Modern alchemy Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th century disappearance of remaining

alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations.[9 ! "hose focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science #a$rence M. %rincipe and &illiam '. (e$man, have interpreted the )dec*namen) +or code $ords, of alchemy as physical substances. "hese practitioners have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts.[98! -t the opposite end of the spectrum, esoteric alchemists interpret these same dec*namen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. "oday ne$ interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from (e$ -ge or radical environmentalism movements.[99! .roups li*e the rosicrucians and freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. -lchemy in traditional medicine "raditional medicine sometimes involves the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techni/ues. 0n -yurveda the sams*aras are claimed to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a $ay that removes their toxicity. "hese processes are actively used to the present day.[111! 2pagyrists of the 31th century -lbert 'ichard 'iedel and 4ean Dubuis merged %aracelsian alchemy $ith occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. "he schools they founded, #es %hilosophes de la (ature and "he %aracelsus 'esearch 2ociety, populari5ed modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products.[111! "he courses, boo*s, organi5ations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a ne$ age medicinal practice. %sychology -lchemical symbolism has been used by psychologists such as 6arl 4ung $ho reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and presented the inner meaning of alchemical $or* as a spiritual path.[113![117! 4ung $as deeply interested in the occult since his youth, participating in seances, $hich he used as the basis for his doctoral dissertation 89n the %sychology and %athology of 2o:6alled 9ccult %henomena.8[11;! 0n 1917, 4ung had already adopted a 8spiritualist and redemptive interpretation of alchemy8, li*ely reflecting his interest in the occult literature of the 19th century.[11<! 4ung began $riting his vie$s on alchemy from the 1931s and continued until the end of his life. =is interpretation of 6hinese alchemical texts in terms of his analytical psychology also served the function of comparing >astern and &estern alchemical imagery and core concepts and hence its possible inner sources +archetypes,.[11?![11 ![118! 4ung sa$ alchemy as a &estern proto:psychology dedicated to the achievement of individuation.[113![118! 0n his interpretation, alchemy $as the vessel by $hich .nosticism survived its various purges into the 'enaissance,[118![119! a concept also follo$ed by others such as 2tephan -. =oeller. 0n this sense, 4ung vie$ed alchemy as comparable to a @oga of the >ast, and more ade/uate to the &estern mind than >astern religions and philosophies. "he practice of -lchemy seemed to change the mind and spirit of the -lchemist. 6onversely, spontaneous changes on the mind of &estern people undergoing any important stage in individuation seems to produce, on occasion, imagery *no$n to -lchemy and relevant to the person)s situation.[111! 4ung did not completely reAect the material experiments of the alchemists, but he massively do$nplayed it, $riting that the transmutation $as performed in the mind of the alchemist. =e claimed the material substances and procedures $ere only a proAection of the alchemists) internal state, $hile the real substance to be transformed $as the mind itself.[111! Marie:#ouise von Bran5, a disciple of 4ung, continued 4ung)s studies on alchemy and its psychological meaning. 4ung)s $or* exercised a great influence on the mainstream perception of alchemy, his approach becoming a stoc* element in many popular texts on the subAect to this day.[113! Modern scholars are sometimes critical of the 4ungian approach to alchemy as overly reflective of 19th:century occultism.[31! [8<![117!