CE-4004: Strength of Materials-II

COLUMNS

Stability of equilibrium The selection of structural element is based on the three characteristics strength, stiffness and stability. We have already seen how to find stress in a state of stable equilibrium. Recall the stress in an axially loaded member is given by = stress in a beam due to torsion is f s
P , A

bending stress in a beam is =

M y, I

shearing

T R. Ip

But even though the stress may be within the

permissible limit (i.e., strength-wise safe) and deformation (i.e., shortening/elongation/deflection) may be acceptable (i.e., sufficiently stiff), column structures may be unstable. A column is defined as a vertical structural member which is generally subjected to an axial compressive load. Consider a circular metal rod of 10 mm diameter and 20 mm long acting as a column. If it is subjected to axial compressive load, there will be no instability of the rod and it can take appreciable load. Next consider a metal rod of same material having same diameter of 10 mm, but its length is now 2 metre. When this rod is subjected to axial compressive load, it will be observed that at a much smaller load than the earlier short piece can carry, the long rod will buckle laterally and collapse. So this long member is unstable and hence stability consideration is very important in selection of column members. Based on stability, columns are classified as (a) short columns, (b) intermediate columns and (c) long columns. When a short column of uniform cross-section A, is subjected to an axial compressive load P, the stress at any section is = P /A. Now, if the load P is gradually increased, at a certain critical load the column will fail in crushing. This critical load at which the column fails in crushing is known as crushing load Pc and the crushing stress is c = Pc /A. In case of long column, the member starts buckling laterally much before the crushing load is reached. Once the member shows the sign of buckling, it will lead to failure of the member due to further increase of load or even at a slight disturbance. This load at which the member just buckles is called buckling load. It is also known as critical load, Euler buckling load or, crippling load. It may be noted that at critical load, the member is in elastic state and it will regain its original straight line configuration on removal of the load. The value of buckling load for a given member depends on the length of the member, least lateral dimension of the member and its end support conditions. At the critical load, a column which is circular or tubular in cross-section may buckle sideways in any direction. But in general, a column section does not posses equal flexural rigidity (EI) in all directions. The moment of inertia of the crosssection is maximum around one centroidal axis and it is minimum around the other, see Fig. 1.1. The significant flexural rigidity EI of a column depends on minimum I and at critical load the column buckles either to one side or the other in the plane of major axis. So the derivation of critical load is based on minimum value of I. ______________________________________________________________________________ Columns Page 1 of 10

Buckling theory of column The buckling theory of column was developed by Leonhard Euler. So the critical load is also known as Euler load or Euler critical load. To derive the Euler formulas, we shall consider the following end conditions of a column 1. 2. 3. 4. Both ends are pinned or hinged. One end is fixed and the other is free. Both ends are fixed. One end is fixed and the other is pinned.

A) Critical load for columns with both ends pinned or hinged.

Consider a column AB of length L with uniform cross-section and hinged at both ends, as shown in fig 1.2 (a). Let P be the critical load at which the column has just buckled. Due to critical load P, the buckled shape of the column is ACB as shown in fig 1.2 (b). Choose x and y axes as shown. [Axes are chosen in such a way that if we turn the axes by 900 clockwise, it will resemble our standard x & y coordinate system, used to derive the formula for deflection of beams.] Consider any section x-x at a distance x from A, as shown in fig 1.2 (b). The free-body diagram of the portion AC is shown in fig 1.2 (c). Taking moment about C, we get M + P.y =0 Hence, M = - Py
d2 y M dx 2 EI or, d2 y P y 2 dx EI ... (1.1)

where, y = deflection of point C

The differential equation for the elastic curve for the initially straight column is

[substituting value of M]

Substituting 2

P , the above equation becomes EI

d2 y 2 y dx 2 d2 y or, 2 y 0 ... (1.2) 2 dx ______________________________________________________________________________ Columns Page 2 of 10

This is a second order differential equation which has a general solution as

y C1 sin x C2 cos x ... (1.3)

where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants that must be determined from the boundary conditions. These conditions are At A and B, deflection is zero, i.e., at x = 0, y = 0 and also at x = L, y = 0. Hence, putting x = 0 and y = 0 in equation (1.3), we get 0 = C1 sin 0 + C2 cos 0
C2 0

So, equation (1.3) becomes

y C1 sin x ... ... (1.4)

Again, putting x = L and y = 0 in equation (1.4), we get 0 = C1 sin L (1.5) Equation (1.5) can be satisfied taking C1 = 0. However, with C1 and C2 both equal to zero, the column will not bend at all, as can be seen from equation (1.3). Hence, or,
or,

sin L = 0 L = 0, , 2, 3,
P L 0, , 2, 3, EI

[using the definition of P / (EI) ]

P L can not be zero, as it will render P = 0. For values of , 2, 3, buckling EI modes are as shown in fig 1.3

So considering the least practical value,

P L EI
2 EI or, P L2

This is the expression for Euler critical load for long column with both ends hinged.

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B) Critical load for columns with one end fixed and the other end free.

Consider a column AB of length L with uniform cross-section. It is fixed at end A, and free at end B as shown in fig 1.4 (a). The free end will sway sideways when load is applied at the free end. Due to critical load P, the deflected shape of the column is ACB as shown in fig 1.4 (b). Let be the deflection at free end. Choose x and y axes as shown. Consider any section x-x at a distance x from A, as shown in fig 1.4 (b). The free-body diagram of portion BC is shown in fig 1.4 (c). Taking moment about C, we get M - P ( y) = 0 Hence, M = P ( y)
d2 y M dx 2 EI or, d 2 y P( y) P ( y) 2 dx EI EI
P , the above equation becomes EI

where, y = deflection of point C

The differential equation for the elastic curve for the initially straight column is

[substituting value of M]

Substituting 2

d2 y 2 ( y) 2 dx or, d2 y 2 y 2 2 dx

..

(1.6)

This is a second order differential equation which has a general solution as

y C1 sin x C2 cos x 2 2

(1.7)

where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants that must be determined from the boundary conditions.

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d2 y 2 y 0 , the 2 dx general solution is y C1 sin x C2 cos x . If the right term is not zero, solution is obtained by adding a third term which is equal to right term divided by 2. See equation (1.7) ]

[Note: When right term of the differential equation is zero i.e.,

Boundary condition : i.e.,

For the fixed end A, the deflection and slope of the curve are zero.
dy 0 dx

at x = 0, y = 0 and

substituting x = 0 and y = 0 in eqn.(1.7), we get 0 = C1 sin 0 + C2 cos 0 +

C2

Differentiating eqn.(1.7) with respect to x,

dy C1 cos x C2 sin x 0 dx

As at x = 0 ,

dy 0, dx

Hence, 0 = C1 cos 0 - C2 sin 0 or, C1 = 0 Since can not be zero, hence C1 = 0 Substituting values of C1 and C2, eqn. (1.7) becomes y = - cos x + Boundary condition : At the free end i.e., at x = L, y = Substituting these values in eqn.(1.8), we get = - cos L + or, cos L = 0
3 5 , , , 2 2 2

(1.8)

As can not be zero, hence cos L = 0 or,

or,

L =

P 3 5 L 0, , , , EI 2 2 2

Considering the least practical value, P L EI 2

or, P 2 EI 4L2

This is the expression for Euler critical load for long column with one end fixed and the other end free.

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C) Critical load for columns with both ends fixed.

Consider a column AB of length L with uniform cross-section. It is fixed at both ends A and B as shown in fig 1.5 (a). Due to fixity at the ends, there will be fixed end moments M0. Due to critical load P, the deflected shape of the column is ACB as shown in fig 1.5 (b). Choose x and y axes as shown. Consider any section x-x at a distance x from A, as shown in fig 1.5 (b). The free-body diagram of portion BC is shown in fig 1.5 (c). Taking moment about C, we get M - M0 + P y = 0 Hence, M = M0 - P y
d2 y M M 0 Py 2 dx EI EI or, M0 d2 y P P y x 2 dx EI EI P

where, y = deflection of point C

The differential equation for the elastic curve for the initially straight column is [substituting value of M]

Substituting 2

P , the above equation becomes EI

M0 d2 y 2 y 2 2 dx P

(1.9)

This is a second order differential equation which has a general solution as

y C1 sin x C2 cos x
or,
y C1 sin x C2 cos x

M0 P 2
(1.10)

M0 P

where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants that must be determined from the boundary conditions. Boundary conditions : (a) at x = 0, y = 0 and (b) at x = L, y = 0 and
dy 0 dx dy 0 dx

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Substituting x = 0 and y = 0 in eqn.(1.10), we get 0 = C1 sin 0 + C2 cos 0 +

C2

M0 P

M0 P

Differentiating eqn.(1.10) with respect to x,

dy C1 cos x C2 sin x 0 dx

Substituting,

x = 0 and

dy 0, dx

0 = C1 cos 0 - C2 sin 0 or, C1 = 0 Since can not be zero, hence C1 = 0 Substituting values of C1 and C2, eqn. (1.10) becomes
y M0 M0 cos x P P

(1.11)

Now apply the boundary condition at B i.e., at x = L, y = 0 Substituting these values in eqn.(1.11), we get
0 M0 M0 cos L P P

or, or,
or,

cos L = 1 L = 0, 2, 4, 6,
P L 0, 2, 4, 6, EI

P L can not be zero, as it will render P = 0. EI

Hence considering the least practical value, P L 2 EI

or, P 42 EI L2

This is the expression for Euler critical load for long column with both ends fixed.

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D) Critical load for columns with one end fixed and the other end hinged.

Consider a column AB of length L with uniform cross-section. It is fixed at both ends A and hinged at B as shown in fig 1.6 (a). Due to critical load P, the deflected shape of the column is ACB as shown in fig 1.6 (b). Choose x and y axes as shown. Consider any section x-x at a distance x from A, as shown in fig 1.6 (b). The free-body diagram of portion BC is shown in fig 1.6 (c). Taking moment about C, we get M + P . y - H (L x) = 0 Hence, M = - P y + H (L x) where, y = deflection of point C

The differential equation for the elastic curve for the initially straight column is
d2 y M Py H (L x) 2 dx EI EI EI or, d2 y P P H y x (L x) 2 dx EI EI P
P , the above equation becomes EI

[substituting value of M]

Substituting 2

d2 y H 2 y 2 (L x) 2 dx P

This is a second order differential equation which has a general solution as

y C1 sin x C2 cos x
or,
y C1 sin x C2 cos x

H (L x) P 2
(1.12)

H (L x) P

where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants that must be determined from the boundary conditions. Boundary conditions : (a) at x = 0, y = 0 and
dy 0 dx

(b) at x = L, y = 0 ______________________________________________________________________________ Columns Page 8 of 10

Substituting x = 0 and y = 0 in eqn.(1.12), we get 0 = C1 sin 0 + C2 cos 0 +

C2

HL P

HL P

Differentiating eqn.(1.12) with respect to x,

dy H C1 cos x C2 sin x dx P

Substituting,

x = 0 and

dy 0, dx H P
H P

0 = C1 cos 0 - C2 sin 0 or, C1 H = 0 P

or,

C1 =

Substituting values of C1 and C2, eqn. (1.12) becomes

y H HL H sin x cos x (L x) P P P

(1.13)

Now apply the boundary condition at B i.e., at x = L, y = 0 Substituting these values in eqn.(1.13), we get
0 H HL sin L cos L P P

or,

tan L = L L = 4.4934 radian

Solution to the above equation is Squaring both sides, 2L2 = 20.1906 P 2 L 20.1906 EI
P 20.1906 EI L2

or,
or,

or,

2 2 EI L2

as 20.1906 2 2

This is the expression for Euler critical load for long column with one end fixed and the other end hinged. Expression of Eulers critical load in terms of effective length Crippling load or critical load is also denoted by Pcr .

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We have discussed four cases to determine the critical axial loads for columns with different end conditions. The results are tabulated in the table below. Remember that column with both ends hinged is our fundamental case. From the table it is seen that by restraining the ends in the last two cases, critical loads are substantially larger than the fundamental case. On the other hand, the critical load for a free-standing column is only one-fourth of that for fundamental case. Fixed Free
Pc r 2 EI 4L2

Hinged - Hinged
Pc r 2 EI L2

Fixed Fixed
Pc r 42 EI L2

Fixed - Hinged
Pc r 2 2 EI L2

Pcr

2 EI Le 2

Pcr

2 EI Le 2

Pcr

2 EI Le 2

Pcr

2 EI Le 2

Le = K L

Le = K L

Le = K L
1 0.5 2

Le = K L
1 0.7 2

K = 1

K = 2

K =

K =

All the formulas can be made to resemble the fundamental case, if we use effective column length instead of actual length. The effective length Le for fundamental case is L, but for other cases it is 2L, 0.5L and 0.7L. To generalized, we can write Le = KL, where K is the effective length factor, which depends on end restrains. So we can define the effective length of a column as The effective length of a given column with given end conditions is the length of an equivalent column of same material and cross-section with hinged ends, having the value of critical load equal to that of the given column.

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