percentage of children with hay fever is significantly

higher in areas of high traffic density than in traffic-free areas, even though the pollutants themselves do not have an allergenic effect.

2.4. Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Teratogenicity

Carcinogenicity is the ability of a substance or physical factor to cause cancer in humans or animals (Carcinogenic Agents). Cancer-risk factors can lead to the uncontrolled and unorganized formation of neoplasms, which include both benign and malignant tumors. Carcinogenic factors can include ionizing and UV radiation, numerous chemical substances, and oncogenic viruses. Also, immune deficiencies, hormonal influences, and inherited predispositions affect the formation of cancer. Humans are exposed to a large number of carcinogenic substances via various environmental media (e.g., water, soil, air, food), and physical and biological factors can also play an important role. The risk of cancer can be obscured by general environmental factors, individual behavior patterns (e.g., smoking, diet, and hobbies), and/or by stress at the workplace. The carcinogenicity of a substance is usually expressed as the unit risk (risk coefficient), which indicates the risk of cancer from lifelong exposure, e.g., to 1 g of a carcinogenic air pollutant per cubic meter of respired air. Mutagenicity is the ability of a substance or physical agent to cause permanent structural changes in the genetic information of cells in vivo and in vitro (Mutagenic Agents). The changes can involve one or more genes, one or more chromosomes, or sections of chromosomes. Mutations in gametes are transmitted to their descendants. Mutations in body cells remain in the organism in which they were induced. Teratogenicity is the ability of certain chemical substances, microorganisms, or ionizing radiation to cause nontransmissible malformations, mainly in mammalian embryos (Teratogenic Agents).

Ch#3 Environmentally Relevant Air Pollutants

3.1. Sulfur Dioxide

In children, an increase in the long-term chronic exposure to 181 275 g SO2/m3 and 230 310 g airborne dust/m3 led to increased incidence of diseases of the lower respiratory tract compared with children from a control region with lower air pollution.

3.1.1. Nature
Sulphur dioxide is a colorless gas with sharp, choking odor. It is primary pollutant because it is directly emitted in the form of SO2 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is an irritating gas which can be retained to 90 % in the nasal passages on inhalation owing to its high solubility in water. It can reach the lower respiratory passages if its concentration is very high, if it is adsorbed on dust particles, or if breathing is mainly through the mouth. Dust particles can then catalyze the production of sulfur trioxide (SO 3). SO2 is absorbed from the respiratory tract into the blood. After biological conversion to sulfate, it is mainly excreted in the urine. Only a few minutes after exposure, the distribution of sulfates by the blood into the tissues and organs and their excretion in the urine can be detected. Radioactively labeled sulfur compounds can be found in the lungs up to one week after exposure. The effects of sulfur dioxide and of the acids formed from it vary in severity, depending on the state of health of the exposed person. Numerous studies have shown that changes in lung function only occur in healthy subjects at very high SO2 concentrations.

3.1.2. Quantity
Roughly 25 million tons of SO2 are discharged into the atmosphere in US alone annually.

3.1.3. Sources
1. Coal, oil and all other fossil fuels naturally contain some sulphur, because the plant material, from which they are formed, included sulphur containing compounds.

2. Coal frequently contains additional sulphur compounds in the form of mineral pyrite (FeS). 3. Coal mined from different locations, contains typically between 1% and 7% (by weight). 4. More than 80% of the emissions result from fossil fuel combustion, and most of them is from electric utility power plants. 5. Only a very small amount comes from mobile sources. 6. Other sources of SO2 emissions are petroleum refining, copper smelting and the making of cement.

Fig no.3.1

3.1.4. Methods for controlling sulphur dioxide emissions

As a result of clean air act 1970 and amendments made to it in 1990, coal fired electric power plants were required to make significant reductions in their emissions of SO 2. Reductions can be achieved in two ways.

1. Sulphur can be removed before combustion, or 2. Sulphur dioxide can be removed from the smokestack after combustion but before it reaches the atmosphere. The second cheaper source is generally chosen. The most commonly used method is flue gas desulfurization (FGD) in which sulphur containing compounds are washed out (or scrubbed) by passing the flue gases through a slurry of water mixed with finely ground limestone (CaCO 3) or dolomite Ca.Mg(CO3)2 or both. On heating, the basic calcium carbonate reacts with acidic SO2 and oxygen, to form calcium sulfate. Scrubbers which remove up to 99% of the SO2 in the flue gas are easily available. 2SO2+2CaCO3+O22CaSO4 + 2CO2

The figure shown below illustrates flue gas desulfurization

Fig no.3.2 3. A promising newer method is fluidized bed combustion (FBC) a process in which a mixture of pulverized coal and powdered limestone is burned, with air being introduced to keep the mixture in semi fluid state. The limestone is converted to CaSO4 according to the previous equation. In this process because the coal is so finely divided the reaction occurs at a lower temperature, and as a

result, the quantity of NOx emitted is much low (because NOx formation is reduced at lower temperature). The figure shown below illustrates fluidized bed combustion (FBC)

Fig no.3.3

3.1.5. Conversion of SO2 to SO3 and then to H2SO4

(In additional chemical reactions, thus forming secondary pollutants i.e. SO 3 and H2SO4) SO2 reacts with oxygen to form SO3, which then reacts with water vapour to form a mist of sulfuric acid. 2SO2 + O2 SO3 + H2O 2SO3 H2SO4

3.1.6. The sulphuric acid mist

The sulphuric acid mist is a secondary pollutant because it is not emitted directly, but is formed subsequently in the atmosphere. It is a constituent of acid rain, an important air pollution problem.

Sulfuric acid molecules may also condense on existing particles in the air, and sulfate aerosols (a suspension of fine particles in a gas, e.g. fog) often compose a significant fraction af particulate pollution in the atmosphere. The sulfur pollution eventually reaches the ground by wet deposition (i.e. as acid rain) or dry deposition (without precipitation).

3.1.7. Effects of SO2 on Human Health and the Environment:

1. SO2 is a colorless, toxic gas with sharp pungent odor. 2. Exposure to it cause irritation to the eyes and respiratory passages and aggravates symptoms of respiratory diseases. 3. Children and elderly are especially susceptible to its effects. 4. SO2 is also harmful to plants. Crop such as barley, cotton and wheat are particularly affected adversely. 5. Tall smokestacks (1200-feet high), used to protect local agriculture form the release of SO2, produces a problem elsewhere; SO2 emissions from America have been detected as far away as Greenland. North

3.2. Nitrogen Oxides

The nitrogen oxides NO and NO2 are important air pollutants. Health hazards are almost exclusively associated with NO2 and its reaction products, while NO acts as a reservoir from which nitrogen dioxide is produced. Nitrogen dioxide is a strongly irritant gas. On inhalation, the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract are attacked, the gas reacting immediately with the moisture present there and on alveolar surfaces. It probably does not reach the lung capillaries, although lung function is affected. On inhalation, 80 90 % of NO2 is absorbed in the respiratory tract. Absorption possibly occurs by formation of nitrous and nitric acids or their salts, as indicated by the detection of nitrite and nitrate in the urine and blood after NO2 inhalation. The odor threshold lies in the range 200 440 g/m3. Under controlled conditions, effects on the lung function of healthy experimental subjects are detectable above a concentration of 3800 g NO2/m3.

3.2.1. Nature, Effects on Human Health and the Environment

1) There are many forms of nitrogen oxides, but the one of greatest importance is nitrogen dioxide (NO2). 2) Most emissions are initially in the form of Nitric Oxide (NO) , which by itself is not harmful at concentrations usually found in the atmosphere, NO is colourless. But NO is readily oxidized to NO2, which in the presence of sunlight can further react with hydrocarbons to form photochemical smog. Smog is of course harmful. 3) NO2 is a pungent, irritating, red-brown gas that tends to give smog a reddish brown colour. 4) NO2 also reacts with the hydroxyl radical (OH) to form nitric acid (HNO 3), which contributes to the problem of acid rain. 5) The harmful effect of nitrous oxide (NO2) on the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere has already being recognized, but inadequate information is available at the moment to make clear, its mechanism of formation, and the exact magnitude of its effect.

3.2.2. Quantity
More than 20 million tons of nitrogen oxides are discharged each year in the United Sates.

3.2.3. Sources
1) The largest source is from the oxidation of nitrogen compounds, during the combustion of certain fossil fuels such as coal or gasoline. 2) Nitrogen oxides are also formed when temperatures are high enough to oxidize nitrogen in the combustion air. 3) At normal atmospheric temperature nitrogen and oxygen, the two main components of air, do not react with each other, however at the very high temperatures that exist in the internal combustion engine and in industrial furnaces, normally unreactive atmospheric nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form NO2: N2 + O2 form NO2: 2NO When released to atmosphere, NO combines rapidly with atmospheric oxygen to

2NO + O2

2NO2

4) Stationary sources are the major contributions of nitrogen oxides (power Plants), although mobile sources (automobiles air crafts) are also important. 5) Ironically, modifications in the operation of internal combustion engines, meant to control carbon monoxide emissions, such as increasing the air supply and raising the combustion temperature, tend to make the NOx problem worse. 6) A: Far more NOx are released to the atmosphere by natural processes than by human activities, During electrical storms, atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen react to form NO, which then rapidly combines with more atmospheric oxygen to form NO2, as shown in the previous equations. B: Bacteria decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic matter in soil is another natural source of NOx. Because emissions from natural processes are widely dispersed, they do not have an adverse effect on the environment.

3.2.4. The Fate of Atmospheric NOx:

1) NO2 regardless of its source is ultimately removed from the atmosphere as nitric acid in rainfall and dust (fine particles of solid matter, whether lying as a deposit or carried in the air). 2) NO2 combines with water vapour to form nitric acid. 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4HNO3 3) Much of the nitric acid in the atmosphere is formed within aqueous aerosols. If weather conditions are right, the aerosols form larger droplets in clouds and the result is acid rain. 4) Some of the nitric acid formed reacts with ammonia and metallic particles on the atmosphere to form nitrates: HNO3 + NH3 contributes to acid deposition. NH4NO3 5) Nitrates dissolve in rain and snow, or settle as particles. The combined fallout

3.3. Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive gas that can change or decompose enzymes, coenzymes, and proteins by oxidizing thiol groups, and can oxidize fatty acids to toxic fatty acid peroxides. Protein and lipid membranes are the main sites of attack by ozone. Ozone is

mainly absorbed via the respiratory system, where rapid reaction with the tissues occurs. In many animals, acute exposure to high concentrations of the gas (440 1000 g/m3) causes rapid, shallow breathing, increased resistance of the respiratory system, reduced vital capacity, and bronchial hyper reactivity. Younger animals show higher sensitivity to these concentrations of ozone. An 8 C increase in the air temperature doubles the toxic effects.

3.4. Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas, with low solubility in water. It is formed by then incomplete combustion of carbon or carbon-containing compounds. Carbon monoxide affects humans by combining with hemoglobin (Hb) to form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb). Carbon monoxide blocks the divalent iron center of Hb by displacing oxygen without change of oxidation state. Carbon monoxide forms a bond with hemoglobin that is ca. 240 times as strong as that formed by oxygen. Therefore, even at comparatively very low concentrations it blocks the oxygen-binding site, and prevents oxygen transport by the blood. All the symptoms of carbon monoxide intoxication are due to oxygen deficiency in the tissues and the accumulation of carbon dioxide during normal metabolism. The symptoms of carbon monoxide intoxication with increasing COHb content of the blood are as follows 5 10 % Slight, measurable visual impairment (threshold of fusion frequency) 10 20 % Slight headache, lassitude, malaise, shortness of breath with exertion, palpitations 20 30 % Vertigo, partial loss of consciousness, limpness and paralysis of limbs 30 40 % Pink skin color, loss of consciousness, shallow breathing, circulatory collapse 40 60 % Deep unconsciousness, paralysis, Cheyne-Stokes respiration, decrease in body temperature 60 70 % Death within 10 min to 1 h >70 % Death within a few minutes6

3.5. Dusts

Dusts are defined as dispersions of solid materials in gases. The particles can be of any shape, structure, and density, and can be up to ca. 100 m in size. They are formed either by entrainment or mechanical processes. Like smoke and fog, dusts are types of aerosol. The health hazard due to dusts depends on chemical composition, parameter concentration, exposure time, and especially particle size. This last

distinguishes dusts from gases and vapors. Dusts are principally absorbed by respiration. The transport and deposition of a dust in the respiratory tract are mainly determined by the behavior of particles in flowing gases. The characteristic parameter is the aerodynamic diameter dae of a particle. The aerodynamic diameter of a particle of a given shape and density is given by the diameter of a sphere of unit density (1 g/cm3) which has the same sedimentation rate as that of the particle in still air or air moving with laminar flow. Fine particles of size <10 m are regarded as airborne dust. Dust fractions are classified according to their particle size as follows: coarse dust: diameter >50 m, medium-size dust: 10 50 m, fine dust: 0.5 10 m, and very fine dust: <0.5 m. So-called respirable dust (airborne dust), which consists of particles of size <10 m, is of relevance to health. Particulate pollution (dust) is a mixture of many chemical substances that can have a wide range of effects both separately and in combination. They can be of natural or anthropogenic origin. The main constituents of atmospheric dust are sulfates, carbonates, nitrates, halides, silicates, salts and oxides of calcium, iron, potassium, sodium, aluminum, magnesium, and organic substances. The components with toxic potential include heavy metals, arsenic, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Depending on their chemical and physical properties and the duration of their effect, dusts can cause morphological damage and changes to the function of the lungs or to their susceptibility to infection. The particular part of the respiratory tract affected by dusts depends mainly on their particle size. Particles of >10 m diameter only reach the nose and throat area, and do not enter the middle to lower regions. They can also be carried into the digestive tract by the lung clearance mechanism.

3.6. Lead
Lead is one of the most extensively investigated pollutants both in the environment and the workplace. There have been many investigations into the occurrence of lead in the

various environmental media (air, water, soil, and food) and into the toxicity of lead to humans and animals. These are documented in the literature in a large number of comprehensive reports. Lead absorption by the human organism depends on the solubility of the lead compounds and the composition of the food. Deficiencies of calcium and vitamin D increase the absorption. The amount of inhaled lead-containing dust taken up by the organism is determined by the deposition, elimination, and absorption of the inhaled dust particles. It is assumed that 90 % of inhaled lead is absorbed. The absorbed lead first enters the blood, and is distributed among the various organs and tissues. Approximately 90 % of the lead in the blood is bound to components of the erythrocytes. Lead inhibits various enzymes and thus affects several stages of hemoglobin synthesis.

3.7. Cadmium
The heavy metal cadmium is a nonessential trace element. It is absorbed orally and by inhalation, skin absorption being practically insignificant. The effects of cadmium depend on the quantity of cadmium absorbed into the blood. Cadmium has a marked tendency to accumulate in the human organism, mainly in the kidneys and liver. Thus, cadmium concentrations in the liver and kidneys increase with increasing age, and also in the blood and the urine. The most important factor is cigarette smoking. Cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers are 3 5 times as high as those for nonsmokers, and cadmium concentrations in the renal cortex of smokers are ca. twice those for nonsmokers.

3.8. Arsenic
Arsenic is a metalloid which is ubiquitous in the earth's crust in various forms. Toxicologically, inorganic arsenic compounds, organic arsenic compounds, and arsenic hydride (arsine) must be considered separately. Arsenic is mainly ingested orally by humans in food and drinking water, but is also inhaled. The extent of absorption depends on the type of arsenic compound. Arsenic can also be absorbed through the skin. Organic arsenic compounds are ingested mainly during the consumption of fish, mussels, and crustaceans, the main compounds concerned being arsenobetaine, arsenocholine, and trimethylarsonium lactate and its derivatives.

Arsenic is rapidly transported within the body by the blood. It becomes distributed in human tissue in varying concentrations, being more concentrated in the skin, hair and nails, the lungs, the bones, and the brain.7

Ch#4 Air pollution sources and its prevention

The sources of air pollution are nearly as numerous as the grains of sand. In fact, the grains of sand themselves are air pollutants when the wind entrains them and they become airborne. We would class them as a natural. There are mainly two types of air pollution sources Natural sources Anthropogenic sources

4.1. Natural sources

An erupting volcano emits particulate matter. Pollutant gases such as SO 2/ H2S, and methane are also emitted. The emission from an eruption may be of such magnitude as to harm the environment for a considerable distance from the volcanic source. Dust storms that entrain large amounts of particulate matter are a common natural source of air pollution in many parts of the world. Even a relatively small dust storm can result in suspended particulate matter readings one or two orders of magnitude above ambient air quality standards. Visibility reduction during major dust storms is frequently the cause of severe highway accidents and can even affect air travel. The particulate matter transferred by dust storms from the desert to urban areas causes problems to householders, industry, and automobiles. The materials removed by the air cleaner of an automobile are primarily may become airborne. An extensive source of natural pollutants is the plants and trees of the earth. Even though these green plants play a large part in the conversion of carbon dioxide to oxygen through photosynthesis, they are still the major source of hydrocarbons on

the planet. The familiar blue haze over forested areas is nearly all from the atmospheric reactions of the volatile organics given off by the trees of the forest (1). Another air pollutant problem, which can be attributed to plant life, is the pollens which cause respiratory distress and allergic reactions in humans. Other natural sources, such as alkaline and saltwater lakes, are usually quite local in their effect on the environment. Sulfurous gases from hot springs also fall into this category in that the odor is extremely strong when close to source.

4.2. Anthropogenic sources

4.2.2. Industrial sources

A great deal of industrial pollution comes from manufacturing products from raw materials(1) iron from ore, (2) lumber from trees, (3) gasoline from crude oil, and (4) stone from quarries. Each of these manufacturing processes produces a product, along with several waste products which we term pollutants. Occasionally, part or all of the polluting material can be recovered and converted into a usable product. Industrial pollution is also emitted by industries that convert products to other products(1) automobile bodies from steel, (2) furniture from lumber, (3) paint from solids and solvents, and (4) asphaltic paving from rock and oil. Industrial sources are stationary, and each emits relatively consistent qualities and quantities of pollutants. A paper mill, for example, will be in the same place tomorrow that it is today, emitting the same quantity of the same kinds of pollutants unless a major process change is made. Control of industrial sources can usually be accomplished by applying known technology. The most effective regulatory control is that which is applied uniformly within all segments of industries in a given region, e.g., "Emission from all asphalt plant dryers in this region shall not exceed 230 mg of particulate matter.

Table 4.2.2.18

4.2.2.1. Air pollution from chlor-alkali plants

There are three basic processes for the manufacture of chlorine and caustic soda from brine: the mercury cell, the diaphragm cell, and the membrane cell. Among these technologies, the membrane cell is the most modem and has both economic and environmental advantages. The other two processes generate hazardous wastes containing mercury or asbestos. Mercury cell technology is being phased out in worldwide production. Chlorine is a highly toxic gas, and strict precautions are necessary to minimize risk to workers and possible releases during its handling. Major sources of fugitive air emissions of chlorine and hydrogen are vents, seals, and transfer operations.

For the chlor-alkali industry, an emergency preparedness and response plan is mandatory for potential uncontrolled chlorine and other releases. Carbon tetrachloride is sometimes used to scrub nitrogen trichloride (formed in the process) and to maintain its levels below 4% to avoid fire and explosion. Substitutes for carbon tetrachloride may have to be used, as the use of carbon tetrachloride may be banned in the near future due to its carcinogenicity. 4.2.2.1.1. Its prevention Implementation of cleaner production processes and pollution prevention measures can yield both economic and environmental benefits. The primary treatment technologies afforded to this manufacturing include the following: Caustic scrubber systems should be installed to control chlorine emissions from condensers and at storage and transfer points for liquid chlorine. Sulfuric acid used for drying chlorine should be neutralized before discharge. Chlorine monitors should be strategically located within the plant to detect chlorine releases or leaks on a continuous basis. Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with the operating standards so that any necessary corrective actions can be taken. Records of monitoring results should be kept in an acceptable format. The results should be reported to the responsible authorities and relevant parties, as required.

Preference should be given to the membrane process due to its less polluting characteristics over other technologies. In addition, the scrubbing of chlorine from tail gases to produce hypochlorite is highly recommended.

4.2.2.2. Air pollution from agro-industry chemicals

4.2.2.2.1 Mixed Fertilizer Plants

Mixed fertilizers contain two or more of the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), which are essential for good plant growth and high crop yields. This subsection briefly addresses the production of ammonium phosphates (monoammonium phosphate, or MAP, and diammonium phosphate, or DAP), nitrophosphates, potash, and compound fertilizers. Compound fertilizers can be made by blending basic fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate, MAP, DAP, and granular potash; this route may involve a granulation process. The principal pollutants from the production of MAP and DAP are ammonia and fluorides, which are given off in the steam from the reaction. Fluorides and dust are released from materials-handling operations. Ammonia in uncontrolled air emissions has been reported to range from 0.1 to 7.8 kilograms of nitrogen per metric ton (kg/t) of product, with phosphorus ranging from 0.02 to 2.5 kg/t product (as phosphorous pentoxide, P2O5). In nitrophosphate production, dust will also contain fluorides. Nitrogen oxides NO, are given off at the digester. In the evaporation stage, fluorine compounds and ammonia are released. Unabated emissions for nitrogen oxides from selected processes are less than 1 ,OOO milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) from digestion of phosphate rock with nitric acid, 50 to 200 (mg/m3) from neutralization with ammonia, and 30 to 200 mg/m 3 from granulation and drying. Dust is the primary air pollutant from potash manufacturing. 4.2.2.2.1.1. Its prevention Materials handling and milling of phosphate should be carried out in closed buildings. Fugitive emissions can be controlled by, for example, hoods on conveying equipment, with capture of the dust in fabric filters. In the ammonium phosphate plant, the gas streams from the reactor, granulator, dryer, and cooler should be passed through cyclones and scrubbers, using

phosphoric acid as the scrubbing liquid, to recover particulates, ammonia, and other materials for recycling. In the nitrophosphate plant, nitrogen oxide (NO,) emissions should be avoided by adding urea to the digestion stage. Fluoride emissions should be prevented by scrubbing the gases with water. Ammonia should be removed by scrubbing. Phosphoric acid may be used for scrubbing where the ammonia load is high. The process water system should be balanced, if necessary, by the use of holding tanks to avoid the discharge of an effluent. Air emissions at point of discharge should be monitored continuously for fluorides and particulates and annually for ammonia and nitrogen oxides. Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with the operating standards so that any necessary corrective actions can be taken. Records of monitoring results should be kept in an acceptable format. The results should be reported to the responsible authorities and relevant parties, as required. Maximize product recovery and minimize air emissions by appropriate maintenance and operation of scrubbers and bag houses. Prepare and implement an emergency preparedness and response plan. Such a plan is required because of the large quantities of ammonia and other hazardous materials stored and handled on site. Where possible, use natural gas as the feedstock for the ammonia plant, to minimize air emissions.

Use hot process gas from the secondary reformer to heat the primary reformer tubes (the exchanger-reformer concept), thus reducing the need for natural gas. Direct hydrogen cyanide (HCN) gas in a fuel oil gasification plant to a combustion unit to prevent its release. Consider using purge gases from the synthesis process to fire the reformer; strip condensates to reduce ammonia and methanol. Use carbon dioxide removal processes that do not release toxics to the environment. When monoethanolamine (MEA) or other processes, such as hot potassium carbonate, are used in carbon dioxide removal, proper operation and maintenance procedures should be followed to minimize releases to the environment.

4.2.2.2.2. Nitrogenous fertilizer plants

Emissions to the atmosphere from ammonia plants include sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter, methane, hydrogen cyanide, and ammonia. The two primary sources of pollutants, with typical reported values, in kilograms per ton (kg/t) for the important pollutants, are as follows: Flue gas from primary reformer: CO2: 500 kg/t NH3 NOx: 0.6 to 1.3 kg/t NH3 as NO2 SO2: less than 0.1 kg/t; CO: less than 0.03 kg/t. Carbon dioxide removal: CO2: 1,200 kg/t.

4.2.2.2.2.1. Prevention

Nitrogen oxides are reduced, for example, when there is low excess oxygen, with steam injection when post-combustion measures are in place; and when low-NO, burners are in use. Other measures will also reduce the total amount of nitrogen oxides emitted.

4.2.2.3. Pollution from petroleum refineries

Natural gas and crude distillates such as naphtha from petroleum refining are used as feedstock to manufacture a wide range of petrochemicals that are in turn used in the manufacture of consumer goods. Basic petrochemicals are manufactured by cracking, reforming, and other processes, and include olefins (such as ethylene, propylene, butylenes, and butadiene) and aromatics (such as benzene, toluene, and xylenes). The capacity of naphtha crackers is generally of the order of 250,000 to 750,000 metric tons per year (tpy) of ethylene production. Compounds considered carcinogenic that may be present in air emissions include benzene, butadiene, 1,2-dichloroethane, and vinyl chloride. A typical naphtha cracker at a petrochemical complex may release annually about 2,500 metric tons of alkenes, such as propylenes and ethylene, in producing 500,000 metric tons of ethylene. Boilers, process heaters, flares, and other process equipment (which in some cases may include catalyst regenerators) are responsible for the emission of PM (particulate matter), carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (200 tpy), based on 500,000 tpy of ethylene capacity, and sulfur oxides (600 tpy).

The release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the air depends on the products handled at the plant. VOCs released may include acetaldehyde acetone, benzene, toluene, trichloroethylene, trichlorotoluene, and xylene. VOC emissions are mostly fugitive and depend on the production processes, materials handling and effluenttreatment procedures, equipment maintenance, and climatic conditions. VOC emissions from a naphtha cracker range from 0.6 to 10 kilograms per metric ton (kg/t) of ethylene produced. Of these emissions, 75% consists of alkanes, 20% of unsaturated hydrocarbons, about half of which is ethylene, and 5% of aromatics. The WHO (World Health Organization) recommended air emissions levels are

summarized in table below although these are not legal standards, they provide us with a general sense of emission targets to strive for to meet safe health risk exposure levels.

Table 4.2.2.3.1.8a

4.3. Pollution caused by motor vehicles

The principal pollutants emitted from simple gasoline-powered IC engines are carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. All these are formed in all other combustion processes, e.g., fossil fuel power plants, kitchen stoves, campfires, and charcoal barbecues. Auto engines produce more of them per unit of fuel burned principally for the following reasons: Auto engines are often oxygen deficient, which most other combustion systems are not.

Auto engines preheat their air-fuel mixtures, which most combustion systems do not. Auto engines have unsteady combustion, in which each flame lasts about 0.0025s. Almost all other combustion systems have steady flames that stand still while the materials burned pass through them. Auto engines have flames that directly contact cooled surfaces, which is not common in other combustion systems.

Table 4.3.1.

4.3.1. Prevention
The exhaust emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles are the most difficult to control. These emissions are influenced by such factors as gasoline formulation, air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, compression ratio, engine speed and load, engine deposits, engine condition, coolant temperature, and combustion chamber configuration. Consideration of control methods must be based on elimination or destruction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen. Methods used to control one pollutant may actually increase the emission of another requiring even more extensive controls. Fuel modification in terms of volatility, hydrocarbon types, or additive content. Some of the fuels currently being used are liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), liquefied natural gas (LNG), compressed natural gas (CNG), fuels with alcohol additives, and unleaded gasoline. The supply of some of these fuels is very limited. Other fuel problems involving storage, distribution, power requirements have to be considered. Minimization of pollutants from the combustion chamber. This approach consists of designing the engine with improved fuel-air distribution systems, ignition

timing, fuel-air ratios, coolant and mixture temperatures, and engine speeds for minimum emissions. Further oxidation of the pollutants outside the combustion chamber. This oxidation may be either by normal combustion or by catalytic oxidation. These systems require the addition of air into the exhaust manifold at a point downstream from the exhaust valve.

Ch#5 Air pollution control equipment

5.1 Wet scrubbers

In wet scrubbing, an atomized liquid, usually water, is used to capture particulate dust or to increase the size of aerosols. Increasing size facilitates separation of the particulate from the carrier gas. Wet scrubbing can effectively remove fine particles in the range from 0.1m to 20m. The particles may be caught first by the liquid, or first on the scrubber structure, and then washed off by the liquid. Because most conventional scrubbers depend upon some form of inertial collection of particulates as the primary mechanism of capture, scrubbers when used in a conventional way have a limited capacity for controlling fine particulates. Unfortunately inertial forces become insignificantly small as particle size decreases, and collection efficiency decreases rapidly as particle size decreases. As a result, it becomes necessary to greatly increase the energy input to a wet scrubber to significantly improve the efficiency of collection of fine particles.

5.1.1. Diagram

Fig no.5.110

5.1.2. Advantages
Wet scrubbers have some unique characteristics useful for fine particulate control. Since the captured particles are trapped in a liquid, re-entrainment is avoided, and the trapped particles can be easily removed from the collection device. Wet scrubbers can be used with high-temperature gases where cooling of the gas is acceptable and also with potentially explosive gases. Scrubbers are relatively inexpensive when removal of fine particulates is not critical. Also, scrubbers are operated more easily than other sophisticated types of particulate removal equipment. Wet scrubbers can be employed for the dual purpose of absorbing gaseous pollutants while removing particulates.

Both horizontal and vertical spray towers have been used extensively to control gaseous emissions when particulates are present. Cyclonic spray towers may provide slightly better particulate collection as well as higher mass transfer coefficients and more transfer units per tower than other designs.

5.1.3. Disadvantages
The disadvantages of wet scrubbers include the necessity of reheating cooled scrubber effluents for discharge up a stack. Furthermore, the water solutions may freeze in winter and become corrosive at other times. In some cases, the resultant liquid sludge discharge may have to be treated for disposal. It should be noted also that operating costs can become excessive due to the high energy requirements to achieve high collection efficiencies for removal of fine particulates. Even with great energy inputs, wet scrubber collection efficiencies are not high with particles less than 1.0m in size.11

5.1.4. Collection mechanisms and efficiency

In wet scrubbers, collection mechanisms such as inertial impaction, direct interception, Brownian diffusion, and gravity settling apply in the collection process. Most wet scrubbers will use a combination of these mechanisms; therefore, it is difficult to classify a scrubber as predominately using one particular type of collection mechanism. Nearly all wet separation devices use the same three capture mechanisms. These are: Impaction Interception Diffusion

As discussed above. However, inertial impaction and direct interception play major roles in most wet scrubbers. Thus, in order to capture finer particles efficiently, greater energy must be expended on the gas. This energy may be expended primarily in the gas pressure drop or in atomization of large quantities of water. Efficiency of collection may be unexpectedly enhanced in a wet scrubber through methods that cause particle growth. Particle growth can be brought about by vapor condensation, high turbulence, or thermal forces in the confines of the narrow passages in the scrubber structure.

Condensation, the most common growth mechanism, occurs when a hot gas is cooled or compressed. The condensation will occur preferentially on existing particles rather than producing new nuclei. Thus, the dust particles will grow larger and will be more easily collected. When hydrophobic dust particles must be collected, there is evidence that the addition of small quantities of non foaming surfactants may enhance collection. The table given below shows various collection efficiencies of different wet scrubbers.12

Table no.5.1 Figure 5.2 shows a target droplet being impacted by a particle. The particle has sufficient inertia to follow a predicted course into the droplet. Once inside the droplet, the combined particle/droplet size is aerodynamically much larger, therefore the separation task becomes easier. Simply separate the droplet from the gas stream (more on that later) and one removes the particle(s).

Fig no.5.2

Figure 5.3 shows a particle, perhaps a bit smaller, moving along the gas stream lines and being intercepted at the droplet surface. The particle in this case comes close enough to the droplet surface that it is attracted to that surface and is combined with the droplet. Again, once the particles are intercepted, the bigger droplet is easier to remove.

Fig no.5.313

5.2. Dry cyclone collectors

Cyclone collectors are used for product recovery of dry dusts and powders and as primary collectors on high dust loading (more than 2 to 5 grs/dscf) air pollution control applications. Cyclones are very common particulate control devices used in many applications, especially those where relatively large particles need to be collected. Cyclones are very simple devices that use centrifugal force to separate particles from a gas stream. They commonly are constructed of sheet metal, although other materials can be used. A common application is the rotary dryer. Used to dehydrate various products from grain to manure, direct or indirect fired rotary dryers often use cyclone collectors to capture the entrained dust prior to a secondary collector (such as a Venturi scrubber). The rotating action of the dryer entrains a portion of the product as the product tumbles through the hot, drying air. This product is often valuable in dry form so the cyclone is used to disengage the dust from the gas stream and be recovered. The residual dust is air-conveyed to the downstream device. Another application is on woodwaste or bagasse (sugar cane) boilers where light entrained ash can be collected in suitably designed cyclones. On woodwaste applications, smaller diameter cyclones are often used in banks where each cyclone handles less than 1000 acfm of flue gas. These are called multiple cyclone collectors.14

5.2.1. Diagram

Fig no. 5.415

5.2.3. Collection mechanism

The operating principle of a cyclone is based on using centrifugal force to move particles to the cyclone wall. The gas stream is typically directed into a cylindrical portion of the device so that a spinning motion is created and sustained for a required number of turns or revolutions to achieve the desired separation. In general, the more spin cycles or turns imparted to the gas stream, the greater the separation efficiency. Cyclone collector housings are therefore designed to provide varying number of spins or turns, depending on the application. Centrifugal force and, to a lesser extent, settling are the forces used in cyclone collectors. Contradicting forces and effects are same-charge electrostatic forces that could inhibit separation as well as the friability of the particles themselves.

Some particulate acquires a charge as it passes through ductwork or a cyclone (piezoelectric effect) thereby making separation more difficult. If the particulate or dust becomes reduced in size, it makes it more difficult to collect because the effective centrifugal force applied to the particle is a function of its mass.

5.2.3. Advantages
Cyclones are able to handle very heavy dust loading. They can be used in high temperature gas streams. Cyclones are cost-effective devices. Require low maintenance. They also reduce loading on the primary collector and allow for the dry recovery of product.

5.2.4. Disadvantages
High operating costs (owing to power required to overcome pressure drop). Cyclones have low efficiencies in removing fine particulate. Because small particles have little mass that can generate a centrifugal force.16

5.2.5. Typical cyclone dimensions

Table no. 5.217

5.3. Electrostatic precipitators

Electrostatic precipitators are used for the purpose of removing dry particulate matter from gas streams. They basically apply an electrostatic charge to the particulate and provide sufficient surface area for that particulate to migrate to the collecting plate and be captured. The collecting plates are rapped periodically to disengage the collected particulate into a receiving hopper. An ESP controls particulate emissions by: (1) charging the particles, (2) applying an electric field to move the particles out of the gas stream, and then (3) removing the collected dust. Particles are charged by gas ions that are formed by corona discharge from the electrodes. The ions become attached to the particles, thus providing the charge. In a typical ESP, vertical wires are used as the negative discharge electrode between vertical, flat, grounded plates. The dirty gas stream passes horizontally between the plates and a dust layer of particulate collects on the plates. The typical spacing between the discharge electrode and the collector plate is 4 to 6 in. The dust layer is removed from the plates by rapping, or in the case of a wet ESP, by washing with water. An alternative to the alternative to the plate and wire design is the tube and wire design, in which the discharge electrode wire is fixed in the center of a vertical tubular collection electrode. In this configuration, the gas flow is parallel to the discharge electrode. Dry electrostatic precipitators are used to remove particulate matter from flue gas streams exiting cement kilns, utility and industrial power boilers, catalytic crackers, paper mills, metals processing, glass furnaces, and a wide variety of industrial applications. An electrostatic precipitator is a constant pressure drop, variable emission particulate removal device offering exceptionally high particulate removal efficiency.18

5.3.1. Diagram

Fig no.5.519

5.2.3. Collection mechanism

The basic principle of an electrostatic precipitator is to attract charged dust particles to the collecting plates where they can be removed from the gas stream. Dust entering the precipitator is charged by a corona discharge leaving the electrodes. Corona is plasma containing electrons and negatively charged ions. Most industrial electrostatic precipitators use negative discharge corona for charging dust. When charged, the dust particles are driven toward the collecting plates by the electromagnetic force created by the voltage potential applied to the discharge electrodes. An electrostatic precipitator contains multiple mechanical fields located in series and parallel to the direction of gas flow. Each mechanical field is comprised of a group of collecting plates that define a series of parallel gas passages. These passages run in the direction of gas flow. Bisecting the gas passage is a series of discharge electrodes, also running in the direction of gas flow. A mechanical field contains one or more electrical fields. A single transformer rectifier serves each electrical field. There can be multiple electrical sections contained in a single electrical field.20

5.3.2. Advantages
An electrostatic precipitator is a constant pressure drop, variable emission particulate removal efficiency. This is more effective to remove very small particles like smoke, mist and fly ash. Its range of dust removal is sufficiently large (0.01 micron to 1.00 micron). The small dust particles below 10 microns cannot be removed with the help of mechanical separators and wet scrubbers cannot be used if sufficient water is not available. Under these circumstances, this type is very effective. This is also most effective for high dust loaded gas (as high as 100 grams per cu.meter) The draught loss of this system is the least of all forms(1 cm of water) It provides ease of operation. The dust is collected in dry form and can be removed either dry or wet. device offering exceptionally high particulate removal

5.3.3. Disadvantages
The direct current is not available with the modern plants, therefore considerable electrical equipment is necessary to convert low voltage (400 V) A.C to high voltage (60000 V) D.C. This increases the capital cost of the equipment as high as 40 to 60 cents per 1000 kg of rated installed steam generating capacity. The running charges are also considerably high as the amount of power required for charging is considerably large. The space required is larger than the wet system. The efficiency of the collector is not maintained if the gas velocity exceeds that for which the plant is designed. The dust carried with the gases increases with an increase of gas velocity. Because of closeness of the charged plates and high potential used, it is necessary to protect the entire collector from sparking by providing a fine mesh before the ionizing chamber. This is necessary because even a smallest piece of paper might cause sparking when it would be carried across adjacent plates or wires.21

5.4. Fabric filter collectors

Fabric filter collectors, or baghouses, separate particulate from gas stream by causing the particulate to pass through a filtering media, a layer of previously collected (or purposely deposited) particulate, or both. The gasborne particulate is intercepted by the fibers of the filtering media, by the particulate already present on the media surface, or both. To prevent excessive pressure drop as the particulate accumulates, these devices use various mechanisms to disengage the particulate from the media. The filter bags are mounted on a tube sheet and enclosed in a sheet-metal housing. It must be understood that the mechanism that achieves filtration of small particles from a gas stream is not simple sieving. The spacing between fabric threads may be on the order of 50 to 75 microns, yet particles of 1 micron diameter and less are collected efficiently. 22

5.4.1. Diagram

Figure no.5.623

5.4.2. Collection mechanism

Fabric filter collectors primarily use sieving (a combination of impaction and interception) as the collecting mechanism. The combined porosity of the media and any previously accumulated particulate serve to produce small pores through which the new particulate must attempt to pass. This filtering or sieving action relies on the fact that the net opening at any given time is smaller than the particulate. Because the particle is bigger than the opening, it cannot pass through. After collection on the media surface or in the dust cake, various mechanisms are used to remove the particulate from the media. After that, the particulate settles by gravity in the devices housing.24

5.4.3. Types
The three common types of baghouses based on cleaning methods Reverse-air Shaker Pulse-jet

5.4.4. Advantages
Very high collection efficiencies possible (99.9 + per cent) with a wide range of inlet grain loadings and particle size variations. Within certain limits fabric collectors have a constancy of static pressure and efficiency, for a wider range of particle sizes and concentrations than any other type of single dust collector. Collection efficiency not affected by sulfur content of the combustion fuel as in ESPs. Reduced sensitivity to particle size distribution. No high voltage requirements. Flammable dust may be collected. Use of special fibers or filter aids enables sub-micron removal of smoke and fumes. Collectors available in a wide range of configurations, sizes, and inlet and outlet locations. They can operate over a wide range of volumetric flow rates The pressure drops are reasonably low. Fabric Filter houses are modular in design, and can be pre-assembled at the factory.

5.4.5. Disadvantages
Fabric life may be substantially shortened in the presence of high acid or alkaline atmospheres, especially at elevated temperatures. Maximum operating temperature is limited to 550 degrees Fahrenheit, unless special fabrics are used. Collection of hygroscopic materials or condensation of moisture can lead to fabric plugging, loss of cleaning efficiency, large pressure losses. Certain dusts may require special fabric treatments to aid in reducing leakage or to assist in cake removal. Fabric bags tend to burn or melt readily at temperature extremes. Fabric Filters require a large floor area. The fabric is damaged at high temperature. Ordinary fabrics cannot handle corrosive gases. 25

5.5. Settling Chambers

One of the simplest (and oldest) air pollution control devices is the Settling chamber These are also sometimes called knock out boxes or drop out boxes .The equipment is in the form of a large chamber, which allows reduction of the gas velocity to a point where the particulate it carries simply drops out. Today, settling chambers are used for coarse removal of large particulate in advance of higher efficiency particulate control equipment. They are rarely, if ever, used as the final gas cleaning device. Settling chambers are primarily used to reduce the loading of particulate from sources such as kilns, calciners, and mills or grinders that inherently produce high particulate concentrations. If the particulate is valuable in a dry form, the settling chamber usually is designed to settle out the smallest size particle that can economically be separated. If the product is not valuable or further downstream particulate separation is to be used (such as a cyclone, scrubber, or fabric filter collector), the chamber is usually sized to afford some basic separation at low cost. They are often followed by product recovery cyclones which are, in turn, followed by collectors designed for high efficiency collection of the fine particulate that pass through the upstream devices.26

5.5.1. Diagram

Figure no.5.727

5.5.2. Collection Mechanism

A settling chamber operates on the principle that if you slow a gas stream down sufficiently, the solid particulate contained within that gas stream will settle out by gravity. In general the larger the particle the faster the settling rate. In addition, larger particles will settle out faster in a given moving gas stream than smaller particles. Settling chambers are therefore designed to allow the mean gas stream velocity to slow down to a point at or below the target particles settling velocity so that the particle drops out within the confines of the chamber. Because the particle settles at a given rate (i.e., distance per unit time) as predicted by Stokes Law, the chamber must be sufficiently long to allow this settling to be completed before the gas reaches the devices gas outlet. Settling chambers are therefore large in cross-sectional area (to slow the gas stream down), and long, to allow sufficient time for settling. The primary mechanism used is the drag force applied on the particle by the viscosity of the carrier gas. As the gas stream slows down, the influence of the viscous force of the gas on the particle is reduced and the particle begins to settle by primarily gravitational forces.

5.5.3. Advantages

Low capital cost. Very low energy cost. No moving parts therefore low maintenance requirements and low operating cost. Excellent reliability. Low pressure drop through device. Device not subjected to abrasion due to low gas velocity. Provide incidental cooling of gas stream. Temperature and pressure limitations only dependant on the material of construction.

5.5.4. Disadvantages
Relatively low PM collection efficiencies, particularly for PM less than 50m in size. Unable to handle sticky materials. Large physical size. Trays may warp during high temperature operations.28