Blood Cells

Back to Top Three types of cells are found suspended in the plasma of blood. They are: erythrocytes (RBC), leukocytes (WBC) and thrombocytes (Platelets). Erythrocytes (red blood corpuscles) are spherical or oval cells that are responsible for the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. The RBC are characterized by the presence of a pigment called haemoglobin. It is a conjugated protein having hemo as the prosthetic group. Haemoglobin has a very high affinity for oxygen. It readily combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin is also responsible for imparting a red colour to the blood. RBC represent the most common type of cells in the plasma. In the human males the number of RBC is about 50-55 3 3 lakhs/mm of blood. In females it is about 45-50 lakhs/mm . In the case of all mammals, RBC appears in form of biconcave discs. Except in the camel, the RBC of mammals are enucleate.

fig. 5.71

Note:
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Erythrocytes make up about 45% of the total blood volume. This volume percentage is known as hematocrit. RBC take their origin in the bone marrow. The liver also produces RBC, but only during infancy. The average life span of RBC is about 100-120 days. The old, worn out and dead RBC are destroyed mainly in an organ called spleen. Hence, bone marrow is commonly called the cradle of RBC' and spleen is commonly called the 'graveyard of RBC'. Leukocytes (white blood cells) are amoeboid cells, which play an important role in the defence mechanism of the body by ingesting bacteria and other disease causing germs. WBC represent the least numerous cells in the plasma. The number of WBC in the human blood is about 7000/mm3. The WBC have a very short life span ranging between 1 and 4 days. New WBC are produced in the bone marrow as well as in the lymph glands. The old and dead WBC are destroyed in the spleen.

Based on structural differences, leukocytes are differentiated into 1. Granulocytes 2. Agranulocytes Granulocytes are WBC, in which the cytoplasm is granular and the nucleus is always lobed. The granulocytes, take their origin in the marrow. Based on their staining ability, granulocytes are distinguished into the following three types.

a) Eosinophils are granulocytes, which take up only acidic stains. The nucleus is bilobed. They represent about 1.5% of the total WBC. b) Basophills are granulocytes, which take up only basic stains. The nucleus is many lobed and usually S shaped. They represent about 0.5% of the total WBC. c) Neutrophils are granulocytes, which are neutral to stains. The nucleus has three to five lobes. Hence, they are also described as polymorphonuclear leukocytes. They represent about 70% of the total WBC. Agranulocytes are WBC in which cytoplasm is clear and transparent. Nucleus is always unlobed. Agranulocytes take their origin in the lymph glands like thymus. They can be distinguished into the following two types.

a) Lymphocytes are agranulocytes characterized by the presence of a large usually round nucleus. They represent about 24% of the total WBC. b) Monocytes are agranulocytes characterized by the presence of a large kidney shaped nucleus. They represent about 4% of the total WBC. c) Thrombocytes (blood platelets) are tiny irregular cell fragments, which arise from the breakdown of larger cells in the bone marrow called megakaryocytes. The average life span of platelets is about 7 3 to 10 days. The number of platelets is about 2,50,000/mm of blood. The thrombocytes play both mechanical and chemical roles in the clotting mechanism of blood. At the site of the injury, the platelets rupture and release a substance called thromboplastin. It converts the inactive protein, prothrombin into an active form called thrombin. The activated thrombin brings about a conversion of the soluble protein fibrinogen into an insoluble form called fibrin. The fibrin threads entangle the blood cells and result in the formation of a clot.

RBC

WBC fig. 5.72 Blood Cells It is also called unstriped or nonstriated or involuntary or visceral muscle. The smooth muscle always occurs in the form of thin sheets. Each sheet has a large number of muscle fibres that are held together by a transparent connective tissue covering. The individual muscle fibres in the sheet are elongated and spindle shaped. They are broader in the middle and tapering at the ends. Each muscle fibre has a limiting membrane represented by the cell membrane. A sarcolemma is absent. The cell membrane encloses a small amount of specialised cytoplasm called sarcoplasm. The muscle fibres are uninucleate and the nucleus is situated in the broadest region of the fibre. The sarcoplasm contains thin myofibrils. However, the myofibrils do not form cross bands or striations.

fig 5.57 Smooth Muscle The smooth muscle fibres have a poor blood supply. They are supplied with sensory or afferent nerves from the brain and spinal chord. The contractions are slow, rhythmic and sustained. The smooth muscle does not easily experience fatigue. It is described as involuntary, since its functioning is not under the control of the our will. The smooth muscle occurs in almost all visceral organs in the body except the heart. It is particularly abundant in the blood vessels, alimentary canal and glands and their ducts. It is also known as striped or voluntary or skeletal muscle. The striated muscle occurs in bundles called fascicles. Each fascicle has a large number of muscle fibres that are held together by connective tissue. The individual muscle fibre is elongated, cylindrical and unbranched. Each fibre is bound by a thick and distinct limiting membrane called sarcolemma in addition to the cell membrane. The sarcolemma encloses a large amount of specialised cytoplasm

called sarcoplasm. The muscle fibres are multinucleated and the nuclei are found situated towards the sarcolemma. The myofibrils present in the sarcoplasm exhibit a characteristic arrangement, resulting in the formation of striations. The striations are formed by the alternating dark bands and light bands. Each dark band or A-band represents the region of the myofibril in which both thick and thin filaments are present. Each light band or I band represents the region of the myofibril in which only thin filaments are present. The striated muscle has a rich supply of blood. It receives motor or afferent nerves from the brain and spinal cord. The contractions may be slow or rapid but always arrhythmic and not sustained. The muscle easily experiences fatigue since the energy expenditure is very high. It is described as voluntary since its functioning is under the control of our will.

fig 5.58 Striated Muscle The striated muscle is usually found associated and attached to bones and represents what is commonly known as flesh. E.g. Muscles of limbs. It is also found in the diaphragm, eyelids and tongue.

Cartilage
Back to Top It is a type of supporting tissue in which the matrix is characterized by more of organic substances (nearly 85%). The rigid, homogenous matrix is known as chondrin. It lies enclosed in a fibrous connective tissue covering called perichondrium. Chondrin encloses numerous spherical or oval spaces called lacunae. Each lacuna contains either 1 or 2 or 4 cartilage cells or chondriocytes. These cells are capable of limited mitotic divisions. Fibres may be present or absent.

fig. 5.65 White Fibrous Cartilage Based on the composition of matrix, cartilage can be distinguished into the following types:

Hyaline cartilage: is the simplest and the most common type of cartilage. It has a rigid, homogenous matrix called chondrin enclosed in a fibrous membrane called perichondrium. Fibres are absent. The matrix contains numerous spherical or oval spaces called lacunae, which encloses either 1 or 2 or 4 chondriocytes.

Hyaline cartilage is found forming the entire endoskeleton in the embryonic stage. In adults, it occurs in the wall of the larynx and trachea.

fig. 5.66 Hyaline Cartilage Fibrous cartilage is a modification of hyaline cartilage in which the matrix contains white fibers. Hence, the cartilage attains more of rigidity.

It is found forming intervertebral discs between the vertebrae. It also occurs at the joints between bones. Elastic cartilage is a modification of hyaline cartilage in which the matrix has yellow fibres. Hence, the cartilage attains elasticity.

fig. 5.67 Elastic Cartilage Elastic cartilage forms a flap called epiglottis in the throat. It is also present in the pinna or external ear. Ossified or calcified cartilage is a modification of hyaline cartilage in which the matrix is deposited with calcium salts particularly, calcium phosphate. Hence, the cartilage attains hardness almost equivalent to that of a bone. Ossified cartilage occurs in the nose tip and at some bone joints like pubic symphysis.

Bone
Back to Top It is a type of supporting tissue in which matrix is hard and solidified due to the presence of more of inorganic substances. The inorganic salts in the matrix account for nearly 60% of the total chemical composition. Among the inorganic salts, calcium phosphate accounts for about 80% calcium carbonate for about 15% and the remaining 5% is represented by magnesium salts. The hard, solid matrix of bone is called ossein. It is normally found occurring in the form of concentric rings called lamellae. The lamellae enclose spaces called lacunae in which one or tiny osteocytes are present. Bones form the adult endoskeleton in the case of all vertebrates except the cartilaginous fishes. In the endoskeleton of a vertebrate, normally four types of bones can be recognized long bones, short bones, flat bones and irregular bones. The long bones and short bones are hollow and contain a space called marrow cavity filled with a fluid called bone marrow. It is a haemopoetic fluid in which blood cells take their origin. The flat bones and irregular bones do not contain a cavity. A typical long bone such as femur (bone of the thigh) in a cross section shows two fibrous membranes - an inner endosteum and an outer periosteum. The endosteum surrounds the marrow cavity. The bone matrix is found deposited between the endosteum and periosteum. In case of mammals, the bone is composed of tiny structural and functional units called Haversian systems. A Haversian system has a central canal called Haversian canal, which encloses an artery, a vein and nerve.

Summary All higher multicellular animals, called eumetazoans, exhibit a tissue and higher levels of organization There are four primary tissues in animals epithelial, muscular, connective and nervous Epithelial tissue (epithelium) is the simplest. It is avascular and develops from all the three primary germ layers. Epithelial cells are almost always compactly arranged and have abundant cytoplasm with prominent nucleus. Epithelium can be distinguished into simple, stratified and pseudostratified Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells on a basement membrane. It is further distinguished into squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and glandular Stratified epithelium has more than one layer of cells on a basement membrane. It can be further differentiated into stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar and transitional epithelium In the skin of vertebrates stratified squamous epithelium undergoes a process called keratinization. Pseudostratified epithelium has a single layer of cells on a basement membrane giving a false appearance of many layers Muscular tissue (muscle) is responsible for movements in the body Muscular tissue is formed by muscle fibres in which the cytoplasm is specialized (sarcoplasm) by enclosing contractile units called myofibrils Muscular tissue is distinguished into smooth muscle, striated muscle and cardiac muscle Smooth muscle has spindle shaped uninucleate muscle fibres without a sarcolemma

Smooth muscle is involuntary in nature. It does not easily experience fatigue Smooth muscle occurs in almost all the hollow visceral organs of the body Striated muscle is characterised by elongated cylindrical, multinucleate muscle fibres with a distinct sarcolemma Striated muscle is voluntary in nature. It experiences fatigue very easily Striated muscle is usually formed attached to bores Cardiac muscle is characterised by long, cylindrical, branched multinucleate muscle fibres with an indistinct sarcolemma Cardiac muscle is involuntary in nature. It never experiences fatigue Cardiac muscle occurs exclusively in the heart Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue in the animals body. It is characterised by the presence of a large amount of matrix, few cells and supporting fibres Connective tissue can be distinguished into three types connective tissue proper, supporting tissue and fluid connective tissue Connective tissue proper is typical. It includes Areolar tissue, fibrous tissue, elastic tissue and adipose tissue Areolar tissue is most abundant. It has a matrix containing white fibres, yellow fibres and different types of cells Supporting tissue includes cartilage and bone Cartilage has a matrix (chondrin) rich in organic substances. It encloses chondriocytes inside spaces called lacunae Cartilage forms the embryonic endoskeleton in most vertebrates. In sharks and rays it forms the adult endoskeleton Bone has a matrix (ossein) rich in calcium phosphate. In mammals it is deposited in the form of concentric rings called lamellae, together forming a Haversian system Fluid connective tissue includes blood and lymph Blood is the chief circulating fluid in the body. It consists of a plasma enclosing three types of cells RBC (erythrocytes) WBC (leukocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes) Lymph differs from blood in the absence of RBC Nervous tissue is the most highly specialized animal tissue The functional units of nervous tissue are called neurons

A typical neuron is multipolar. It has a cell body (cyton) and a long fibre (axon) The axon has a noncellular covering of myelin sheath and a cellular covering called neurilemma The axon ends in branched projections called telodendrons.