Commentaries

Biogas

Commentaries Biogas: Can It Be an Important Source of Energy?

Ebenezer Rajkumar Abraham1*, Sethumadhavan Ramachandran2 and Velraj Ramalingam3
ITCOT Consultancy & Services Ltd, Greams Road 50-A, 600 006 Chennai, India (ebe_20@yahoo.co.in) Institute for Energy Studies, Anna University, Sardar Patel Road, 600 025 Chennai, India (madhavan@annauniv.edu) 3 Institute for Energy Studies, Anna University, Sardar Patel Road, 600 025 Chennai, India (velrajr@annauniv.edu)
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* Corresponding author
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/espr2006.12.370 Editor's Note: This Commentary is a continuation of ESPR's efforts to explore new sources of energy. The first Commentary of this series was published in the November 2005 issue of ESPR, and dealt with 'Coalbed Methane: A New Source of Energy and Environmental Challenges.' We invite our journal readers to submit Commentaries on new sources of energy.

Introduction

It is appropriate that nations invest in new technologies and new sources of energy that will leave less of an environmental 'footprint' than coal or oil, and that will be more sustainable [1]. Anaerobic digestion (AD) has successfully been used for many applications that have conclusively demonstrated its ability to recycle biological wastes. Six to eight million family-sized, low-technology digesters are used in the Far East (Peoples Republic of China and India) to provide biogas for cooking and lighting. There are now over 800 farm-based digesters operating in Europe and North America. Thousands of digesters help to anaerobically stabilise and thicken sewage sludge before it is either used on agricultural land, dried and incinerated or landfilled. More than 1,000 high-rate anaerobic digesters are operated worldwide to treat organic, polluted industrial waste water including processors of beverages, food, meat, pulp and paper, milk and other things. There are more than 120 AD plants operating or under construction using the organic fraction of source separated municipal solid waste to produce high quality compost or mechanically separated MSW to stabilise the organic fraction before land filling. The total installed capacity is close to five million tonnes [2]. Biogas utilization. The product of anaerobic digestion is a mixed gas primarily composed of methane CH4 and carbon dioxide, which is commonly called biogas. In small-scale installations, the gas is primarily utilised for heating and cooking. In larger units, Combined Heat and Power systems (CHPs) are fueled with biogas. In any case, the driving force for the gas utilisation is to economise fossil fuels or wood as in developing countries. More recently, as discussed at the conferences of Rio and Kyoto, various airborne emissions have caused serious concern about climatic, environmental and health impacts. Discharges of acid and green house gases are actually at levels that require immediate actions to counter severe future problems. This has been recognized by a number of governments, which brought forward programmes (such as the EU ZEUS project, i.e., Zero Emission vehicles in Urban Society) and legislation (e.g. the Californian Clean Fuel Act). In particular, biogas as a fuel

could bring substantial reductions in green house gases, particles and dust, and nitrogen oxide emissions. The emission tests conducted on the biogas buses in Sweden showed that the annual emission of oxides of nitrogen was reduced by 1.2 tonnes and carbon dioxide by 30 tonnes [3].
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1.1

The Current State of the Anaerobic Digestion Industry Worldwide

United States

The advantages of biogas recovery and increased financial support from state and federal programmes have led to a substantial increase in the number of systems in the United States. In the last two years, the number of operational systems has increased by 30 percent. The majority of this growth has focused on farm-scale systems with a small number of centralised applications for dairy operations. At Royal Farms No. 1 in Tulare, California, hog manure was slurried and sent to a Hypalon-covered lagoon for biogas generation. The collected biogas fuels a 70 kilowatt (kW) engine-generator and a 100 kW engine-generator. The electricity generated on the farm was able to meet monthly electric and heat energy demands. Given the success of this project, three other swine farms (Sharp Ranch, Fresno, and Prison Farm) have also installed floating covers on lagoons [4]. The Knudsen and Sons project in Chico, California, treated wastewater which contained organic matter from fruit crushing and wash down in a covered and lined lagoon. The biogas produce was burned in a boiler and at Langerwerf Dairy in Durham, California, while cow manure was scraped and fed into a plug flow digester. The biogas produced was used to fire an 85 kW gas engine. The engine operated at a 35 kW capacity level and drove a generator to produce electricity. Electricity and heat generated was able to offset all dairy energy demands. The system has been in operation since 1982 [4].
1.2 European Union

Exploiting biogas for energy purposes has taken on considerable importance in the countries of the European Union over the past twelve years. The sector's relevance in eco-

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Table 1: Estimated potential of energy production from biogas in the year 2020 a
EU States Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Luxemburg Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden United Kingdom Total EU:
a

Total biomass mill. Tonnes 36.1 52.0 52.5 18.5 251.9 234.6 11.4 70.5 112.0 2.08 80.8 22.0 108.2 26.3 155.4 1,234.3

Total energy from biogas TWh/year 6.1 8.8 8.9 3.1 42.7 39.8 1.9 11.9 19.0 0.4 13.7 3.7 18.3 4.4 26.3 209

Total energy biogas PJ 22.0 31.7 32.0 11.3 153.7 143.2 7.0 43.0 68.3 1.3 49.3 13.4 66.0 16.0 94.8 753.0

The figures in Table 1 originate in AD-(Advances in Agriculture)-Nett database (http://www.ad-nett.org web site)

nomic, energetic, and financial terms has now been realized in 20 European countries representing a total production (of the 25 EU member states) in a region of 4, 265 million tonnes (ton oil equivalent) in 2004. It should be underlined that agricultural biogas installations (which exploit animal farming and breeding waste) represent a type of application that is growing greatly and whose number has gone from 1,500 in 2001 to more than 2000 in 2004. With all deposits taken together, there are more than 4,000 biogas production sites. It is currently estimated that more than half of the biogas produced in Europe is valorised, with the remainder being burned off in flare stacks. Multiple types of valorisations make it possible to transform crude biogas into useful energy. More marginally, biogas can be valorised in the form of biofuels, essentially in the scope of fleets of vehicles as confirmed by experience in France (Lille) and Sweden. Finally, biogas can be injected into natural gas distribution networks, with the Netherlands being the most advanced country in this field. The increase in figures between 2003 and 2004 presents a growth rate of 9%. In the EU, where only about 5% of the gross consumption is made up of renewables, which is lower than that observed in many parts of the world, the share of renewables is expected to double by 2010 (Table 1), and the share of biogas, as a part of it, is expected to rise to 12%, according to the white book of the EU-Commission from 1997 [5].
1.3 The United Kingdom

grants for the construction of manure storage capacities are available. Considering the implemented technologies, the current Non Fossil Fuels Obligation (NFFO) [6] round (IV) allows up to 20% (dry weight) food processing waste to supplement agricultural waste. Co-digestion of municipal sewage waste and agricultural waste is not taking place, due to waste license complications and to implications for marketing the fibre and the digested material. The stimulation of AD has been initiated principally through three mechanisms, such as the extensive support of biogas projects for research, development, and demonstrations, while the NFFO has provided premium electricity prices to biogas schemes, and increased the costs of management disposal through the increased licensing requirements on waste producers, landfill tax, and increased standards of landfill. The value of energy from AD is low in comparison to the value of environmental benefits. However, the energy contribution to the economic performance of the biogas plant is necessary for the system to be viable. Both of the aspects of environmental benefits and energy sales must be considered [6].
1.4 Germany, the other European biogas leader

The United Kingdom is the leading European country in terms of crude biogas production. Its production is estimated at 1,473 tonnes for 2004. Forty farm scale plants have been built, but only 20 are currently operational. Government

Germany is another leader in the utilization of biogas. Its overall production amounted to 1,291 tonnes in 2004, with valorisation chiefly turned towards the production of electricity. The number of sites significantly increased due to the rise in the final energy valorisation conditions contained in the EEG (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz) Law. The German Bio-Energies Association estimated that their number, in the neighbourhood of 2,000 in 2004 (430 MW of electrical power), should rise to 4,000 (600800 MWe) at the end of the year 2006.

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Biogas
were given ten years ago for constructing anaerobic digestion plants. There is also very little public awareness about biogas from anaerobic digestion. The efforts in information dissemination will increase, as more environmental measures will be implemented [5].
3.2 Sweden

1.5

Denmark

Denmark has 19 centralised and 20 on-farm plants. Considerable efforts in developing the biogas technology have been made in Denmark since 1988, with successive biogas development programmes accomplished, financed and supported by the Government. The first biogas plants were only designed for generating energy. Later it was documented that the plants made a significant contribution to solve a range of problems in the fields of agriculture, energy and environment. Consequently, increased attention has been paid to these issues, and centralised biogas plants are now considered as integrated energy production, manure and organic waste treatment, and as nutrient redistribution facilities. The success in the centralised biogas plants has led to Denmark having a unique level of know-how in the fields of construction and operation of such plants. In addition to this, the Government supported follow up programmes that have resulted in a comprehensive documentation of production results [6,9].
2 The Use of Organic Domestic Waste

Organic waste counts in general for 4045% of total domestic waste. It is composed of vegetables and animal food waste [7]. Organic domestic waste is a resource, which is not utilised sufficiently today by composting or biogasification. Generally, biogasification is the highest priority treatment form for organic domestic waste, although composting, including home composting, is a suitable form of treatment as the fertiliser contents of the waste can be utilised. The cost of collection and biogasification depends on types of housing [7]. In the new waste management plan 20052008, no specific target for treating organic domestic waste was set. Organic domestic waste is treated locally, based on an evaluation of what is most optimal, both economically and environmentally [7]. In Waste 21, it is stated that "positive experience has been gained with treatment of organic domestic waste at biogas plants based on manure, and at a plant for the codigestion of sludge and organic domestic waste" [7].
3 Organic Waste from Industry and Catering Centres

Sweden has problems with the inefficient utilisation of manure nutrients, resulting in leaching to the lakes and sea along the western coast. Part of this nutrient originates from pig manure. The potential energy production is estimated to be 3 TWh/year for the year 2005 and 56 TWh/year for the year 2020. The agricultural sector has an interest of using the residues from anaerobic digestion of crops and clean organic waste, in order to return nutrients to the soil and to decrease the dependence on mineral fertilizer [5]. The main driving force in Sweden has been a combination of several factors such as the restriction on using landfill, the taxes on CO, and additional taxes on other emissions, all of which increased the market value of biogas as a motor fuel. The main barriers for biogas development in Sweden have been the low value of electric power and the abundance of woody fuels at low costs used for district heating. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has developed an Action Plan for Waste (Aug. 1996), where more specific goals for waste management were suggested, such as the ban against the landfill of organic waste by the year 2005. This has most likely increased the interest for anaerobic digestion and composting [5].
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4.1

Challenges Facing the Development of Biogas in Europe

Running late on white paper objectives

Industries generate just below 8.5 million tonnes of organic waste each year. The objective for the year 2008 is to recycle at least 90% [7]. This waste is biologically decomposable waste such as abattoir waste, dairy waste, fishery waste, etc., often with a low content of dry matter [7]. The major part of this type of waste is recycled. It is often used directly as a fertiliser on farmland or it can substitute other raw materials. The rest of the organic waste (around 10%) is subjected to biogasification. Approximately 1% is incinerated or landfilled. The amount of organic waste landfilled decreased due to the implementing of a ban on landfilling of waste suitable for incineration, and still continues to decrease further.
3.1 Spain

If the growth rate observed in 2005 remains the same up until 2010, crude biogas production should be approximately 8.6 million tonnes. This figure is significantly below the ambitions of the European Commission White Paper, which set a 15 million tonne target for 2010. The situation continues to be in flux for biogas development. Reinforcement of European regulations concerning limitation and taxation on the dumping of waste is leading decision-makers to find new solutions to treat organic waste as soon as it is collected. In the face of this need, organic waste methanisation is one of the most relevant answers. Biogas production makes it possible to make waste treatment plants autonomous, and with economically valorised energy surpluses.
4.2 Legislation affecting anaerobic digestion

The importance of waste treatment is increasing. Environmental aims are the main driving force. Currently, there is no activity in this area in Spain. However, sizeable subsidies

A range of new and forthcoming environmental legislation may encourage the technology of AD in the European Union. These include the climate change levy, the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) and the Landfill Directive. Government targets, such as its political commitment to reduce its CO2 emissions to 20% of 1990 levels by 2010, and to increase its proportion of electricity from renewable sources to 10% by the same date, may mean an increased interest in AD as a way of meeting these targets. The forth-

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coming implementation of the EC Directive 96/61 on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) will mean that farmers will have to look more seriously at their waste management practices. A range of BATs (Best available technique) will be recommended, and AD is on this list, although this is unlikely to be the cheapest option for many farmers (Larkmann, pers comm). The Landfill Directive adopted by the EC in April 1999 sets targets for reducing the amount of biodegradable municipal waste that is to be landfilled. Under this directive, the UK must reduce the total weight of biodegradable municipal waste going to landfills to 75% of the 1995 total by 2010. One option to meet this target is the anaerobic digestion. Farms with digesters could be paid a 'gate fee' to accept and treat this waste [6].
4.3 Conclusions considering the present situation of biogas in EU countries

Commentaries
be successful when the direct benefits to the farmers were obvious. No centralised waste management systems are in place to handle agricultural by-products, human wastes, animal manures and food residuals generated by the 840 million Chinese 70 percent of the country's population who live on farms or in villages. Instead, since 1970, The People's Republic of China has been promoting underground, individual, anaerobic digesters to process rural organic materials. This strategy has resulted in approximately five million household anaerobic digesters installed in China today. Households with an anaerobic digestion system mainly utilize human and animal manures, along with agricultural byproducts such as grain stalks (primarily rice), sweet potato vines, and weeds. Grain stalks are either burned directly as fuel during winter, when gas production drops, or are sold as a paper feedstock.
5.2 India

The last years have resulted in a breakthrough for biogas production and technologies in most of the European countries. After a period of stagnation, caused by technical and economical difficulties, today's revenue mainly consists of the sale of energy, while the biogas plant and the organisation behind it can simultaneously contribute to solving a series of environmental problems. An actual shortage of fossil resources and the evolution of energy prices have an important role to play in the future development of biogas production. The realisation is that the use of biogas in Europe is modest in relation to the raw-material potential, and biogas produces only a very small share of the total energy supply. The establishment of all centralised and decentralised biogas plants in the EU countries is directly or indirectly a consequence of a strengthening of the enforcement of environmental policies in those countries. The public perception of biogas is generally positive, especially concerning the decentralised concept and the development of small-scale projects. There is scepticism concerning large-scale projects because of the logistics and fear of odour problems and because of large investment costs of the newly integrated technologies. The best way to overcome public scepticism is to successfully implement a full-scale operation in each country, and attempt to optimise energy production, environmental and agricultural benefits, and pathogen reduction [5].
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5.1

In India, the first biogas plant was commissioned in 1962. This was known as a KVIC Floating Dome Model (Popularly known as an Indian Model). Until 1979, the promotion was not seen to be serious and, in 1979 the First Fixed Dome Model (Janata) was commissioned. In 1982, the Government of India launched a 'National Biogas Programme' countrywide through the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). The potential of domestic Biogas Plants in India has been estimated to be around 12 million, whereas the current implementation at the end of 2005 was only 3.8 million (32%). The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has established the Central Financial Assistance (CFA) Programme with subsidy schemes for promoting biogas projects [8]. The National Programme on Energy Recovery from Urban & Industrial wastes was launched during the years 199596. This program applies to private and public sector entrepreneurs and organisations, as well as to NonGovernmental Organisations (NGOs), for the setting up of waste-to-energy projects on the basis of Build, Own & Operate (BOO), Build, Own, Operate & Transfer (BOOT), Build, Operate & Transfer (BOT), and Build Operate Lease & Transfer (BOLT). It is being implemented through State Nodal Agencies. During 200405, projects based on industrial wastes were entitled to interest subsidy at 6% for the loans availed by promoters through financial institutions [9]. In Indian, it is estimated that 30 million tonnes of solid waste and 4,400 million cubic meters of liquid waste are generated every year in the urban areas of the country. This estimation was based on the structured data base prepared for 299 Class I cities and 36 Class II cities as part of the 'National Master Plan for Development of Waste to Energy in India' supported under a UNDP/GEF-assisted Project on the 'Development of High Rate Biomethanation Processes'. The study concluded that 17 (6%) cities have generation rates in excess of 1,000 TPD, and 80 cities (26%) generate 150 to 1000 TPD. The balance of 202 cities (68%) individually generates less than 150 TPD. The municipal solid waste (MSW) generation ranges from 0.25 to 0.66 kg/person/day, with an average of 0.45 kg/person/day. The Ministry of New

Biogas in Developing Countries

China

After 1975, slogans such as 'biogas for every household' led to the construction of 1.6 million digesters per year in China, mainly by way of concrete fixed-dome digesters. By 1982, more than seven million digesters were installed in China. The rapid development of biogas in China received strong government support and subsidies from local governments. In recent years, the number of plants built each year has fallen dramatically because of the reduction in subsidies with a consequent switching from biogas to coal as a fuel. The biggest constraints in the biogas programmes of China have been the prices of the digesters. It was recognised by local governments that the popularisation of biogas would only

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and Renewable Energy is promoting the setting up of Wasteto-Energy projects in the country through two schemes, namely: (1) National Programme on Energy Recovery from Urban and Industrial Wastes; and, (2) the UNDP/ GEF-assisted Project on the development of High Rate Biomethanation Processes as a means of Reducing Green House Gas Emissions [9]. A 5 MW municipal solid waste generation system has been implemented at Lucknow in the state of Uttar Pradesh on a Build, Own, Operate and Maintenance basis in association with Lucknow Nagar Nigam (LNN), who are responsible for the supply of required quality and quantity of MSW at the plant site. The plant based on biomethanation technology started its commercial operation in August 2003, but only reached a maximum generation capacity of 1.5 MW by March 2004. The plant is presently facing problems in its operation, mainly due to non-availability of the required quality of MSW free from debris, sand and silt. It is expected that the problem of waste supply will be solved and the plant will start operating to its capacity soon.
5.3 Vietnam

Biogas
alized animal production, such as large-scale production, with no or little land area to recycle organic waste through crop production; An overall strategy of mandatory harmony between animal stoking rate and farmland area, or demands for maximum limits of nitrogen and phosphate fertilisation, following EU environmental strategies, exemplified as the nitrate directive; Improvement of the present technologies, specifically: to reduce costs of advanced technologies, to concentrate on developing suitable scale systems, to provide R&D support for small systems, to improved post treatment/separation technologies to overcome transport and processing constraints, to find and implement new post-treatment technologies, to develop solutions to avoid the odour of biogas operations in the vicinity of plants, and to actively promote and disseminate biogas technology transfer; An overall energy policy to stimulate electricity production from renewable sources; and, Stimulation of wider use of district heating networks, or heat recovery to processing industries, converting heat to cooling, especially in the Mediterranean areas.

3.

4.

5. 6.

Biogas production was introduced into Vietnam more than 10 years ago as an alternative source of energy to partially alleviate the problem of acute energy shortage for household uses. Biodigesters of various origins and designs were tested in rural areas under different national and international development programmes, using household or farm wastes as fermentation substrates. Indian-type, Chinese-type and ferro-cement-type digesters were installed and evaluated in many provinces but concentrated in urban areas. However, few farmers used them in practice. The poor acceptability of these concrete digesters was mainly due to: (a) high cost of the digesters; (b) difficulty in installing them; and (c) difficulty in obtaining spare parts for replacement. A digester of a size adequate for the fuel needs of an average family would normally cost VND 1.8 to 3.4 million (US$ 180 to 340). This scale of investment has been considered unaffordable by the average farm family. In addition, it would take about 2.5 to 3.5 years to pay back the initial investment. Besides, the replacement of worn-out parts posed another technical problem, apart from the fact that such spare parts are not always available locally. It is reported that 33% of bio digesters installed in Cantho City had stopped functioning while only 8 out of 17 of those set up in Quangnam -Danang Province were still operable.
6 The Way Forward

Penetration of biogas on energy market is expected to grow rapidly, as soon as problems of economics and market acceptability are overcome. This is expected to happen over a relatively short time as a consequence of the growing share of renewables in the world energy supply.
References [1] Young AL (2005): Coal bed methane: A New Source of Energy and Environmental Challenges. Env Sci Pollut Res 12 (6) 318321 [2] Wellinger AL (accessed 17/8/2006): Biogas upgrading and utilisation Energy from biological conversion of organic waste. IEA, Bioenergy Task 24: <http://www.recyclenow.org/Report_ IEA_Bioenergy_1MB.pdf> [3] Manson T, Eng-Leong J (1998): Swedish efforts in integrating biofuels as alternative fuels for transportation in buses, lorries, cars. Proceedings of the Internet Conference 'Integrated Bio-Systems in Zero Emissions Applications': <http://www.ias.unu.edu/proceedings/icibs> [4] Seale LM (accessed 17/8/2006): Anaerobic Digester: <http:// www.cogeneration.net/anaerobic_digester.htm> [5] Holm-Nielsen JB, Al Seadi T (accessed 17/8/2006): BIOGAS IN EUROPE A general overview: <http://www.ecop.ucl.ac.be/ aebiom/articles/biogas/biogas.htm> [6] Boyd R (2000): Internalizing environmental benefits of anaerobic digestion of pig slurry in Norfolk. PhD Thesis, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom [7] Drapalova L, Fiskar L, Neszi NZ, Vanbrabant W (2004): EXAM project Review of the management of municipal organic waste in Aarhus. Centre for Environmental Studies, University of Aarhus, Denmark: <http://www.environmentalstudies.au.dk/publica/ f2004organicwasteaarhus.pdf> [8] Biogas Promotion India (accessed 15/8/2006): <http://www. hedon.info/docs/20060406_Biogas_promotion_India.pdf> [9] Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources MNES (accessed 17/8/2006): Energy from waste: <http://mnes.nic.in/annualreport/ 2004_2005_English/ch9_pg1.htm> (now: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Government of India, New Dehli)

The main strategies for the promotion of biogas production as a renewable energy sources, as well as strategies for overcoming existing barriers to its adoption would be [5]: 1. Programmes to stimulate recycling of organic waste/organic resources, especially wet organic waste containing less than 35% dry matter; 2. Harmonization of animal manure storage and handling requirements throughout each country. Focus on industri-

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