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"Hijra", as with many aforementioned terms is one of the many terms in the culture of South Asia used to refer individuals who consider themselves as transexual or transgender.[1][2] Transgender people are also known as Aravani, Aruvani or Jagappa in other areas of India.[3] It is a common misconception within the South Asians and lack of respect for wanting to understand the transgender community, at the expense of transgender rights, that they assume hijras are "only men who have feminine gender identity, adopt feminine gender roles and wear women's clothing". When, in reality the community is diverse.[4] In Pakistan, the hijras identify themselves as either female, male, or third gender. The term more commonly advocated by social workers and transgender community themselves is, 'khwaaja sira' (Urdu: ) , and can identify themselves as transexual person, transgender person (khusras), cross-dressers (zenanas) and eunuchs (narnbans).[5][6] Hijras have a long-recorded history in the Indian subcontinent, from antiquity, as suggested by the Kama Sutra period, onwards. This history features a number of well-known roles within subcontinental cultures, part gender-liminal, part spiritual, and part survival. In South Asia, many hijras live in well-defined and organized all-hijra communities, led by a guru.[7][8] These communities have sustained themselves over generations by "adopting" young boys who are rejected by, or flee their family of origin.[9] Many work as sex workers for survival.[10] The word "hijra" is a Urdu-Hindustani word derived from the Semitic Arabic root hjr in its sense of "leaving one's tribe,"[11] and has been borrowed into Hindi. The Indian usage has traditionally been translated into English as "eunuch" or "hermaphrodite," where "the irregularity of the male genitalia is central to the definition."[12] However, in general hijras are born with typically male physiology, only a few having been born with male intersex variations.[13] Some Hijras undergo an initiation rite into the hijra community called nirwaan, which refers to the removal of penis, testicles and scrotum.[10] Since the late 20th century, some hijra activists and Western non-government organizations (NGOs) have been lobbying for official recognition of the hijra as a kind of "third sex" or "third gender," as neither man nor woman.[14] Hijras have successfully gained this recognition in Bangladesh and are eligible for priority in education.[15] Contents [hide] 1 Terminology 2 Gender and sexuality 3 Social status and economic circumstances 4 Language 5 In South Asian politics
6 History 7 In religion 7.1 Hijras and Bahuchara Mata 7.2 Hijras and Lord Shiva 7.3 Hijras in the Ramayana 7.4 Hijras in the Mahabharata 7.5 Hijras in Islam 8 In films and literature 8.1 Documentaries 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 Bibliography 12 Further reading 13 External links
The Urdu and Hindi word hijra may alternately be romanized as hijira, hijda, hijada, hijara, hijrah and is pronounced [da]. This term is generally considered derogatory in Urdu and the word Khwaja Saraa is used instead. Another such term is khasuaa ( ) or khusaraa ( ). In Bengali hijra is called , hijra, hijla, hijre, hizra, or hizre.
A number of terms across the culturally and linguistically diverse Indian subcontinent represent similar sex or gender categories. While these are rough synonyms, they may be better understood as separate identities due to regional cultural differences. In Telugu, a hijra is referred to as napunsakudu ( ), kojja ( ) or maada (). InTamil Nadu the equivalent term is Thiru nangai (mister woman), Ali, aravanni, aravani, or aruvani. In Punjabi, both in Pakistan and India, the term khusra is used. Other terms include jankha. In Gujarati they are called pavaiyaa ( In Urdu another common term is khwaaja sira (). In North India the goddess Bahuchara Mata is worshipped by Pavaiyaa ( ). In South India, the ).
goddess Renuka is believed to have the power to change one's sex. Male devotees in female clothing are known as Jogappa. They perform similar roles to hijra, such as dancing and singing at birth [16] ceremonies and weddings. The word kothi (or koti) is common across India, similar to the Kathoey of Thailand, although kothis are often distinguished from hijras. Kothis are regarded as feminine men or boys who take a feminine
role in sex with men, but do not live in the kind of intentional communities that hijras usually live in. Additionally, not all kothis have undergone initiation rites or the body modification steps to become a [17] [18] hijra. Local equivalents include durani (Kolkata), menaka (Cochin), meti (Nepal), and zenana (Pakistan). Hijra used to be translated in English as "eunuch" or "hermaphrodite," although LGBT historians or [19] human rights activists have sought to include them as beingtransgender. In a series of meetings convened between October 2013 and Jan 2014 by the transgender experts committee of India's Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, hijra and other trans* activists asked that the term 'eunuch' be discontinued from usage in government documents, as it is not a term the communities identify with.
[12]
are not under threat. But they are in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province because of a 'new Islam' under [26] way", I.A. Rehman, the director of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. In a study of Bangladeshi hijras, participants reported not being allowed to seek healthcare at the [27] private chambers of doctors, and experiencing abuse if they go to government hospitals. Beginning in 2006, hijras were engaged to accompany Patna city revenue officials to collect unpaid [28] taxes, receiving a 4-percent commission. Since India's Supreme Court re-criminalized homosexuality and bisexuality on Dec. 13, 2013, there has been a sharp increase in the physical, psychological and sexual violence against the transgendercommunity by the Indian Police Service nor are they investigating even when sexual [29] assault is reported.
An Indian Hijra.
Language[edit]
The hijra community due to its peculiar place in sub-continental society which entailed marginalisation yet royal privileges developed a secret language known as Hijra Farsi. The language has a sentence structure loosely based on Urdu and a unique vocabulary of at least thousand words. Beyond the Urdu-Hindi speaking areas of subcontinent the vocabulary is still used by the hijra community within their own native languages.
fully accommodated; for example, citizens must identify as either male or female to vote. There is also further discrimination from the government. In the 2009 general election, India's election committee denied three hijras candidature unless they identified themselves as either male or female.
History[edit]
The ancient Kama Sutra mentions the performance of fellatio by feminine people of a third sex (tritiya [34] prakriti). This passage has been variously interpreted as referring to men who desired other men, [35] so-called eunuchs ("those disguised as males, and those that are disguised as females" ), male and female transvestites ("the male takes on the appearance of a female and the female takes on the [36] appearance of the male"), or two kinds of biological males, one dressed as a woman, the other as a [37] man. During the era of the British Raj, authorities attempted to eradicate hijras, whom they saw as "a [38] breach of public decency." Anti-hijra laws were repealed; but a law outlawing castration, a central part of the hijra community, was left intact, though rarely enforced. Also during British rule in India they were placed under Criminal Tribes Act 1871 and labelled a "criminal tribe," hence subjected to compulsory registration, strict monitoring and stigmatized for a long time; after independence however [39] they were denotified in 1952, though the centuries-old stigma continues.
In religion[edit]
The Indian transgender hijras or Aravanis ritually marry the Hindu godAravan and then mourn his ritual death (seen) in an 18-day festival inKoovagam, India.
Many practice a form of syncretism that draws on multiple religions; seeing themselves to be neither men nor women, hijras practice rituals for both men and women. Hijras belong to a special caste. They are usually devotees of the mother goddess Bahuchara Mata, Lord Shiva, or both.
because he would run in the woods and act like a woman rather than have sex with her. Another story is that a man tried to rape her, so she cursed him with impotence. When the man begged her forgiveness to have the curse removed, she relented only after he agreed to run in the woods and act [40] like a woman. The primary temple to this goddess is located in Gujarat and it is a place of pilgrimage for hijras, who see Bahucahara Mata as a patroness.
Each year in Tamil Nadu, during April and May, hijras celebrate an eighteen-day religious festival. The aravani temple is located in the village Koovagam in the Ulundurpet taluk in Villupuram district, and is devoted to the deity Koothandavar, who is identified with Aravan. During the festival, the aravanis reenact a story of the wedding of Lord Krishna and Lord Aravan, followed by Aravan's subsequent sacrifice. They then mourn Aravan's death through ritualistic dances and by breaking theirbangles. An annual beauty pageant is also held, as well as various health and HIV or AIDS seminars. Hijras from all over the country travel to this festival. A personal experience of the hijras in this festival is shown in the BBC Three documentary India's Ladyboys and also in the National Geographic Channel television seriesTaboo.
Hijras in Islam[edit]
There is evidence that Indian hijras identifying as Muslim also incorporate aspects of Hinduism. Still, despite this syncretism, Reddy (2005) notes that a hijra does not practice Islam differently from other Muslims and argues that their syncretism does not make them any less Muslim. Reddy (2003) also documents an example of how this syncretism manifests: in Hyderabad, India a group of Muslim converts were circumcised, something seen as the quintessential marker of male Muslim identity.
In 2005, a fiction feature film titled Shabnam Mausi was made on the life of a eunuch politician Shabnam Mausi. It was directed by Yogesh Bharadwaj and the title role played by Ashutosh Rana. Jogwa, a 2009 Marathi film, depicts the story of a man forced to be hijra under certain circumstances. [46] The movie has received several accolades. In Soorma Bhopali, Jagdeep encounters a troupe of hijra on his arrival in Bombay. The leader of this pack is also played by Jagdeep himself. In Anil Kapoor's Nayak, Johnny Lever, who plays the role of the hero's assistant, gets beaten up by hijras, when he is caught calling them "hijra" (he is in habit of calling almost everyone who bothers him by this pejorative and no one cares much, except this once ironically, as the addressees are literally what he is calling them.) One of the main characters in Khushwant Singh's novel Delhi, Bhagmati is a hijra. She makes a living as a semi-prostitute and is wanted in the diplomatic circles of the city. Vijay TV's Ippadikku Rose, a Tamil show conducted by postgraduate educated transgender Rose is a very successfully running program that discusses various issues faced by youth in Tamil Nadu, where she also gives her own experiences. In addition to numerous other themes, the 2008 movie Welcome to Sajjanpur by Shyam Benegal explores the role of hijras in Indian society. In the Malayalam movie Ardhanaari, released on 23 November 2012, director Santhosh Sowparnika tries to depict the life of a transgender. Manoj K Jayan, Thilakan, Sukumari and Maniyanpilla Raju perform leading roles. Pakistan The 1992 film Immaculate Conception by Jamil Dehlavi is based upon the culture-clash between a western Jewish couple seeking fertility at a Karachi shrine known to be blessed by a Sufi fakir called Gulab Shah and the group of Pakistani eunuchs who guard it. "Muraad" (which means Desire in English) but the English title was "Eunech's Mother", was an award winning biographical Telefilm drama made by Pakistan's television channel Indus TV and aired in 2003. The cast had countries top male television actors playing as "hijras"; Sohail Asghar, Nabeel, Qazi Wajid, Kamran Jilani. Produced & Directed by Kamran Qureshi, written by Zafar [48][49] Meraj. It won both Best TeleFilm and Best Director award. The story revolves round Saima, a trans woman, who adopts a helpless child Muraad' and her relationship with him against the backdrop of her struggling through her entire life and her "desire" for her son, whom she has sent away to live at a hostel so she can earn a living as a dancer, after her son gets cross with her, due to teasing (both verbal and sexual) they have to face while dancing. This was the first time that influential male actors who came out to support "hijra" rights during interviews; noting that in Pakistani English at that time eunuch was the term to describe transgender person, and "khawaja sara" had not yet replaced what is now considered a derogatory term due to decades of heckling and name calling, [50] "hijra". In 2004, once again Kamran Qureshi directs a trans drama, "Moorat", which translates as "effigy" in English, however the English title was "Eunech's Wedding". It was produced by famous actor and producerHumayun Saeed and Abdullah Kadwani with more than a dozen star-studded cast male and [51][52] female cast members for a 26 episode long drama series. It was nominated for Best Drama [48][53] Serial, Abid Ali for Best Actor, and Maria Wasti for Best Actress at Lux Style Awards 2005. The
[47]
show was credited for making people really understand and feel the pain and abuse that khawa sara (hijra) constantly endure and make fun of the way they look or dress without getting to know them how they were naturally born this way. The story involves a young lady who is arranged to marry and it turns out her husband is a transgender person. The story unfolds trans community and their deprived and isolated world and yet portrays eloquently how they too are not far away from the human emotions and feelings and their world not much different than rest of the heterosexual community. Even though they are in plain sight, they are taboo subject and are not taken seriously which makes them suffer endlessly in silence wrapped in slurs. The 26 episode miniseries therefore touches on transgender abuse, women abuse, poverty, immorality of arranged marriages, and child abuse. Bol (Urdu: meaning Speak), is a 2011 Urdu-language social drama Pakistani film. It concerns a patriarch father of the house who is a misogynist, domestic abuser, bigot, and a zealot man (Hakim) who forces religion on his family rather than strictly follow himself. The Muslim family facing financial difficulties due to father wanting a son so expects his wife to give herself to him whenever he chooses, with r without he connect who made her pregnant in order to for father's desire to have another son and his rejection of his existing transgendered child, male-assigned-at-birth daughter, Saifi. The father (Hakim) doesn't like Saifi since she identifies as a girl however Saifi is deeply loved by the rest of her family. As Saifi is groing up men want to take advantage of her, however her oldest sister intervenes and teaches Saifi about what kind of touching is inappropriate. As Saifi is groing older, she is not allowed to leave the house however she really finds her sister's dresses amusing and tries them out; showing how she isn't that way due to bad company, but because she is naturally born that way. However, a neighbour played by famous South Asian singer Atif Aslam who is in love with one of the sisters, gets Saifi a job at a place where they paint trucks, with the blessing of Saifi's sisters and mother. Safi dresses like a boy however other sensed her lack of self-esteem and therefore eventually gang-rape her. She is saved by another transgendered person, played by Almas Bobby (who in real life is a transgender person), finds her and takes her home. Hakim overhears Saifi telling her mother and Zainab what happened. Later on, when everybody is asleep, Hakim locks the room and suffocates his child for luring the men for the "shame" he would have to bear with his name if the [54] story got out. Outside of South Asia The novel Bombay Ice by Leslie Forbes features an important subplot involving the main character's investigation of the deaths of several hijra sex-workers. The novel City of Djinns by William Dalrymple also features a chapter on hijras. The novel A Son Of The Circus by John Irving features a plot-line involving hijras. In the graphic novel Habibi by Craig Thompson, the protagonist, Zam, is adopted by a group of hijras. In the 2009 Brazilian soap opera Caminho das ndias (Portuguese: "The way to India"), hijras are shown in some occasions, especially at weddings and other ceremonies where they are paid for their blessing.In the TV comedy Outsourced (2011), a hijra is hired by Charlie as a stripper for Rajiv's "bachelor party", much to Rajiv's utter horror. A short film, under the direction of Jim Roberts, is being made by Rock Star Productions in which the [year needed][citation needed] protagonist is portrayed as a hijra. This film is set to be released on May 1.
Documentaries[edit]
Jareena, Portrait of a Hijda (1990); Bombay Eunuch (2001); The Hijras: India's Third Gender (2001); India's Ladyboys (2003); Between the Lines: India's Third Gender (2005); Middle sexes (HBO documentary includes segment on modern Hijda) (2005); Shabnam Mausi (2005); The Hijras of India (BBC radio documentary); Kiss the Moon (2009); Call me Salma (2009).
See also[edit]
Pakistan portal India portal Transgender portal
Cross dressing List of transgender-related topics Transvestism Two-Spirit Cogender Homosexuality in India LGBT rights in Pakistan Transgender Rights in Tamil Nadu Kathoey, a distinct transgender group in Thailand. Gender Identities in Thailand discusses the Tom and Dee genders in Thailand.