SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 1) Acids

An acid is a chemical substance which ionises in water to produce hydrogen ions, H+ /hydroxonium ions, H3O+. H+(aq) + H2O(l) > H3O+(aq) Example: HCl(g) + H2O(l) > H3O+(aq) + Cl -(aq) Acid name Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Sulphuric acid Ethanoic acid Ions H+, Cl H+, NO3H+, SO42H+, CH3COO -

Acid HCl HNO3 H2SO4 CH3COOH

Monoprotic acid = acid can produce only one hydrogen ion per molecule in water. (Example: HCl) Diprotic acid = acid can produce two hydrogen ions per molecule in water. (Example: H2SO4) Triprotic acid = acid can produce three hydrogen ions per molecule in water. (Example: H3PO4)

Bases / Alkalis

A base is a chemical substance which reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only. Base(s) + acid(aq) > salt + water (l). Example: NaOH(s) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) Formula Solubility in water Ions in the aqueous solution Na+, O2Ca2+, O2Na+, OHK+, OHBa2+, OH-

Base

Copper(II) oxide Lead(II) oxide Magnesium oxide Zinc hydroxide Aluminium hydroxide Sodium oxide Calcium oxide Sodium hydroxide Potassium hydroxide Barium hydroxide

CuO PbO MgO Zn(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Na2O CaO NaOH KOH Ba(OH)2

Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base Insoluble base Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali) Soluble base (alkali)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 2) Acids and bases are very useful in our daily lives. Lets start with acids. Without acids, we wont have Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), your car wont start (sulphuric acid in car batteries) or even accelerated rotting of your food (food preservative in the form of citric acid). Similarly, imagine a world without bases. Without bases, stubborn stains on your clothing wont come off (sodium hypochlorite in bleach), youll have dirty mirrors (ammonium hydroxide used in glass cleaners) and even having bowel problems as laxatives can be made from magnesium hydroxide. [Tips: For applications of acids and bases, try to memorise the trio combo of application-chemical namechemical formula. It is good to learn all three to score absolute full marks when you try to desribe the usage of acids and bases. Of course, you must also desribe how they function and where can they be naturally found (if relevant).]

The Uses of Acids in Our Daily Life Benzoic acid Carbonic acid Ethanoic acid Hydrochloric acid Its salt are used to preserve food To make carbonated drinks A main compound of vinegar To clean metals before electroplating / household cleaning / leather processing / swimming pool maintenance

Nitric acid

Production of fertilisers, explosives, etching and dissolution of metals (purification and extraction of gold)

Sulphuric acid Tartaric acid

To make detergent, polymer and fertilisers. Manufacturing of soft drinks, provide tartness to food, as an emetic (a substance to induce vomiting)

The Uses of Bases in Our Daily Life Ammonia Production of fertilisers (ammonium and nitrate salts), used in the manufacture of nitric acid, neutralise the acid (in the petroleum industry) and prevent premature coagulation in natural / synthetic latex. Manufacture other aluminium compound and to make gastric medicine (antacid) To make cement, limewater, neutralise the acidity of soil and application of sewage treatment. Used in the manufacturing of soaps, detergents, and cleaners. Suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water are used as an antacid, used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant and as a non-hazardous alkali to neutralise acidic wastewater.

Aluminium hydroxide

Calcium hydroxide

Sodium hydroxide Magnesium hydroxide

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 3) If we are talking about opposites in chemistry, there can not be any more opposites than acid and alkali. Acids are the chemical opposites of bases. This is (partly) due to their where acids donates a hydrogen ion to another compound called base, hence they are chemically opposite. Of course there are other differences between the chemical properties of acids and bases. [Tips: Often, students try to memorise both sets of properties for acid and alkali. While this is the correct thing to do, but more often than not, certain properties are direct opposites that you only need to remember one half to recall the other. So do use this trick to memorise the differences.] Chemical Properties Acid In the presence of water, an acid will ionise to form hydrogen ion, H+. Sour in taste pH values less than 7 Indicator: Blue litmus paper (Red) Indicator: Universal indicator (Orange and red) Alkali In the presence of water, an alkali will ionise to form hydroxide ion, OH -. Bitter in taste pH values more than 7 Indicator: Red litmus paper (Blue) Indicator: Universal indicator (Blue and purple)

Indicator: Methyl orange (Red) React with bases to produce saltsand water. 2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) > CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) React with metals (reactive metal, higher position than H+ in the electrochemical series) to producesalts and hydrogen gas. 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) > ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) React with carbonates to producesalts, carbon dioxide gas andwater. H2SO4(aq) + ZnCO3(s) > ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Indicator: Methyl orange (Yellow) React with acids to produce salts and water. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) React with an ammonium salt (alkali is heated) to produce ammonia gas. Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(s) > BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g) React with aqueous salt solutions to produce metal hydroxides (as precipitate). 2NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) > Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 4) Acids in simple terms can be thought to be compounds which donates hydrogen when dissolved in water. So, what do we make of monoprotic acid and polyprotic acid? The difference is in the ability to donate hydrogens. Monoprotic acids have only a single hydrogen to donate, while polyprotic acids have multiple hydrogens ions to be donated. [Tips: Rather than remembering monoprotic and polyprotic by heart, maybe it is better to understand the name behind it. Mono means single while poly means multiple. So anything with a mono in front of it means single, while anything with a poly as prefix means the multiple of mono.] Important Definition for Acids Monoprotic acid (monobasic acid) is an acid which produce one mole of H+ ion when one mole of the acid ionise in water. Monoprotic acid HCl HNO3 CH3COOH Monoprotic acid name Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Ethanoic acid

Polyprotic acids Diprotic acid (dibasic acid) is an acid which produce two moles of H+ ios from one mole of the acid in water. Diprotic acid H2SO4 H2CO3 H2CrO4 H2C2O4 Diprotic acid name Sulphuric acid Carbonic acid Chromic acid Ethanedioic acid / Oxalate acid

Triprotic acid (tribasic acid) is an acid which produce three moles of H+ ions from one mole of the acid in water. Triprotic acid H3PO4 C6H8O7 Triprotic acid name Phosphoric acid Citric acid

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 5) The pH scale is just a scale using colours to represent the concentration of hydrogen ions. In SPM Chemistry (and real-life applications), it has more far reaching consequences as it is a measure of acidity and basicity of an aqueous solution. It is typically used as a quick indicator to see if an aqueous solution is acidic or basic by judging the value from the pH scale. A pH above 7 is said to be basic while below 7 is touted to be acidic. Then obviously, 7 is taken to be neutral. [Tips: Most students think of the pH scale as being linear. While the values are linear, the value it measures, the Hydrogen ion concentrations are measured in logarithmic scale. So if the value of an aqueous solution is 1 higher than that of another, it has not 1 time more hydrogen ion concentration but 10 times more. So take note of that. Also, the hydrogen concentration measured here is relative to water rather than any absolute figures, in case you are asking how do you have 1/10,000,000 Hydrogen ions.]

The pH scale and the Measurement of pH Value of a Solution

pH scale is a set of numbers used to represent the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. pH is a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the solution. pH value greater than 7: alkaline solution pH value of exactly 7: neutral solution pH value less than 7: acidic solution In an acidic solution = higher in the concentration of the H+ ions, the lower the pH value. In an alkaline solution = lower in the concentration of the H+ ions, the higher the pH value. pH solution can be measured by using universal indicator, pH paper and pH meter. Colour of Universal Indicator

pH value

0, 1, 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12, 13, 14

Red Orange red Orange Orange yellow Yellow Green Greenish-blue Blue Blue Bluish-purple Purple

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 6) Strength of acids and bases. Most of the cartoons that we watched when we were young depict acids as very very corrosive. It will probably seemed to the young viewers that all acids are very very corrosive. However, this is not the case for both acids and bases. This is due to the different levels of ionisation and dissociation of acids and bases in producing H+ and OH - ions in solutions. So why does it matter if the acids and bases are strong or weak? Of course it matters as their strengths will lead to a myriad of different usage in practical life. An indication of strength of acids is seen through the conductivity of electricity. An acid which conducts electricity well represents a strong acid. Same goes for bases. On the other hand, an acid which conducts electricity weakly is a weak acid, with once again the same being for bases. [Tips: Students who can understand why a strong acid/base is a good electricity conductor has already understand the underlying concept of acids and bases. For those who don't, you have not yet understand the concept of ions in acids (which is linked to how ions can be charge carriers). In simple terms, when acids are strong, they will ionise or dissociate more completely, leading to more ions in solution, which allows ions which work as charge carrier to conduct more electricity.] Strong Acids

Strength of an acid the degree of ionisation or dissociation of the acid in water. Strong acid an acid which ionises / dissociates completely in water to form high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+). Example of strong acid: Mineral acid hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Example of the strong acid reaction in water: HCl(aq) > H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) (The concentration of hydrogen ions is equal to the concentration of hydrochloric acid)

Weak Acids

Weak acid an acid which ionises / dissociates partially in water to form low concentrationof hydrogen ions (H+). Example of weak acid: ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) and methanoic acid (HCOOH) Example of the weak acid reaction in water: CH3COOH <-> CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) {The concentration of hydrogen ions is low and the ions (CH3COO- and H+) reacts to reform the ethanoic acid molecule = reversible reaction}

Strong Alkalis

Strength of an alkali the degree of ionisation or dissociation of the alkali in water. Strong alkali an alkali which ionises / dissociates completely in water to form high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH ). Example of strong alkali: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution and barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2) solution. Example of the strong alkali reaction in water: NaOH(aq) > Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Weak Alkalis

Weak alkali an alkali which ionises / dissociates partially in water to form low concentration of hydroxide ions (OH ). Example of weak alkali: ammonia (NH3) solution. Example of the weak alkali reaction in water: NH3(g) + H2O(l) <-> NH4+(aq) + OH- (aq)

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 7) One of the most common misconception for SPM Form 4 Chemistry students is theperception that strength of acids/bases is actually the same as concentration of acids/bases. This cannot be more wrong a perception. The strength of acids and bases is linked to the ionisation and dissociation in solutions. While concentration is defined by parameters such as molarity or amount present. Although this subtopic do not appear per se in examination as frequently as it should but it is important to understand later concepts especially for experiments. So try your best to understand this post. [Tips: The easiest way to distinguish between the strength and concentration of acid/base is to use a set of strong and weak acids examples, then imagine both of them in diluted and concentrated form, allowing 4 different samples. Some Berry Readers also asked what defines a concentrated acid/base? By concensus, usually concentrated acids/bases have high molarities exceeding 6 mol/L. Likewise, a diluted acid/base has molarities below 6 mol/L.]

Concentration of Acids and Alkalis

Quantity of solute can be measured in grams or moles: g dm-3 or mol dm-3. Concentration (g dm-3) = mass of solute (g) / volume of solution (dm3) Concentration (mol dm-3) = number of moles of solute (mol) / volume of solution (dm3)

Relationship between Number of Moles with Molarity and Volume of a Solution

Molarity (mol dm-3) = number of moles of solution (mol) / volume of solution (dm3) M = molarity of solution (mol dm-3), V = Volume of solution (dm3), n = Number of moles of solute (mol) M = n/V

Preparation of Standard Solutions

Standard solution = a solution in which its concentration is accurately known. Standard solution is prepared by using volumetric flask with a fixed volume (100 cm3, 200 cm3, 250 cm3, 500 cm3 and 1000 cm3)

Preparation of a Solution by Dilution Method

Dilution = a process of diluting a concentrated solution by adding a solvent (water) to obtain a more diluted solution. The concentration of the solution decreases after dilution. The number of moles of solute in the solution remains unchanged after dilution. (MaVa) / 1000 = (MbVb) / 1000 Ma = Initial molarity of solution, Mb = Final molarity of solution, Va = Initial volume of solution and Vb = Final volume of solution

Relationship between pH Values and Molarities of Acids or Alkalis

pH values depends on degree of dissociation and molarity / concentration of hydrogen ions, H+/ hydroxide ions, OH- in the solution. The higher the molarity of a strong acid, the lower is its pH value. The higher the molarity of a strong alkali, the higher is its pH value. The molarity of an acid can be changed when (i) water is added, (ii) an acid of different concentration is added and (iii) an alkali is added.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 8 ) Neutralisation is the name given for a chemical reaction involving an acid and base where they interact and ends with the formation of salt. In it, the base cancels out the acid in the reaction. Understanding the definition of this is important to identify the neutralisation process which occurs regularly but goes unnoticed by most Berry Readers. So the basic premise is Acid + Alkali > Salt + Water. It is that simple. [Tips: The basic understanding of the neutralisation chemical reaction would involve H+ + OH- in its net ionic equation. So while the "word" formula for neutralisation is Acid + Alkali --> Salt + Water, it is also useful to understand the generic chemical term of YOH + HX XY + H2O, where X is a monovalent anion and Y is a monovalent cation. The resulting salt is represented by XY and H2O is obviously water.] Neutralisation

Neutralisation = a reaction between an acid and a base/alkali to produce salt and water only. Acid + alkali > salt + water Ionic equation of neutralisation: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) > H2O(l)

Application of Neutralisation Reactions in Daily Life Digestive juices in stomach Break up food (only in acidic condition) and maintained at pH of between 1 and 2, Bees and ants inject an acidic liquid into the skin but wasps inject an alkaline liquid. An alkaline compound (magnesium hydroxide) in toothpastes neutralises the organic acids produced by the food. Calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)2 is added to the water. Ammonia is used to neutralise the organic acidproduces by bacteria to prevent coagulation. Manufacture fertilisers, soaps and detergents It can be treated with lime. Manufacture of dyes, explosives, steel, fertilisers, paints and plastics. Plants grow best when the pH of the soil is about 7. The soil is too acidic, quick lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is added to the soil to neutralise the excess acid.

Insect stings

Toothpaste

pH of the swimming pool Latex industries

Neutralisation Effluent from factories Sulphuric acid Soil treatment

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 9 Final) Acid-base titration is a method used to determine the concentration (quantitative analysis) of an acid or base. Despite the complicated sounding name (at least for most Form 4 students in Malaysia), it is just a simple neutralisation process based on the principle where the moles of acids will eventually be equal with the moles of bases at equivalence point. It can also be used to figure out the purity level of chemicals. It is near certain to appear in exams from SPM all the way up to university level. So you might want to take note and be fully serious about this topic. [Tips: Some Berry Readers are content to just learn it theoretically from books. Although you won't fully understand the importance of this experiment which is the precursors for all future quantitative analysis experiments you'll do in the future, you'll appreciate having done it properly in the lab during school days. So do not play around in the lab when your teacher conducts this lab. You'll learn more through the experiment and keep it in your head than any book could help you.] Acid-base Titration

Titration a quantitative analysis method to determine the volume of an acid that is required to neutralise a fixed volume of an alkali / a quantitative analysis method to determine the volume of an alkali that is required to neutralise a fixed volume of an acid. End point of a titration a point which neutralisation occurs when the acid has completely neutralised the alkali / the alkali has completely neutralised the acid. Reactants: Acid and alkali Products: Salt and water End point can be determined by (i) the use of acid-base indicators during titration, (ii) measuring the pH values of the solution during titration and (iii) measuring the electrical conductivity of solution during titration. Alkali Neutral Acid

Indicator

Litmus

Blue

Orange

Red

Methyl orange

Yellow

Orange

Red

Phenolphthalein

Pink

Colourless

Colourless