On a new mathematical application concerning the discrete and the analytic functions.

Mathematical connections with some sectors of Number Theory and String Theory.

Odoardo Volonterio
1
, Michele Nardelli
3 , 2
, Francesco Di Noto
1
Politecnico di Milano
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci, 32
20133 Milano, Italy
1

2
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra
Universit de!li St"di di #apoli $ederico II, Lar!o S% Marcellino, 10
&013& #apoli, Italy

3
Dipartimento di Matematica ed 'pplicazioni ()% *accioppoli+
Universit de!li St"di di #apoli ($ederico II+ , Polo delle Scienze e delle Tecnolo!ie
Monte S% 'n!elo, Via *intia -$"ori!rotta., &012/ #apoli, Italy
bstract
In t0is 1or2 1e 0ave descri3ed a ne1 mat0ematical application concernin! t0e
discrete and t0e analytic 4"nctions5 t0e Volonterio6s Trans4orm and t0e Volonterio6s
Polynomial% T0e Volonterio6s Trans4orm -V Transform., indeed, 1or2 4rom t0e
1orld o4 discrete 4"nctions to t0e 1orld o4 analytic 4"nctions% 7e 0ave descri3ed
vario"s mat0ematical applications and properties o4 t0em% $"rt0ermore, 1e 0ave
s0o1ed also vario"s e8amples and t0e possi3le mat0ematical connections 1it0 some
sectors o4 #"m3er T0eory and Strin! T0eory%
Definition ! "transform V#
T0e trans4ormed V o4 a discrete 4"nction ,
y( k)
is an analytic 4"nction o4 a real
varia3le -or comple8. t0ro"!0 10ic0 it is possi3le to pass 4rom t0e 1orld o4 discrete
or 4inite mat0ematics to t0e 1orld o4 di44erential mat0ematics%
Definition $ "in%erse transform V#
T0e inverse trans4orm V o4 an analytic 4"nction
V (t )
o4 a real varia3le
t

contin"es in t0e zero and in4inite times di44erentia3le -in ot0er 1ords a 4"nction
V (t )
developa3le in Macla"rin series . is a discrete 4"nction
y( k)
de4ined t0ro"!0
1 'ddress mail5 odoardo.%olonterio&gmail.com

0
,
10ic0 it is possi3le t0e transition 4rom t0e di44erential 1orld to t0e 1orld o4
discrete or 4inite mat0ematics%
D'F(N(T(ONS N')'SS*+ TO ,ND'*STND T-' T*NSFO*M V.
7e de4ine 1it0 6
A
(k ) t0e 4ollo1in! 9ronec2er:s 4"nction5
6
A
(k )5=

1 k=0
0 k0
k
-1.
7e de4ine 1it0 u
A
( k) t0e 4ollo1in! discrete 4"nction in step -;eaviside.5
u
A
( k) 5=

1 k0
0 k0
k
-2.
D'F(N(T(ON OF T*NSFO*M V
Let
y( k)
a discrete 4"nction, t0en 1e can de4ine t0e trans4ormation
V (t )
as
4ollo1s5
V ( t )=T ( y( k) , t )5=

k=0
+
y(k )
t
k
k!
t
-3.
)OND(T(ONS OF '/(ST'N)' ND ,N(0,'N'SS OF T-'
T*NSFO*M V
To ens"re t0e condition o4 e8istence o4 t0e trans4orm m"st 3e !"aranteed t0e
4ollo1in! relations0ip5
lim
k -+
y(k )
1/ k
k
+ e R= lim
k -+
k
y (k)
1/ k
e
with e=2%<1&2&1&2&.
-=.
10ere
R
is t0e radi"s o4 conver!ence, 10ile (e+ is t0e >"lero?#epero constant%
T0e relation -=. is a necessary condition t0at 1e 0ave demonstrated e8ploitin! t0e
condition o4 t0e root o4 *a"c0y?;adamard 10ile t0e condition o4 "ni@"eness can 3e
rele!ated to t0e properties o4 series o4 po1ers 10ere (e+ is t0e >"ler?#epero constant%
D'F(N(T(ON OF (NV'*S' T*NSFO*MT(ON V
7e de4ine 1it0 inverse trans4orm o4
V (t )
t0e discrete 4"nction
y( k)
o3tained 3y
t0e 4ollo1in! de4inition5
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
1
5 ,

t k
k
t V
dt
d
k t V T k y -A.
or 3y t0e 4ollo1in! alternative 4orm"la to t0e -A.5
y( k)=T
1
(V (t ) , k )5=
2
n
I(k+1)
(

0
n
(V (e
i (
))cos(k () d (
)
k
0

or t0e more e8act 4orm"la5
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

'

0
0 1
0 %%%%% %%%%%%%% cos 1
2
0 %%%%%%% %%%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%%% %%%%%%%%%%
1
5 ,
k N k d k e V k
k d e V
k t V T k y
i
i
R
R
10ere necessary and s"44icient condition 3eca"se -/. to 3e valid, is t0at t0e
condition
> R
is satis4ied, 10ere ) is t0e radi"s o4 conver!ence -=.%
7e note t0at in t0is e@"ation, t0ere is t0e >"ler !amma 4"nction B and t0e
constant C, 4"ndamentals in vario"s e@"ations concernin! t0e strin! t0eory%
-/.
$or e8ample, 1e consider t0e discrete 4"nctions5

y
1
(k )=k1
e
y
2
( k)=k1
-<.
T0ence, 1e 0ave t0at5
V
1
(t )=(t 1) e
t
e V
2
(t )=(t 1)e
t
- V
1
(k )=V
2
(k ) -&.
10ere t0e inverse trans4orm o4
V ( t )
is5
y( k)=T
1
(V (t ) , k )=y
1
(k )=k1 -D.
t0ence, it is possi3le concl"de t0at 5
y
1
(k)=y
2
( k) k
0 -10.
D'F(N(T(ONS
To 3e a3le to read and interpret t0e ta3les in complete sense, is needed clari4ications
on t0e 4"nctions and a33reviations t0at 1e 0ave introd"ced and also 1ill 3e
4"ndamentals o4 t0e e8amples t0at 4ollo1 a4ter t0e ta3les% In any case, 3e4ore
proceedin! to t0e list o4 trans4ormations is "se4"l to consider t0e 4ollo1in! reports,
de4initions and 4"nctions%
Fundamental relations (see definitions (1) and (2))
u
A
( k)=

n=0
+
6
A
( kn)
-11.
u
A
( k)=| u
A
(k )
n
-12.
u
A
( k)=u
A
( k) u
A
(k+n) -13.
u
A
( k+n)=| u
A
(k+n)
m
-1=.
u
A
( kn)=| u
A
(kn)
m
-1A.
u
A
( kn)=u
A
( k) u
A
(kn) -1/.
u
A
( kn)=u
A
( k+m)u
A
( kn) -1<.
| u
A
(k )
0
=u
A
(k )6
A
(0)+u
A
( k) -1&.
Definition of the operator
1
t
7it0 t0e sym3ol
1
t 1e de4ine t0e 4ollo1in! operator5
1
t
5=t
d
dt
-1D.
10ere its application iterated n times o4 a certain 4"nction
V ( t )
1ill e8press 3y t0e
operator o4 application in t0e 4ollo1in! 1ay 1
t
n
V (t )%
$or e8ample, 1e consider
V ( t )=sin (t ) ,
t0ence5
1
t
3
V (t )=t
d
dt
(
t
d
dt
(
t
d
dt
sin(t )
)
)
=t cos(t )3t
2
sin(t )t
3
cos(t )
Definition of Volonterio's Polynomial:
V
n
(t )=e
t
1
t
n
e
t
with V
0
(t ) 5=1 -20.
Et0er 4orm"las 4or o3tain t0e polynomial
V
n
(t )
-vedi T$ #F = e 20. are t0e
4ollo1in!5
V
n+!
(t )=t
(
d
dt
V
n
(t )+V
n
(t )
)
-21.
or5
V
n
(t )=e
t

k=0
+
k
n t
k
k!
-22.
or5
V
n
(t )=
d
n
d (
n
e
t (e
(
1)

(=0
-23.
Gelo1 t0e proo4 o4 t0e e@s% -20. and -23., 10ere, in t0is case, t0e polynomial is
denoted 1it0
P
n % -see also t0e re4erences P$ #% <, P$ #% 1<, T$ #% =, T$ #% 20.
E3servations on t0e Volonterio6s Polynomial

( ) t K T
m
,
H
( ) ( ) ( ) t k y T t V ,
'. 7e o3serve t0at

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t k y T
dt
d
t t k ky T , ,
-I.
Let

( ) ( ) ( ) t K T
dt
d
t t K T K k y
m m m
, ,
1

+
J

( ) ( )
t t
e t P e t k T
0
0
,
J

( ) ( )
t t
e t P te t k T
1
,
J

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
t t t
e t P e t t e t t t k T
2
2 2
1 , + +
J

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
t t t
e t P e t t t e t t t t k T
3
3 2 2 3
3 3 1 , + + + +
J

( ) ( )
t
n
n
e t P t k T ,

( ) t P
n
Volonterio6s Polynomial
G. 7e can ded"ce, 4rom t0e -I., t0at5

( ) ( ) [ ] t P e
dt
d
t t P e
n
t
n
t

+ 1
J

( ) ( ) ( )
1
]
1

+
t P e
dt
d
t
dt
d
t t P e
n
t
n
t
2 J
%
%
( ) ( ) ( ) t P e
dt
d
t t P e
n
t
m
m n
t

,
_

+
%
#o1 i4 1e set
dt
d
t
t

,
*. 1e can 1rite !eneralizin!5

( ) ( ) ( )
t
n
m
t
t
m n
e t P e t P

+

,
3"t
( ) 1
0
t P
, t0ence 1e o3tain5

( )
t n
t
t
n
e e t P

K#%G% $rom t0is 1e ded"ce

( ) ( ) ( ) t P e e t k u k T
n
t t n
t
n
,
L
D. Gased on t0e a3ove points, 1e can 1rite t0e 4ollo1in! mi8ed e@"ation
di44erence?di44erential5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t P t P t t P
n n n
+
+

1
,
10ere
( ) ( ) t P
dt
d
t P
n n

%
>.
( ) ( ) ( ) t P e t k u k T
n
t n
,

means t0at5

( )

0
M
k
k
n
n
t
k
t
k t P e
,
namely

( )

0
M
k
k
n t
n
k
t
k e t P
%
$. at t0is point 1e consider
( ) t P
n in s"c0 a 1ay to apply t0e trans4ormation
V

in
n
, i%e% 1e p"t
k n
and
t
in order to avoid any con4"sion%

( ) ( ) H , t P T
k

10ere

( )

0
M
m
m
k
k
m
m e P

%
T0ere4ore5

( ) ( ) ( )

0
,
M
,
m
k
m
k
t m T
m
e t P T

( ) ( )
( )
( )

0 0
1
M M
,
m m
e e
m
t
mt
m
k
t t
e e e
m
e
e e
m
e t P T

I4
x
4or ease o4 1ritin!, 1e 0ave5
( ) ( )
( ) 1
,

t
e x
k
e t x P T
namely

( )
( ) ( ) x P k e T
k
e x
t

,
1 1
,
in ot0er terms5
( )
( )
0
1

t
e x
n
n
n
t
e
dt
d
x P %
7e can e8press t0at t0e sol"tion o4 t0e mi8ed e@"ation

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t P t P t t P
n n n
+
+

1
,
is5
( )
( )
0
1

e t
n
n
n
e
d
d
t P
,
or
( )
t n
t
t
n
e e t P

Definition of Bernoulli's Polynomial:
T0e Gerno"lli:s Polynomail -see T$ #F 21. is5
B
k
(o)=

n=0
k
1
1+n

t=0
n
(1)
k
(
n
k
)
(o+k)
k
-2=.
T0e !eneratin! 4"nction o4 t0e Gerno"lli:s Polynomial is5
t e
t o
e
t
1
=

k =0
+
B
k
(o)
t
k
k!
-2A.
Definition of Euler's Polynomial:
>"ler:s Polynomial -see T$ #F 22.5
E
k
(o)=

n=0
k
1
2
n

t=0
n
(1)
t
(
n
t
)
(o+t)
t
-2/.
T0e !eneratin! 4"nction o4 t0e >"ler:s Polynomial is5
2e
t o
e
t
+1
=

k =0
+
E
k
(o)
t
k
k!
-2<.
Definition of a!uerre's Polynomial:
La!"erre:s Polynomial -see T$ #F 1A and #F 23.

n
(t )=
e
t
n!
d
n
dt
n
(e
t
t
n
)
-2&.
Definition of Bessel's Polynomial of the first kind:
"
n
(t )=
(
t
2
)
n

k=0

(1)
k
(t /2)
2k
I(k+n+1)
-2D.
Transform V of a discrete periodic function.
Let
y
N
(k)
3e a partic"lar discrete 4"nction in 10ic0 t0e 4ollo1in! relation applies5
y
N
(k)=y
N
( k+N ) k
0
e N
-30.
t0an2s to t0e $o"rier series in t0e discrete domain5
y
N
(k)=
1
N

n=0
N1
C
n
e
i
2nnk
N
with C
n
=

k=0
N1
y
N
( k)e
i
2nnk
N
-31.
1e can apply t0e trans4ormation V to t0e -31. as in t0e -32.5
Tv( y
N
( k) , t )=
1
N

n=0
N1
C
n
Tv(e8p(i 2nn k / N) , t )
-32.
t0an2s to t0e trans4ormation ta3les 1e o3tain5
Y
N
(t )=
1
N

n=0
N1
C
n
e
(
t e8p
(
i
2nn
N
))
-33.

Y
N
(t )=
1
N

n=0
N1
C
n
e8p
(
t cos
(
2nn
N
)
+i t sin
(
2nn
N
)
)
-3=.
Y
N
(t )=

n=0
N1
C
N
e
t cos
(
2nn
N
)
(
cos
(
t sin
(
2nn
N
))
+i sin
(
t sin
(
2nn
N
)))
-3A.
#o1 s"3stit"tin!
C
n
o4 t0e -31. in t0e -3A. 1e 0ave t0e e@% -3/.5
Y
N
(t )=
1
N

n=0
N1
(

k =0
N1
y
N
(k )e
i 2nnk / N
)
e
t cos (2nn/ N)
(
cos
(
t sin
(
2nn
N
))
+i sin
(
t sin
(
2nn
N
)))
-3/.
Y
N
(t )=
1
N

n=0
N1

k=0
N1
y
N
( k) e
t cos(2nn/ N)
e
i 2nn k / N
(
cos
(
t sin
(
2nn
N
))
+i sin
(
t sin
(
2nn
N
)))
-3<.
So e8pandin! t0e term e
i 2nnk / N
1e o3tain5
( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

1
0
1
0
2
cos
2
sin cos
2
sin
2
cos
1
N
n
N
k
N
n
t
N N
N
n
t
N
nk
i
N
nk
e k y
N
t Y

,
_

,
_

+
N
n
t i
2
sin sin
-3&.

#o1, t0an2s to t0e same de4inition o4 trans4orm
V
, 1e 0ave5
Y
N
(t )=

k=0
+
y
N
(k)
t
k
k!
-3D.
i%e% 4or
t R = Y
N
( t )R
t0ence
(Y
N
(t ))=Y
N
(t )
e
5(Y
N
(t ))=0
t0at is "ltimately5
Y
N
(t )=
1
N

n=0
N1

k=0
N1
y
N
( k)e
t cos
(
2nn
N
)
cos
(
2nn
N
t sin
(
2nn
N
)
)
-=0.
5Y
N
(t )=
1
N

n=0
N1

k =0
N1
y
N
(k )e
t cos
(
2nn
N
)
sin
(
2nn
N
t sin
(
2nn
N
)
)
=0
-=1.
4rom 10ic0 1e ded"ce t0e 4ollo1in! e@"ations5
Y
N
(t )=
1
N

n=0
N1

k=0
N1
y
N
( k) e
t cos
(
2nn
N
)
cos
(
2nn
N
t sin
(
2nn
N
)
)
-=2.

n=0
N1

k=0
N1
y
N
(k )e
t cos
(
2nn
N
)
sin
(
2nn k
N
t sin
(
2nn
N
)
)
=0
-=3.
In t0e partic"lar case 10ere t0e period # o4 t0e periodic discrete 4"nction is very
lar!e or even tendin! to in4inity, 1e proceed in t0e 4ollo1in! 1ay5


x
n
=
2nn
N
10ere t0e step is
h=
2n
N
i%e%
h=Ax
n
t0en re1rite t0e -3/. as 4ollo1s5
Y
N
(t )=

n=0
N1
y
N
(k)
1
2n
(
2n
N

k=0
N1
e
t cos
(
2nn
N
)
cos
(
2nn
N
t sin
(
2nn
N
)))
-==.
and 4or N-+ 1e 0ave
lim
N -+
y
N
(k)=y(k)
t0ence 1e can 1rite t0e -==. as 4ollo1s5
Y
N
(t )=lim
N-
(

n=0
N1
y
N
( k)
1
2n
(

k=0
N1
he
t cos ( x
n
)
cos(k x
n
t sin (x
n
))
)
)
-=A.
i%e%5
Y (t )=
1
2n

n=0

y(k)

0
2n
e
t cos( x)
cos(k xt sin ( x))dx
-=/.
Since
V (t )
is t0e trans4orm
V
o4
y(k)
1e ded"ce t0e e@"ality5
1
2n

n=0
+
y (k)

0
2n
e
t cos ( x)
cos(k xt sin( x)) dx=

k=0
+
y( k)
t
k
k!
-=<.
4rom 10ic0 4ollo1s5
1
2n

0
2n
e
t cos ( x)
cos(k xt sin( x)) dx=
t
k
k!
t , k
-=&.
( ) ( )

+

,
_

,
_

,
_

0
1
0
1
0
2
cos
2
sin
2
cos
1
M
k
N
n
N
k
N
n
t
N
k
N
N
n
t
N
n
e k y
N k
t
k y

only and only i4

( ) ( ) k y N k y
N N
+
-=D.
T0e e@% -=D. s0o1s 0o1 a development in Taylor6s series can 3e red"ced to a do"3le
s"mmation -
2
N elements. 10en is valid t0e condition -30.% T0is is a 4orm"la t0at
represents t0e !eneralized sol"tion o4 t0e di44erential e@"ation
( )
( ) t V
t d
t V d
N
N
10ere
( ) ( ) ( ) t V t k y T ,

1*O1'*T('S OF T-' T*NSFO*M V
1F
N.
Fun#tion
y( k) k
0
Definition
V ( t )5=T ( y( k) ,t ) t R
1
o y
1
(k)+ y
2
(k ) oV
1
(t )+V
2
(t )
2
y(k)
k=0
V (t )
t =0
3
y(k )
k=n
d
n
dt
n
V (t )

t=0
= y( k)6
A
( kn)
t
n
n!
y(n)
A y( k) u
A
(kn) V ( t )

k =0
n1
y(k )
t
k
k!
/
y( k) k t
d
dt
V (t )
< y( k) k
n
1
n
V (t ) con 15=t
d
dt
& y( k)o
k
V ( ok)
D y( k)e
ok
V ( t e
o
)
10
y( k+n)
d
n
dt
n
V (t )
11
y( k1) y
t
(1)+

0
t
V (() d (
12
y( k)sin(ok)
(V (t e
i o
))
13
y( k)cos(o k)
5(V (t e
i o
))
1=
(
k
n
)
y( kn+m)
t
n
n!
d
m
dt
m
V (t )
1A
t=0
+
(
k
t
)
y(t)
V ( t )e
t
10ere
( ) ( ) ( ) t y T t V
k
, 5

1/
y(1+k)
1+k
V (t )V (0)
t
1<
y
1
(k )y
2
( k) V
1
( k)V
2
( k)
1& T ( T
1
(e
t
T ( y( k) y((k ) , t ) , k )
(=k
, t ) V ( t )
2
T*NSFO*MT(ON V OF SOM' NOT' F,N)T(ONS
T
F
N.
Fun#tion
y( k) k
0
Definition
V (t )5=T( y(k), t ) t R
1 6
A
(kn)
t
n
n!
2 u
A
( k) e
t
3
k
t e
t
= k
n
1
n
e
t
=V
n
(t )e
t
ove 15=t
d
dt
A o
k
e
ot
/ e
ok
e8p(t e
o
)
<
sin(ok)
e
t cos (o)
sin(t sin(o))
&
cos(ok )
e
t cos (o)
cos(t sin(o))
D o
k
sin(k n/ 2)
sin(ot )
10 o
k
cos( k n/ 2)
cos(ot )
11 5(( +i o)
k
) sin(ot )e
t
12 ((+i o)
k
) cos(ot )e
t
13
k!
t
1t
1= (1)
k
k!
t
1+t
1A
( k+n)!
k!

n
(t ) e
t
con
n
(t )=e
t
(1)
n d
n
dt
n
(e
t
t
n
)
1/
(
k
n
)
t
n
e
t
n!
1<
t
1+k
e
t
1
t
1&
1
k!
"
2
( 2i .t ) con "
n
(t )=

k =0
+
(1)
k
(t / 2)
n+2k
k! I(k+1n)
1D
ln (1+k )

0
1
e
( t
e
t
ln(t )
d (
20
y
o
( k)5=V
k
(o)
e8p(oe
t
1)
21
y
o
( k)5=B
k
(o)
t e
ot
e
t
1
T*NSFO*MT(ON V OF SOM' NOT' F,N)T(ONS
T
F
N.
Fun#tion
y( k) k
0
Definition
V (t )5=T( y(k), t ) t R
22
y
o
( k)5=E
k
(o)
2e
ot
e
t
+1
23
y
o
( k)5=
k
(o)
1
1t
e8p
(
ot
t 1
)
2=
y
o
(k) 5=
1
k!

k
(o)
"
2
( 2.ot )e
t
2A
a+b k
c+k
(1)
t
( aI (c)bI (1+c)aI (c ,t )+bI (c+1,t ))
2/
(k+2) I( k+1)
1
(0)
(1t )
t

t
ove =0%A<<21A//=D01.
2<
I ( k+o)
I(o)
(1t )
o
2&
y( k)5= f
N
(k )
ove
f
N
(k)=f
N
(k+N)
1
N

n=0
N1

k =0
N1
y( k) e
2nn/ N
cos
(
2nn k
N
t sin
(
2nn
N
)
)
2D
2
22
(2
22
1) B
k+!
k+1
sin
(
nk
2
)
tan (k)
F,NDM'NT3 1*O1'*T('S OF T-' (NV'*S' T*NSFO*M V
1

N.
Fun#tion
V ( t ) t R
Definition
y
A
( k) 5=T
1
(V (t ) , k) k
0
1
oV
1
(t )+V
2
(t ) o y
1
(k)+ y
2
(k )
2
V (t )
t=0 V ( t )5=T ( y( k) ,t ) t R y(k )
k=0
3
V ( ot )
o
k
y( k)
=
t V (t ) k y(k1)
A t
n
V (t )
k!
( kn)!
y( kn)
/ o
t
V (t )
t=0
+
( ln o)
t
(
k
t
)
y( kt)
< e
ot
V (t )
t=0
+
o
t
(
k
t
)
y( kt)
F,NDM'NT3 1*O1'*T('S OF T-' (NV'*S' T*NSFO*M V
1

N.
Fun#tion
V ( t ) t R
Definition
y
A
( k) 5=T
1
(V (t ) , k) k
0
&
sin(ot )V (t )

t=0
+
(1)
t
o
2t+1
(
k
2t+1
)
y (k2t1)
D
cos(ot )V (t )

t=0
+
(1)
t
o
2t
(
k
2t
)
y( k2t)
10
d
n
dt
n
V ( t ) y( k+n)
11
d
n
dt
n
V (t )

t=0
y(k )
k=0
12
0
t
V (() d ( y( k1)y(1)
13
V
1
(t )V
2
(t ) y
1
(t )y
2
(t )
1= V
2
(t ) T (T
1
(T ( y(k ) y((k ) , t ) , k)
(=k
, t )
1A
ln (t ) 6
A
( k1)
1
2ni
|
ln ( z) z
k2
dz
1/
ln (t +1)
1
2ni
|
e
z
I(0, z) z
k 1
dz con I(0, z)5=

z
+
(
a1
e
(
d (
(NV'*S' T*NSFO*MT(ON OF T-' NOT'
F,N)T(ONS
F
N.
Fun#tion
V ( t ) t R
Definition
y
A
( k) 5=T
1
(V (t ) , k) k
0
1 1 6
A
(k )
2 t
n
n!6
A
( kn)
3 o
t
(ln( k))
o
= e
ot
o
k
A t
n
e
t
k!
(kn)!
/
sin(t ) sin (k n/ 2)
<
cos(t ) cos (k n/ 2)
&
sin(ot )
o
k
sin(k n/ 2)
D
cos(ot )
o
k
cos( k n/ 2)
(NV'*S' T*NSFO*MT(ON OF T-' NOT'
F,N)T(ONS
F
N.
Fun#tion
V ( t ) t R
Definition
y
A
( k) 5=T
1
(V (t ) , k) k
0
10 sin(ot )e
t
5(( +i o)
k
)
11 cos(ot )e
t
((+i o)
k
)
12
1
1+t
(1)
k
k!
13
1
1t
k!
1=
(n+t )!
t !
d
k
d (
k
I(n+1+()

(=0
1A
2
t
e

( ) 0
k
H
'/M13' !
P)EGL>M
Solve t0e 4ollo1in! e@"ation to t0e 4inite di44erence o4 t0e 2F order%
Y
k+2
3N
k+1
+2Y
k
=0 Y
0
=2 Y
1
=3
-A0.
#o1, to solve s"c0 a simple e@"ation to t0e 4inite di44erence o4 t0e second order
0omo!eneo"s 1it0 constant coe44icients, may 3e "sed vario"s met0ods, incl"din! t0e
met0od o4 t0e !eneratin! 4"nction and t0e met0od t0ro"!0 t0e trans4orm V t0at 1e
0ave realized
I I I I I
SO3,T(ON
a. M'T-OD OF T-' 4'N'*T(N4 F,N)T(ON
7e consider t0e 4ollo1in! !eneratin! 4"nction5
G(t )5=

k =0
+
Y
k
t
k
-A1.

k =0
+
Y
k+2
t
k
3

k=0
+
Y
k+1
t
k
+2

k =0
+
Y
k
t
k
=0
-A2.
(Y
2
+Y
3
t+Y
=
t
2
+.)3(Y
1
+Y
2
t +Y
3
t
2
+.)+2O(t )=0
-A3.
G(t )Y
0
Y
1
t
t
2
3
G(t )Y
0
t
+2O(t )=0
-A=.
G(t )=
23t
13t+2t
2
=
23t
(1t )(12t )
=
1
1t
+
1
12t
-AA.
#o1, 2eep in mind t0e 4ollo1in! o3servations5

k =0
+
t
k
=
1
1t
t1

k=0
+
(2t )
k
=
1
12t
2t1
-A/.
4rom 10ic0 1e o3tain t0e ne1 !eneratin! 4"nction -already 0ave 3een considered t0e
initial condition.5
G(t )=

k =0
+
(1+2
k
) t
k
-A<.
3. *(SO3,T(ON M'T-OD T-*O,4- T-' T*NSFO*M V
*allin! 1it0 T s"c0 trans4ormation 4rom varia3le
k
to varia3le
t R
and
placin!
Y
k
=y( k)
1it0
V ( t )5=T ( y( k) ,t )
1e 0ave t0e 4ollo1in!5
T ( y( k+2) , t )3T( y(k+1) , t )+2T( y( k) , t )=0
-A&.
d
2
dt
2
V (t )3
d
dt
V (t )+2V(t )=0 V (0)=2
`
V (t )=3
-AD.
T0e associated c0aracteristic e@"ation is5

2
3r +2=0 -
1
=1
2
=2
-/0.
t0ence t0e sol"tion o4 t0e di44erential e@"ation 1it0 t0e initial conditions is5
V ( t )=e
t
+e
2t
-/1.
10ere no1 "sin! t0e inverse trans4orm, 1e 0ave t0e desired sol"tion5
Y
k
=y( k)=T
1
( e
t
+e
2t
, k )=1+2
k
-/2.
'/M13' $
P)EGL>M
Oiven t0e 4ollo1in! Taylor series e8pansion5
V (t )=

k =0
+
sin (k )t
1+k
(1+k )!

-/3.
determine t0e 4"nction t0at 0as !enerated s"c0 series e8pansion%
I I I I I
SELUTIE#
)e1rite t0e e8pression -/3. as 4ollo1s
V ( t )=t

k =0
+
t
k
k!
sin( k)
( k+1)

-/=.
4or t0e trans4ormation ta3les, 1e can 1rite5
T
(
sin( k)
k+1
, t
)
=
V (t )
t
10ere
T
(
y( k+1)
k+1
, t
)
=
y(0)
t
+
T ( y(k ) , t )
t
-/A.
3"t 1e 0ave also
V ( t )5=T ( y( k) ,t ) t R
y(1+k)=sin (k ) - y( k)=sin (k1)=sin( k) cos(1)cos(k )sin (1)
-//.
no1 reassem3le5
T
(
sin (k)
k+1
, t
)
=
sin(1)
t
+
cos(1)T (sin ( k) , t )
t

sin(1)T ( cos(k) ,t )
t
-/<.
T
(
sin (k)
k+1
, t
)
=
sin(1)
t
+
cos(1)e
t cos (1)
sin(t sin(1))
t

sin(1)e
t cos (1)
cos(t sin (1))
t
-/&.
and t0en t0e searc0ed sol"tion is
V ( t )=sin (1)+( cos(1)sin(t sin(1))sin (1)cos(t sin(1))) e
t cos (1)
-/D.
'/M13' 5
1*O63'M
Oiven t0e 4ollo1in! composite 4"nction, 4ind t0e !eneralized e8pression o4 t0e 2?t0
derivative%
4 (x)=sin(b x) e
a x
-<0.
I I I I I
SELUTIE#
In order to "se t0e trans4ormed V 1e ma2e t0e 4ollo1in! c0an!es in t0e 4"nction -<0.
V (t )=4 ( x+t )=sin(b(t +x))e
a(t +x)
=(cos(b x)sin (bt )+sin (b x)cos(bt )) e
at
e
ax
-<1.
So, a4ter some trivial step, 1e 0ave5
y(k)=cos(b x)e
ax
T
1
(sin(bt )e
at
, k)+sin(b x)e
ax
T
1
(cos(bt ) e
at
, k) -<2.
10ere t0an2s to t0e direct and inverse trans4ormation ta3les 4rom 10ic0 1e 0i!0li!0t
t1o properties5
T
1
(sin(bt )V (t ) , k )=5(T
1
(e
i bt
V (t ) , k)) -<3.
T
1
(cos(bt ) V (t ) , k )=(T
1
(e
i bt
V (t ) , k )) -<=.
1e o3tain5
T
1
(cos (bt )e
at
)=(T
1
(e
at +i bt
, k))=((a+i b)
k
) -<A.
T
1
( sin (bt ) e
a t
)=5(T
1
(e
at +i bt
, k))=5((a+i b)
k
) -</.
So t0an2s to ot0er r"les associated 1it0 t0is trans4ormation 1e 0ave t0e sol"tion
searc0ed
d
k
dx
k
V ( x)=cos(b x)e
a x
5((a+i b)
k
)+sin (b x)e
a x
((a+i b)
k
)
-<<.
'/M13' 7
1*O63'M
Develop in 3inomial series t0e -sin. 4"nction, i%e%5
sin( x)=

n=0
+
(
x
n
)
a
n
-<&.
8 8 8 8 8
SO3,T(ON
In order to "se t0e trans4orm V 1e per4orm t0e 4ollo1in! 4ormal c0an!es
sin( x)
x=k
=sin ( k) thence a
n
=y(n)
-<D.
t0ere4ore t0e e8pression posed 3y t0e pro3lem 3ecomes5
z (k)=sin (k)=

n=0
+
(
k
n
)
y (k)
-&0.
10ere t0an2s to t0e 4ollo1in! r"les 4or t0e 3inomial e8pansion
z(k)=T
1
(e
t
T ( y(n) ,t ), k ) - y(k)=T
1
(e
t
T ( z(k) ,t ), n) -&1.
1e 0ave
T (sin(k) , t )=sin (t sin(1)) e
t cos (1)
-&2.
t0ence
a
n
=y(n)=T
1
(sin(t sin (1))e
t cos ( 1)t
, n) -&3.
10ere p"ttin!
o=sin(1)
e
=cos(1)1
and ta2in! into acco"nt t0e '$ P10 1e
0ave5
a
n
=5(( +i o)
n
)=5((cos(1)1+i sin(1))
n
)=5((e
i
1)
n
) -&=.
and t0ere4ore as re@"ired 3y t0e pro3lem is
sin( k)=

n=0
+
(
k
n
)
5((e
i
1)
n
)
-&A.
10ere e8tendin! t0e varia3le
k
in t0e domain o4 t0e real, 1e 0ave 4or eac0
x
t0e
4ollo1in! relation5
sin( x)=

n=0
+
I( x+1)
n! I(xn+1)
5((e
i
1)
n
)
-&/.
'/M13' 9
Determine t0e s"m o4 t0e 4ollo1in! 3inomial e8pansion5
!(k)=

n=0
+
(
k
n
)
no
n
-&<.
t0an2s to t0e r"les o4 t0e 3inomial e8pansion, 1e !et
!(k)=T
1
(e
t
T ( ko
k
, t ) , k) -&&.
'/M13' :
Determine t0e analytical e8pression o4 t0e 4ollo1in! 4inite s"m%
!( n)=

k=0
n
k
3
-&D.
SELUTIE#
T0an2s to t0e 4ollo1in! t0eorem o4 t0e 4inite s"m e8pressed 3y t0e 4ollo1in!
4orm"la5
!( n)=T
1
(
e
t

0
t
e
( d
d (
T ( y( k) , () d (, n
)
+y(0)6(n) with 6( n)=

1 n=0
0 n0
-D0.
1e proceed as 4ollo1s5
y(k)=k
3
-D1.
10ere 4or t0e T$ = 1e 0ave t0at5
T (k
3
, t )=V
5
(t ) e
t
=(t +3t
2
+t
3
) e
t
-D2.
10ere V
5
(t )=t +3t
2
+t
3
is t0e Volonterio:s polynomial o4 t0e t0ird order% T0ence5
!(n)=T
1
(
e
t

0
t
e
( d
d(
(e
(
((+3(
2
+(
3
))d(, n
)
-D3.
i%e%5
!(n)=T
1
(
e
t

0
t
(1+<(+/(
2
+(
3
)d (, n
)
-D=.
'4ter some calc"lations, 1e o3tain5
!(n)=T
1
(
e
t
(
t +
<
2
t
2
+2t
3
+
t
=
=
)
, n
)
-DA.
i%e%5
!(n)=T
1
(
e
t
(
t +
<
2
t
2
+2t
3
+
t
=
=
)
, n
)
=
k!
( k1)!
+
<
2
k!
(k2)!
+2
k!
(k3)!
+
1
=
k!
(k=)!
-D/.
!(n)=k+
<
2
k(k1)+2k(k1)( k2)+
1
=
k (k1)(k2)(k3)
-D<.
In concl"sion, 1e 0ave5
!(n)=
k
=
=
+
k
3
2
+
k
2
=
=
(
k (k+1)
2
)
2
-D&.
M"ltiplyin! t0e e@%-D&. 4or 1Q/, 1e o3tain an e@"ivalent 4orm"la t0at can 3e
connected to t0e )aman"Ran:s mod"lar 4"nction, lin2ed to t0e modes correspondin!
to t0e p0ysical vi3rations o4 t0e 3osonic strin!s%
7e o3serve t0at t0e s"m o4 t0e c"3es o4 t0e n"m3ers o4 t0e s"ccession o4 nat"ral
n"m3ers is t0e s@"are o4 t0e s"m o4 t0e n"m3ers o4 t0e s"ccession o4 nat"ral
n"m3ers, namely5

k =0
n
k
3
=
(

k=0
n
k
)
2
whee

k =0
n
k=
k (k+1)
2
-DD.
'/M13' ;
P)EGL>M
Determine t0e !eneralized term o4 t0e Macla"rin:s series e8pansion o4 t0e 4ollo1in!
composite analytic 4"nction5
y(t )=e
ot
sin (t ) -100.
SELUTIE#
$or t0e same de4inition o4 trans4orm and inverse trans4orm V and 4or t0e '$ #F 105
c
k
5=y(k)=T
1
(e
ot
sin( t ) , k)=5((o+i )
k
) -101.
'/M13' <
P)EGL>M
Determine t0e !eneralized e8pression o4 t0e $i3onacci6s n"m3ers%
SO3,T(ON
T0e la1 !overnin! t0e $i3onacci:s n"m3ers is t0e 4ollo1in!5
Y
k
+Y
k+1
=Y
k+2
Y
0
=0 Y
1
=1
-102.
2 0 1 2 3 = A / < & D 10 11 12 13 1= 1A 1/
Y
k 0 1 1 2 3 A & 13 21 3= AA &D 1== 233 3<< /10 D/<
In order to apply t0e trans4ormation V 1e m"st ma2e, 4or 4ormalities, t0e 4ollo1in!
c0an!es5
Y
k
=y(k) V (t )=T ( y(k), t )
-103.
So re1ritin! everyt0in! "sin! t0e trans4orm V 1e o3tain5
T ( y(k) ,t )=T ( y(k+1) ,t )+T ( y(k+2) , t )
-10=.
V (t )+
d
dt
V (t )=
d
2
dt
2
V (t ) V (0)=0
d
dt
V (0)=1
-10A.
10ere 4rom t0is di44erential e@"ation 1e o3tain t0e 4ollo1in! associated
c0aracteristic5

2
1=0 with
1,2
=
1!.A
2
-10/.
and t0ence
V ( t )=a e

1
t
+be

2
t
with V (0)=0 e
`
V (0)=1 -10<.

In concl"sion, t0e sol"tion o4 t0e di44erential e@"ation is5
V (t )=
1
.A
e
1+.A
2
t

1
.A
e
1.A
2
t
-10&.
#o1 inv?trans4orm o3tainin! t0e searc0ed sol"tion5
Y
k
=y(n)=
1
.A
((
1+.A
2
)
k

(
1.A
2
)
k
)
-10D.
T0is e8pression can 3e connected 1it0 t0e )o!ers?)aman"Ran identities, t0at are
connected to t0e a"rea ratio, t0ence to t0e p0ysical vi3rations o4 t0e s"persrin!s t0at
are connected to t0e n"m3er &, t0at is a $i3onacci:s n"m3er -1e remem3er t0at t0e
ratio 3et1een a $i3onacci:s n"m3er and t0e s"3se@"ent tend to t0e a"rea ratio
-1,/1&033D&%%%.
7e 0ave t0e 4ollo1in! e8pression5

( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

+

k k
k
n y Y
2
A 1
2
A 1
A
1
,
t0at is t0e e@% -10D.%
#o1, it is 1ell?2no1n t0at t0e series o4 $i3onacci6s n"m3ers e80i3its a 4ractal
c0aracter, 10ere t0e 4orms repeat t0eir similarity startin! 4rom t0e red"ction 4actor
Q 1
S 0,/1&033 S
2
1 A
-Peit!en et al% 1D&/.% S"c0 a 4actor appears also in t0e
4amo"s 4ractal )aman"Ran identity -;ardy 1D2<.5

,
_

+
+
+

"
t
dt
t f
t f
" R
0
A Q = A Q 1
A
. -
. -
A
1
e8p
2
A 3
1
A
. -
2
1 A
Q 1 /1&033 , 0
,
and
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+
+

"
t
dt
t f
t f
" R
0
A Q = A Q 1
A
. -
. -
A
1
e8p
2
A 3
1
A
. -
20
3
2
,
10ere
2
1 A +
%
7e 0ave also t0at

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
1=2
2=

% -10Da.
$rom -10Da., 1e 0ave t0at

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
1=2
2=

% -10D3.
$"rt0ermore, 1it0 re!ard t0e n"m3er 2=, t0is is related to t0e p0ysical vi3rations o4
t0e 3osonic strin!s 3y t0e 4ollo1in! )aman"Ran 4"nction5

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
2=
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

% -10Dc.
$"rt0ermore, e@s% -10D3. and -10Dc. are related% Indeed, 1e can 1rite also t0e
4ollo1in! e8pression5
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
1=2
2=

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

%

T0ence, a4ter some calc"lations, 1e can re1rite t0e e8pression -10D. also as 4ollo1s5

( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

+

k
k
k
n y Y %%% /1&033D& , 0
2
A 1
A
1

( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+
+

,
_

"
k
t
dt
t f
t f
" R
0
A Q = A Q 1
A
A
1
e8p
2
A 3
1
A
2
A 1
A
1
, -10Dd.
4rom 10ic0 1e can o3tain t0e 4ollo1in! mat0ematical connections 1it0 t0e e@%
-10Dc.5

( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

+

k
k
k
n y Y %%% /1&033D& , 0
2
A 1
A
1

( )
( )
( )

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+
+

,
_

"
k
t
dt
t f
t f
" R
0
A Q = A Q 1
A
A
1
e8p
2
A 3
1
A
2
A 1
A
1

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
2=
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

% -10De.

'/M13' =
Determine t0e 4"nction -analytic. !enerated 3y t0e 4ollo1in! in4inite s"m5
f ( x)=

k=0
k =+
sin( x)
(k1)!
( x3)
k
-110.
7e proceed in s"c0 a 1ay as to ma2e t0is e@"ation con4orms 1it0 t0e e8pression o4
t0e de4inition o4 trans4orm V%
1e o3serve t0at
(k+1)!=(k+1)k!
and 4"rt0ermore 1e set
x3=t
o3tainin!5
f (t +3)=

k=0
k =+
sin( k)
k+1

t
k
k!
-111.
o4 co"rse 1e can see no1 clearly t0at -111. can 3e re1ritten as 4ollo1s5
V (t )=

k=0
k=+
y( k)
t
k
k!

-112.
3y placin! respectively, t0e 4ollo1in! s"3stit"tions5
V (t )=f (t +3)
and
y(k)=
sin (k)
k+1
-113.
#o1 1e need to consider i4 is possi3le to per4orm t0e trans4ormation -t0is is
e@"ivalent to s0o1 t0at t0e e@% -110. conver!es., t0ence5
lim
k -+

sin ( k)
k+1

1
k
< lim
k -+

1
k+1

1
k
=0+ c%v%v% -11=.
>@"ation -11=. is to veri4y t0at t0e condition o4 e8istence o4 t0e trans4orm o4
y(k)
is tr"e and t0en 1e proceed to t0e trans4ormation "sin! t0e attac0ed ta3les in t0is
paper5
V (t )=T
(
y( k+1)
k+1!
, t
)
=
V
1
(t )V
1
(0)
t
1it0
y(k+1)=sin( k)u(k)
-11A.
10ere 4or t0e initial val"e T0eorem5
u( k)=

1 k0
0 k0
k
$or t0e P$ 1/ 1e o3serve t0at5
V (t )5=T
(
y(1+k)
1+k
, t
)
=
V (t )V (0)
t
10ere
y(1+k)=sin (k ) whee y( k)=sin (k1)=sin (k )cos(1)sin(1)cos( k)
-11/.
t0ence

T
(
y(1+k)
1+k
, t
)
=
V (t )V (0)
t
whee V (t )=T ( y( k) , t )
-11<.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 cos 1 sin sin , 1 sin cos 1 cos sin
1 cos
t e t k k T
t

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 sin 1 sin cos
1 cos
t e
t

-11&.
V (t )=e
t cos( 1)
sin (t sin (1))cos(1)e
t cos( 1)
cos(t sin(1))sin (1)=e
t cos( 1)
sin (t sin (1)1) -11D.
V (0)=e
t cos (1)
sin(t sin(1)1)=sin(1) -120.

t0ence t0e e@% -11<. 3ecomes5
f (t )=
e
( t3) cos (1)
sin (t sin(1)1)+sin(1)
(t 3)
-121.
and 4inally t0e searc0ed res"lt o4 -110. is5

k=0
k=+
sin ( x)
(k1)!
( x3)
k
=
e
( x3) cos( 1)
sin (( x3) sin(1)1)+sin(1)
( x3)
-122.
'/M13' !2
1*O63'M
)epresent t0e ;ermite6s n"m3ers "sin! an inte!ral 4orm"la%
SO3,T(ON
*onsider t0e 4ollo1in! 4amo"s relations0ips concernin! t0e polynomials and t0e
;ermite6s n"m3ers5
( ) ( )
2 2
1
t
n
n
t n
k
e
dt
d
e t H

-123.
( )

0
M
0
2
k
k
k
t
k
t
H e
t
) -12=.
T0e 4orm"la -12=. satis4ies t0e necessary and s"44icient condition 3eca"se t0e -/. is
valid, as it is conver!ent 4or eac0
t
), and t0en t0e radi"s o4 conver!ence is
> +
,
t0en in s"c0 case, t0e relation -/. is valid% Gelo1 t0ere are some ;ermite6s
polynomials 5
( ) 1
0
t H
J ( ) t t H 2
1
J ( ) 2 =
2
2
t t H J ( ) t t t H 12 &
3
3
J ( ) 12 =& 1/
2 =
=
+ t t t H ,
-12A.
10ere i4 1e place
0 t
, 1e o3tain t0e ;ermite6s n"m3ers5
( ) 1 0
0
H
J
( ) 0 0
1
H
J
( ) 2 0
2
H
J
( ) 0 0
3
H
J
( ) 12 0
=
H
J
( ) 0 0
A
H
J
( ) 120 0
/
H
%

-12/.
So, 3y com3inin! t0e 4orm"la -/. 1it0 t0e -123., 1e 0ave t0at5

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

2 sin sin 2 sin cos 5

2 cos
2
i e e t V
i
e t
t

, -12<.
t0ence, t0e real part o4 -12<. is5

( )
( ) ( ) ( )

2 sin cos
2 cos

e
-12&.
10ic0, s"3stit"ted into -/., 3ecomes a ne1 4orm"la o4 t0e ;ermite6s n"m3ers5

( ) ( ) 1 1 0
n
k
H

0 k
J

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

0
2 cos
cos 2 sin cos 1
2
1 0 d k e k H
n
k
0 k % -12D.
7e note t0at 4or
( ) 12 0
=
H
and
( ) 120 0
/
H
, and 2no1 t0at 12 S 2=Q2 and 120 S 2=

A, 1e 0ave a possi3le relations0ip 1it0 t0e p0ysical vi3rations o4 t0e 3osonic strin!s
3y t0e 4ollo1in! )aman"Ran 4"nction5

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
2=
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

%
T0ence, 1e o3tain t0e 4ollo1in! mat0ematical connection 1it0 t0e second e@"ation
-12D.5

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) +

0
2 cos
cos 2 sin cos 1
2
1 0 d k e k H
n
k


( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

%
'/M13' !!
1*O63'M
*alc"late ( )
k
1 3y an inte!ral e8pression "sin! t0e -/.%
SO3,T(ON
$or t0e -=., 4ollo1 t0at t0e radi"s o4 conver!ence is
> +
, and t0en 1e can "se t0e
-/.% $rom T$ #%A, placin!
1
, 1e 0ave5
( ) ( ) ( )
t k
e t T t V

, 1
1
-130.
t0ere4ore in t0e -/., 1e 0ave5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

0
1
1
5 , d e V k t V T k y
i
R

0 k
J

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

0
1
cos 1
2
5 , d k e V k k t V T k y
i
R
k # 0 k -131.
10ere5
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )


sin cos
cos
e e e V
i
e i
R R , -132.
t0ere4ore5

( )
( )
( ) ( )

0
cos
sin cos
1
1 d e
k

0 k
J

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

0
cos
cos sin cos 1
2
1 d k e k
k

k
#
0 k
% -133.
'/M13' !$
1*O63'M
>8press t0e relation t0at e8ists 3et1een t0e Volonterio6s polynomials and t0e inverse
trans4orm -/.%
SO3,T(ON
$rom t0e 4orm"la -23. o4 t0e Volonterio6s polynomials 1e 0ave5

( )

+

0
M
k
k
n t
n
k
t
k e t V
% -13=.
Since t0e radi"s o4 conver!ence is
> +
, it is possi3le "se t0e -/. and t0ence5

( ) ( )

0
1
d e V k
i n
R

0 k
J

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

0
cos 1
2
d k e V k k
i n
R

k
#,
0 k
% -13A.
namely5
0
n
k
0 k
J

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+
+

0
sin cos
cos 1
2
d k e e V k k
i i
n
n
R

k
#,
0 k
% -13/.
10ere5

( ) 1
0
t V
J
( ) t t V
1
J
( )
2
2
t t t V +
J
( )
3 2
3
3 t t t t V + +
J
( )
= 3 2
=
/ < t t t t t V + + +
%
#o1, p"ttin!
2 t
in t0e e8pression
= 3 2
/ < t t t t + + + , 1e 0ave t0e 4ollo1in! res"lt5
D= 1/ =& 2& 2 1/ & / = < 2 2 2 / 2 < 2
= 3 2
+ + + + + + + + + J
7e note t0at
( ) ( ) 2 & J 3 Q =& 1/
and
2 2= =&
are related 1it0 t0e p0ysical vi3rations
o4 t0e 3osonic strin!s 3y t0e 4ollo1in! )aman"Ran 4"nction5

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
2=
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

%
T0ence, also 4or t0e second e@"ation -13/., 1e can 1rite t0e 4ollo1in! mat0ematical
connection5

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) +

0
sin cos
cos 1
2
d k e e V k k
i i
n
n
R

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

%


$ppendi% 1
&n some mathemati#al #onne#tions #on#ernin! some se#tors of strin! theory%
#o1 1e analyze t0e possi3le mat0ematical connections 3et1een some e@"ations
re!ardin! some sectors o4 strin! t0eory and some e8pressions already descri3ed
previo"sly in t0is paper -see e@s% -/. and -&/..%

7e de4ine as inverse trans4orm o4
( ) t V
t0e discrete 4"nction
( ) k y
o3tained 3y t0e
4ollo1in! de4inition5 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
5 ,


t k
k
t V
dt
d
k t V T k y or 3y t0e 4ollo1in! alternative
4orm"la 4or
k
#
0
5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

,
_

0
1
cos 1
2
5 , d k e V k k t V T k y
i
R
, -a.
10ere

is t0e 'uler 4amma function and

e
is t0e >"lero?#epero6s constant -
%%%% <1&2&1&2& % 2 e
.%
I4 1e develop in 3inomial series t0e 4ollo1in! 4"nction5
( )

+

,
_

0
sin
n
n
a
n
x
x
, applyin!
and "sin! t0e trans4ormed
V
, 1e o3tain t0e 4ollo1in! relations0ip5

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )

+
+

0
1
1 M
1
sin
n
n
i
e
n x n
x
x I
,
4rom 10ic0, inte!ratin!, 1e can to o3tain5

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )


+

+
+

0
1
1 M
1
sin
n
n
i
e
n x n
x
x I
%
7e 2no1 t0at
( ) ( )

x x cos sin
, t0ence, 1e o3tain t0e 4ollo1in! relations0ip5

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

+
+
0
cos 1
1 M
1
n
n
i
x e
n x n
x
I
% -b.
a#$%&oint tachyon am&litude
In 1D/& Veneziano proposed t0e 4ollo1in! 0e"ristic ans1er

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t (
t (
t ( )


+

,
-1%1.
1it0
( ) ( ) ( ( : 0 +
%
'uler 4amma function 0as poles in t0e ne!ative real a8is at inte!er val"es
( ) n (

1it0 resid"e

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) n ( n ( ( ( (
n (
(
(
(
+ + + +
+ +

1 %%% 2 1
1 1

( )
( )
( ) n ( n
n
n (
+

1
M
1
% -1%2.
;ence, at 4i8ed
t
, t0e amplit"de 0as in4initely many poles at
( ) , 0 (
4or
( ) ( ) n ( ( + : 0
or

( )
2
:
0
n
*
n
(

-1%3.
1it0 resid"e

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) n ( n
n t t t
n ( t n
t
n
t ( )
n
n (

+ + +

1
M
%%% 2 1 1
M
1
,
=
% -1%=.
In t0e 3osonic strin! t0e simplest verte8 operator is t0e one 4or t0e tac0yon state
0 N
0ence : Q =
2
* % 7e 0ave5

( ) ( )



& z z zV d + ze d + &
(
, i&
(
J , J 0
2 2
V
% -1%A.
7it0 re!ard t0e =?point tac0yon amplit"de, 1e 0ave t0e 4ollo1in! e@"ation5

( )
( )
( ) ( )


<

,
_

l -
& &
l -
m
i
i
m
(
i
i i i
m
l -
z z z d
C !. Vol
+
& &
:
1
2
2
, 2
,

% -1%/.
Settin!
= m
1e end "p 1it0

( )
( )
( ) ( )


<

,
_

l -
& &
l -
i
i
(
i
i i i
l -
z z z d
C !. Vol
+
& &
:
=
1
2
2
=
, 2
,

% -1%<.
'4ter 4i8in! t0e
( ) C !. , 2
invariance 3y p"ttin! t0e insertion points at
z , 1 , 0
and

=
z
1e end "p 1it0

( )

,
_

3 2 3 1
: :
2 2 =
1
& & & &
i
i (
z z z d & +

-1%&.
"sin! 4amma function identities t0is e8pression can 3e !iven a nice 4orm% Ene
m"st "se t0e inte!ral representation

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

c b a
c b a
z z z d
b a
1 1 1
2
1
2 2 2 2
2

-1%D.
10ere
1 + + c b a
% 7it0 t0is, -1%&. can 3e s0o1n to 3e e@"al to

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) = Q : 2 = Q : 2 = Q : 2
= Q : 1 = Q : 1 = Q : 1
2 =
u t (
u t (
& +
i
i (

+ + +

,
_

-1%10.
in terms o4 t0e Mandelstam varia3les
( )
2
2 1
& & ( + J
( )
2
3 2
& & t +
J ( )
2
= 1
& & u + -1%11.
10ic0 satis4y on s0ell -i%e% "se t0e tac0yon mass
: Q =
2 2
* &
i
.

+ +
=
1
2 2
:
1/
i
i i
* & u t (

% -1%12.
7e can 1rite also t0e 4ollo1in! mat0ematical connection5
( )

,
_

3 2 3 1
: :
2 2 =
1
& & & &
i
i (
z z z d & +

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

+ + +

,
_

= Q : 2 = Q : 2 = Q : 2
= Q : 1 = Q : 1 = Q : 1
2
u t (
u t (
& +
i
i (

=
1
2 2
:
1/
i
i i
* &

% -1%13.
T0is e8pression can 3e related 1it0 t0e 4ollo1in! )aman"Ran6s mod"lar e@"ation
lin2ed 1it0 t0e (modes+ -i%e% & t0at is also a $i3onacci6s n"m3er. t0at correspond to
t0e p0ysical vi3rations o4 t0e s"perstrin!s5

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
3
1
&
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

% -1%1=.
T0ence, 1e 0ave t0e 4ollo1in! relations0ip5

( )

,
_

3 2 3 1
: :
2 2 =
1
& & & &
i
i (
z z z d & +

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

+ + +

,
_

= Q : 2 = Q : 2 = Q : 2
= Q : 1 = Q : 1 = Q : 1
2
u t (
u t (
& +
i
i (

=
1
2 2
:
1/
i
i i
* &

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo! :
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
3
1
2
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2

w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x
% -1%1A.
7e note t0at t0is relations0ip ca 3e related also 1it0 t0e e@% -a., i%e% t0e inverse
trans4orm o4
( ) t V
, t0ence 1e o3tain t0is 4"rt0er mat0ematical connection5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

,
_

0
1
cos 1
2
5 , d k e V k k t V T
i
R


,
_

3 2 3 1
: :
2 2
1
& & & &
i
i (
z z z d & +

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

+ + +

,
_

= Q : 2 = Q : 2 = Q : 2
= Q : 1 = Q : 1 = Q : 1
2
u t (
u t (
& +
i
i (

=
1
2 2
:
1/
i
i i
* &

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo! :
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
3
1
2
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2

w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x
% -1%1A3.
b#the o&en (tin+ (cattein+
7it0 re!ard t0e open strin! scatterin!, t0e amplit"de is comp"ted 1it0 operator
insertions alon! t0e 3o"ndary o4 t0e dis2 10ic0 maps onto t0e real a8is o4 t0e
comple8 plane% T0e e@"ation o4 t0e amplit"de is5
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

=
1
T T
=
= 1 1 1
%%%
, 2
i
x , i& x , i&
i
(
e e dx
R !. Vol
+
( ) ( )

,
_

=
1
: 2
2/
, 2
i
& &
l -
- i i
i
i
(
- i
x x dx &
R !. Vol
+

%

-1%1/.
$or a !iven orderin!, t0e resid"al symmetry can 3e "sed to 4i8 3 points to
x x x x
3 2 1
, 0 , 0
and

=
x
% T0e res"ltin! e8pression contains a sin!le inte!ration
4or
1 0 x

( )

1
0
: 2 : 2
= 3 2 2 1
1
& & & &
(
x x dx +

% -1%1<.
T0is inte!ral is related to t0e >"ler Geta 4"nction -t0ence 1it0 t0e >"ler Oamma
4"nction.

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

+



1
0
1 1
1 ,
b a
b a
x dxx b a /
b a
% -1%1&.
70ence, "sin! no1 t0e tac0yon mass : Q 1
2
* one recovers t0e Veneziano
amplit"de

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

,
_

+


t (
t (
+
(
: 1
: 1 : 1
=

% -1%1D.
T0ence, 1e 0ave t0e 4ollo1in! possi3le mat0ematical relations0ip 3et1een -1%1/.,
-1%1<. and -1%1D.5
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

=
1
T T
=
= 1 1 1
%%%
, 2
i
x , i& x , i&
i
(
e e dx
R !. Vol
+
( ) ( )

,
_

=
1
: 2
2/
, 2
i
& &
l -
- i i
i
i
(
- i
x x dx &
R !. Vol
+

1
0
: 2 : 2
3 2 2 1
1
& & & &
(
x x dx +

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

,
_

+

t (
t (
+
(
: 1
: 1 : 1

% -1%20.
'lso t0is relations0ip can 3e related 1it0 e@% -a., t0ence 1e o3tain t0is 4"rt0er
mat0ematical connection5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

,
_

0
1
cos 1
2
5 , d k e V k k t V T
i
R

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

=
1
T T
= 1 1 1
%%%
, 2
i
x , i& x , i&
i
(
e e dx
R !. Vol
+
( ) ( )

,
_

=
1
: 2
2/
, 2
i
& &
l -
- i i
i
i
(
- i
x x dx &
R !. Vol
+

1
0
: 2 : 2
3 2 2 1
1
& & & &
(
x x dx +

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

,
_

+

t (
t (
+
(
: 1
: 1 : 1

% -1%203.
c# 0ou &oint am&litude fo the tachyon( fom C0T
T0e !ro"nd state tac0yons in t0e t1isted sector corresponds to5

,
_

N
k
* 1
2
-1%21.
$or t0e near mar!inal tac0yons, in t0e lar!e
N
limit, 10ic0 are in t0e
( )th k N
sector,
t0e verte8 operator in t0e
( ) 1 , 1
representation is,

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) z z e e e e e z z V
x ik
z H
N
k
i z H
N
k
i
, ,
%
U
1 1 U
1 , 1 +

,
_

,
_

+



% -1%22.
T0e 4o"r point amplit"de 4or t0ese lo1est lyin! tac0yons can no1 3e comp"ted 3y
ta2in! t1o vertices in t0e
( ) 0 , 0
representation and t1o in t0e
( ) 1 , 1
representation%
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

C
0 0 0 0
V T e T e z z V V T e T e z z V z d C 0
U
, 1
U
,
1 , 1
U
1 , 1 1 , 1
U
1 , 1
2
% -1%23.
T0e constant
2 =
( c
C + C
, 10ere
2
(
C
is related to c
+
3y
2
2
=
c
(
+
C

% -1%2=.
T0is amplit"de can no1 3e comp"ted and is !iven 3y,

( )
( )

C
t (
z 0
z z
z d k k C 1
2
2 2
2 2
3 1
1
%
, -1%2A.
10ere
( ) z 0
is t0e 0yper!eometric 4"nction,

( ) ( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

1
0
1
1 1
1
J 1 J 1 , N
k
N
k
N
k
yz y dyy z
N
k
N
k
0 z 0

, -1%2/.
and ( )
2
2 1
k k ( + ,
( )
2
3 2
k k t +
,
( )
2
1 3
k k ( +
%
In t0e lar!e
N
appro8imation,

( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 2
Q %%%
3
1
2
1
1 N k 2 z z z
N
k
z 0 +

,
_

+ + + +
% -1%2<.
#ote t0at t0e terms proportional to
N k Q
in -1%2<. s0i4t t0e s?c0annel pole% T0ere is an
additional 4actor o4 ( )
2
2 1
%k k , d"e to 10ic0 t0e contact term 4rom any o4 t0e terms o4
-1%2<. apart 4rom 1, 1o"ld at least 3e o4 ( ) ( )
2
Q N k 2 % 7it0 t0is o3servation, t0e inte!ral
can no1 3e per4ormed 4or
( ) 1 z 0
%

( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

2
1
2
1
2 2
2 2
1
2 2
% 2
2
3 1
t ( t (
t ( t (
k k C 1

( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

,
_

+
2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
1 1
2
=
1
=
2
2 2 2
t ( t (
t ( t (
t (
m u +
c

% -1%2&.
#o1 "sin!
2
=m u t ( + + ,

( ) ( )
( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

1
1
]
1

+ +

2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
& 3
2 2
=
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
t ( t (
t ( t (
m t (
t
m (
(
m t
+ 1
c

% -1%2D.
10ere 1e 0ave to e8pand t0e !amma 4"nctions%
'lso 0ere 1e can 1rite t0e 4ollo1in! relations0ip 3et1een -1%2A. and -1%2D.5

( )
( )

C
t (
z 0
z z
z d k k C 1
2
2 2
2 2
3 1
1
%

( ) ( )
( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

1
1
]
1

+ +

2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
& 3
2 2
=
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
t ( t (
t ( t (
m t (
t
m (
(
m t
+
c

% -1%30.
'lso t0is e8pression can 3e related 1it0 t0e e@% -a. and 1it0 t0e )aman"Ran6s
mod"lar e@"ation concernin! t0e n"m3er & and t0ence, 1e o3tain t0is 4"rt0er
mat0ematical connection5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

,
_

0
1
cos 1
2
5 , d k e V k k t V T
i
R

( )
( )

C
t (
z 0
z z
z d k k C
2
2 2
2 2
3 1
1
%

( ) ( )
( )

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

1
1
]
1

+ +

2
1
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
& 3
2 2
=
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
t ( t (
t ( t (
m t (
t
m (
(
m t
+
c

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
3
1
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

% -1%303.
d# ex&e((ion( concenin+ the fou tachyon am&litude in C!0T
7it0 re!ard a closed analytical e8pression 4or t0e o44?s0ell 4o"r tac0yon amplit"de in
*S$T, Oiddin!s !ave an e8plicit con4ormal map t0at ta2es t0e )iemann s"r4aces
de4ined 3y t0e 7itten dia!rams to t0e standard disc 1it0 4o"r tac0yon verte8
operators on t0e 3o"ndary% T0is con4ormal map is de4ined in terms o4 4o"r parameters
, , ,
%
T0e 4o"r parameters are not independent varia3les% T0ey satis4y t0e relations

1
,
1
-1%31.
and

( ) ( ) k k , ,
2
1
2 0 1 0

, -1%32.
10ere
( ) k ,
0

is de4ined 3y

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) : , : , : ,
2
,
0
k 0 k K k 3 k K k 0 k 3 k

+
% -1%33.
In -1%33.
( ) k K
and
( ) k 3
are complete elliptic 4"nctions o4 t0e 4irst and second 2inds,
( ) k 0 ,
is t0e incomplete elliptic inte!ral o4 t0e 4irst 2ind% T0e parameters
k , ,
2 1

and
: k
satis4y

2
2
2

k ,
2 2
1 : k k , -1%3=.

2 2
2
1
2
sin

,
2 2
2
2
2
sin

% -1%3A.
Gy "sin! t0e inte!ral representations o4 t0e elliptic 4"nctions it is possi3le to 1rite t0e
e@"ation -1%32. in a "se4"l 4orm

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
=
1
1
1
1
1
Q Q
3
2 = 2
2 =
2 = 2
2

+ +

+ +

t t
dt K
t t
dt 3
% -1%3/.
To e8pand -1%3/. 4or small

and

1e 0ave to divide t0e inte!ration re!ion into

t0ree intervals in s"c0 a 1ay t0at t0e s@"are roots in t0e denominators o4 -1%3/. can
3e consistently e8panded and t0e inte!rals in
t
per4ormed% $or e8ample consider t0e
inte!ral in t0e 4irst term o4 -1%3/., it can 3e re1ritten as

+ +
+
+ +
+
+ +

+ +

Q 1 Q
1
2 2
=
2 2
2
=
2
=
2
2
2 = 2
2
2
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1
t t
t
dt
t
t
t
dt
t
t
dt
t t
dt

-1%3<.
In eac0 inte!ral o4 t0e r0s t0e inte!ration domain is contained in t0e conver!ence
radi"s o4 t0e Taylor e8pansions o4 t0e s@"are roots containin!

, so t0at t0ey can 3e

sa4ely e8panded and t0e inte!rals in
t
per4ormed% 7it0 t0is proced"re one !ets t0e
4ollo1in! e@"ation e@"ivalent to -1%3/.5

( ) ( ) ( )

'

+
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

,
_

0 ,
2
1 2
=
2
2
1
1 2 2
2
M M
2
1
2
1
2
1
k n
kn
k
n
k
k n
k n k n
3

( ) ( ) ( )

'

+
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

0 ,
2
1 2
= 2 = 2 =
= =
1 2 2
1
M M
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 ln
2 2
k n
k
n
k n
kn
k n
k n
k n k n
K
n k

( ) ( )
= 3 2 2
1
ln
2 2
1
2
3 2
= 2 =
= =

1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +
+

+
+
n
k
n n
kn
k n
kn
k n n k
% -1%3&.
T0ence, 4rom -1%3/. and -1%3&. 1e can 1rite t0e 4ollo1in! mat0ematical relations0ip5

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+ +

+ +

Q Q
3
2 = 2
2 =
2 = 2
2
1
1
1
1
1
t t
dt K
t t
dt 3

( ) ( ) ( )

'

+
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

,
_

0 ,
2
1 2
=
2
2
1
1 2 2
2
M M
2
1
2
1
2
1
k n
kn
k
n
k
k n
k n k n
3

( ) ( ) ( )

'

+
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

0 ,
2
1 2
= 2 = 2 =
= =
1 2 2
1
M M
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 ln
2 2
k n
k
n
k n
kn
k n
k n
k n k n
K
n k

( ) ( )
= 3 2 2
1
ln
2 2
1
2
3 2
= 2 =
= =

1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +
+

+
+
n
k
n n
kn
k n
kn
k n n k
% -1%3&3.
'lso t0is e8pression can 3e related 1it0 t0e e@% -a., and t0ence 1e o3tain t0is 4"rt0er
mat0ematical connection5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

,
_

0
1
cos 1
2
5 , d k e V k k t V T
i
R

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+ +

+ +

Q Q
3
2 = 2
2 =
2 = 2
2
1
1
1
1
1
t t
dt K
t t
dt 3

( ) ( ) ( )

'

+
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

,
_

0 ,
2
1 2
=
2
2
1
1 2 2
2
M M
2
1
2
1
2
1
k n
kn
k
n
k
k n
k n k n
3

( ) ( ) ( )

'

+
1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

0 ,
2
1 2
= 2 = 2 =
= =
1 2 2
1
M M
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 ln
2 2
k n
k
n
k n
kn
k n
k n
k n k n
K
n k

( ) ( )
= 3 2 2
1
ln
2 2
1
2
3 2
= 2 =
= =

1
1
]
1

,
_

+ +
+

+
+
n
k
n n
kn
k n
kn
k n n k
% -1%3&c.
'ro"nd
2 Q 1 x
, i%e 1 2 and
1
, it is possi3le to o3tain only
x
-or

. as a
4"nction o4

and not t0e opposite% S"c0 an e8pansion can 3e o3tained 3y 4irst

e8pandin! e@%-1%3/. aro"nd
1
and t0en loo2in! 4or an e8pansion o4

in terms o4
po1ers o4
1
and
( ) 1 ln
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + + + + + + + %%% 1 ln 1 1 ln 1 %%% 1 1 1 2
2
2 1
2
2 1
b b a a
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) %%% 1 ln 1 1 ln 1
2 2
2
2
1
+ + + c c -1%3D.
T0e coe44icients in -1%3D. are determined 3y re@"irin! t0at -1%3/. is satis4ied% 7e
provide 0ere directly t0e e8pansion o4
x
as a 4"nction o4
1
"p to t0e nint0 order
( ) ( ) ( ) +
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

+
=
1
lo! 3 1 1
1/
1
=
1
lo! 1
=
1
=
1
lo! 2 1 1
&
1
2
1
= 3 2

x
( ) ( )

+
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

+
=
1
lo! /=
=
1
lo! 2=
=
1
lo! 10& D< 1
1A3/
1
=
1
lo! 12 < 1
D/
1
3 2 / A

( ) ( ) [ + +
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ 321 1
102=0
1
=
1
lo! 320
=
1
lo! =0
=
1
lo! 100 11D 1
2A/0
1
& 3 2 <

( )

,
_

+ +
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

=
1
lo! A<=0 1&<1 1
10<A20
1
=
1
lo! 22=0
=
1
lo! 12=0
=
1
lo! /0
D 3 2

%%%
=
1
lo! 313/0
=
1
lo! 2D120
3 2
+
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+

-1%=0.
e# &hy(ical inte&etation of the nontivial zeta zeo( in tem( of tachyonic (tin+
&ole(
T0e 4o"r?point d"al strin! amplit"de o3tained 3y Veneziano 1as

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

+ +

R
/ x x dx ( u ) ( t ) t ( ) )

, 1 , , ,
1 1
= , -1%=1.
10ere t0e )e!!e traRectories in t0e respective
u t ( , ,
c0annels are5

( ) ( (
2
1
1+
,
( ) t t
2
1
1+
,
( ) u u
2
1
1+
% -1%=2.
T0e conservation o4 t0e ener!y?moment"m yields5

0
= 3 2 1 = 3 2 1
+ + + k k k k k k k k
% -1%=3.
7e 0ave also t0at t0e s"m

( ) ( ) & 2 2
3 1 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + + + k k k k k k k k k u t (
-1%==.
in mass "nits o4 m
Planc2
S 1, 10en all t0e 4o"r particles are tac0yons and one 0as t0e
on?s0ell condition5


2 2
3
2
2
2
1
m k k k
, 2m
2
Planc2
S , 2 -1%=A.
in t0e nat"ral "nits
1 G c
.
Planc2
S 1 s"c0 t0at t0e strin! slope parameter in
t0ose "nits is !iven 3y
( ) 2 Q 1 :
.
4
Planc2
S 1Q2 and t0e strin! mass spectr"m is
@"antized in m"ltiplies o4 t0e Planc2 mass m
Planc2
S 1%
$rom t0e conservation o4 ener!y?moment"m -1%=3. and t0e tac0yon on?s0ell
condition e@% -1%=A., one can ded"ce t0at5

( ) ( )
= 3 2 1
2
= 3
2
2 1
k k k k k k k k + +
% -1%=/.
T0ere4ore, 4rom e@s% -1%==. , -1%=/. it is strai!0t4or1ard to s0o15

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + + + + + +
= 3 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 1
2 12 2 2 2 2 2 k k k k k k k k k k u t (



( ) & = 12 2 12 2 12
3 3 3 3 = 3 2 1
+ + k k k k k k k k
% -1%=<.
T0is relations0ip amon! & =
2
+ + m u t ( 1ill 3e cr"cial in 10at 4ollo1s ne8t% $rom
e@s% -1%=2., -1%==., and -1%=<. 1e learn t0at5

1 + +
% -1%=&.
T0ere e8ists a 1ell?2no1n relation amon! t0e

4"nctions ->"ler Oamma 4"nction.

in terms o4

4"nctions -)iemann zeta 4"nction. appearin! in t0e e8pression 4or

( ) u t ( ) , ,
10en
,
4all inside t0e critical strip% In t0is case, t0e inte!ration re!ion in
t0e real line t0at de4ines
( ) u t ( ) , ,
in e@% -1%=1. can 3e divided into t0ree parts and leads
to t0e very important identity

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

+

+
+

+
+


1 1 1
, , , / u t ( )
-1%=D.
10ere
1 + +
and
,
are con4ined to t0e interior o4 t0e critical strip%
T0e derivation 3e0ind e@% -1%=D. relies on t0e condition
1 + +
e@% -1%=&. and t0e
identities

( ) ( ) ( )
2
cos
2
cos
2
cos = sin sin sin

+ + + + +
, -1%A0.

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+ +

sin
1
1
, -1%A1.
pl"s t0e remainin! cyclic perm"tations 4rom 10ic0 one can in4er

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+

+
sin
, -1%A2.

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+

+
sin
, -1%A3.

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+

+
sin
% -1%A=.

T0ere4ore, e@s% -1%A0. , -1%A=. allo1 "s to recast t0e le4t 0and side o4 -1%=D. as

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

2
cos
2
cos
2
cos
=
, , , / u t ( )
% -1%AA.
'nd, 4inally, t0e 2no1n 4"nctional relation

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) z z
z
z
z

2
cos 2 1 2
, -1%A/.
in conR"nction 1it0 t0e condition
1 + +
s"c0 t0at ( )

2 2
+ +
is 10at
esta3lis0es the important identity "!.7=# e>pressing e>plicitly the string
amplitude
( ) u t ( ) , ,
either in terms of ?eta functions or in terms of

functions%
In concl"sion, 1e 0ave t0e 4ollo1in! interestin! relations0ip 3et1een t0e e@s% -1%=1.,
-1%=D. and -1%AA.5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + +

R
/ x x dx ( u ) ( t ) t ( ) )

, 1 , , ,
1 1
=

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

+

+
+

+
+















1 1 1
, , , / u t ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

2
cos
2
cos
2
cos
=
, -1%A<.
4rom 10ic0 1e can to o3tain t0e 4ollo1in! e@"ivalent e8pression5

( )

R
/ x x dx )

,
=
1
1
=
1
=
1 1 1
=
( ) ( ) ( )

&
cos
&
cos
&
cos
1
% -1%A&.
In t0is e8pression t0ere are 3ot0 C and &, i%e% t0e n"m3er t0at is connected 1it0 t0e
(modes+ t0at correspond to t0e p0ysical vi3rations o4 a s"perstrin! 3y t0e 4ollo1in!
)aman"Ran 4"nction5

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
3
1
&
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

% -1%AD.
T0ence t0e 4inal mat0ematical connection5

( )

R
/ x x dx )

,
=
1
1
=
1
=
1 1 1
=
( ) ( ) ( )

&
cos
&
cos
&
cos
1

( )
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

1
1
1
]
1

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
:
1=2
:
cos0
: cos
lo! =
3
1
2
:
:
=
0
:
2
2
w t
itw e
dx e
x
txw
anti
w
w
t
w x

% -1%/0.
'lso 0ere 1e can to o3tain an interestin! mat0ematical connection 3et1een t0e e@%
-1%A<. and t0e e@% -b.% T0ence, 1e 0ave t0e 4ollo1in! relations0ip5

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
+
+

+
0
cos 1
1 M
1
n
n
i
x e
n x n
x
I

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) + +

R
/ x x dx ( u ) ( t ) t ( )

, 1 , , ,
1 1

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

+

+
+

+
+















1 1 1
, , , / u t ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

2
cos
2
cos
2
cos
=
% -1%/03.
*athematical connection( between Gamma function and Riemann5( zeta function
)iemann6s zeta 4"nction

is de4ined 3y

( )

1
1
n
z
n
z
-1%/1.
4or
1 )e > z
% In t0at re!ion t0e series conver!es "ni4ormly on compact sets and
represents a 0olomorp0ic 4"nction% I4 1e consider t0e e8pression 4or t0e Oamma
4"nction

( )




0
1
dt e t z
t z
-1%/2.
4or
0 )e > z
, and c0an!e t0e varia3le
t
into
n( t
4or
N n
, 1e !et

( )




0
1
d( e ( n z
n( z z
-1%/3.
i%e%, 1e 0ave

( )

0
1
dt e t
n
z
nt z
z
-1%/=.
4or any
N n
and
0 )e > z
% T0is implies t0at 4or
1 )e > z
, 1e 0ave

( ) ( )

,
_

1
0 0 0 0
1
1
1
1 1
1 1
n
t
z
t
t
z
n
nt z nt z
dt
e
t
dt
e
e
t dt e t dt e t z z
% -1%/A.
T0is esta3lis0es t0e 4ollo1in! inte!ral representation 4or t0e zeta 4"nction%
$or
1 )e > z
, 1e 0ave
( ) ( )

0
1
1
dt
e
t
z z
t
z
% -1%//.
$or any
z
*, 1e 0ave

( ) ( ) ( ) z z
z
z
z z

,
_

1 1
2
sin 2
1

% -1%/<.
Let
C
3e a pat0% 7e c"t t0e comple8 plane alon! positive real a8is and consider t0e
inte!ral

C
w
z
dw
e
w
1
1
% -1%/&.
I4 t0e radi"s

o4 t0e arc
C
is less t0an
2
, it 4ollo1s immediately 4rom t0e *a"c0y
t0eorem t0at t0is inte!ral doesn6t depend on

and t0e distance o4 t0e 0orizontal lines

4rom t0e positive real a8is% 7e can estimate t0e inte!ral over
C
as

2
0
)e
1
1
1
1
d
e
* dw
e
w
i
e
z
C
w
z
% -1%/D.
Since 1
w
e w 0as a simple zero at t0e ori!in,
( ) w w+ e
w
1
10ere
+
is 0olomorp0ic
near t0e ori!in and
( ) 1 0 +
% It 4ollo1s t0at

w e
w
2
1
1
-1%<0.
4or small
w
% ;ence, 1e 0ave

1 )e
1
=
1

z
C
w
z
* dw
e
w

-1%<1.
4or small

%
$rom -1%<1., 1e o3tain t0e 4ollo1in! interestin! inverse 4orm"la5

1 )e
1
=
1
1
z
C
w
z
*
dw
e
w
-1%<13.
In partic"lar, i4
1 )e > z
, 1e see t0at t0e inte!ral over

C
tends to 0 as
0
% ;ence,
3y ta2in! t0e limit as

!oes to zero, and t0e 0orizontal lines tend to t0e real a8is, 1e
!et
( )
( ) ( )

C
t
z
z i
t
z
iz
t
z
i z
t
z
w
z
dt
e
t
z ie dt
e
t
e dt
e
t
e dt
e
t
dw
e
w
0 0 0 0
1 1
2
1
1 2
1 1
1
sin 2
1
1
1 1 1



( ) ( ) ( ) z z z ie
z i

sin 2
-1%<2.
3y -1%//.% T0is implies t0at

( ) ( ) ( ) z z z ie
z i

sin 2

C
w
z
dw
e
w
1
1
-1%<3.
4or any pat0
C
1e considered a3ove and
1 )e > z
%
$"rt0ermore, 1e 0ave also t0e 4ollo1in! mat0ematical connection5

( ) ( ) ( ) z z z ie
z i

sin 2

C
w
z
dw
e
w
1
1

1 )e
1
=
1
1
z
C
w
z
*
dw
e
w
% -1%<=.
7e remem3er t0at

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+
+

"
t
dt
t f
t f
" R
0
A Q = A Q 1
A
. -
. -
A
1
e8p
2
A 3
1
A
. -
20
3
2
, -1%<A.
10ere

2
1 A +
%
$"rt0ermore, 1e remem3er t0at

arises also 4rom t0e 4ollo1in! )aman"Ran6s

identities5

( )( )
1
]
1

+ +

2
13 3 A 2
lo!
130
12

, -1%<Aa.
and
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
1=2
2=

% -1%<A3.
$rom -1%<A3., 1e 0ave t0at

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
1=2
2=

% -1%<Ac.%
T0ence, 1it0 t0e e@% -1%<=., 1e can o3tain t0e 4ollo1in! mat0ematical connections
1it0 C and V5


( ) ( ) ( ) z z z ie
z i

sin 2

C
w
z
dw
e
w
1
1

1 )e
1
=
1
1
z
C
w
z
*
dw
e
w

1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+
+

"
t
dt
t f
t f
" R
0
A Q = A Q 1
A
. -
. -
A
1
e8p
2
A 3
1
A
. -
20
3
2
, -1%</.
and

( ) ( ) ( ) z z z ie
z i

sin 2

C
w
z
dw
e
w
1
1

1 )e
1
=
1
1
z
C
w
z
*
dw
e
w

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
1=2
2=

% -1%<<.
T0ence, also mat0ematical connection 1it0 2=, i%e% t0e n"m3er concernin! t0e
(modes+ t0at correspond to t0e p0ysical vi3rations o4 t0e 3osonic strin!s%
In concl"sion, 1e 0ave also a mat0ematical connection 3et1een t0e e@% -1%<<. and t0e
e@% -/.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

0
1
cos 1
2
5 , d k e V k k t V T k y
i
R
,
k
#,
0 k
%
7e 0ave indeed5

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) +

0
1
cos 1
2
5 , d k e V k k t V T k y
i
R


( ) ( ) ( ) z z z ie
z i

sin 2

C
w
z
dw
e
w
1
1

1 )e
1
=
1
1
z
C
w
z
*
dw
e
w

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
+

,
_

=
2 < 10
=
2 11 10
lo!
1=2
2=

% -1%<&.
ppendi> $.
#o1 1e ta2e t0e e@% -1%=0.5
( ) ( ) ( ) +
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

+
=
1
lo! 3 1 1
1/
1
=
1
lo! 1
=
1
=
1
lo! 2 1 1
&
1
2
1
= 3 2

x
( ) ( )

+
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+
1
]
1

,
_

+
=
1
lo! /=
=
1
lo! 2=
=
1
lo! 10& D< 1
1A3/
1
=
1
lo! 12 < 1
D/
1
3 2 / A

( ) ( ) [ + +
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ 321 1
102=0
1
=
1
lo! 320
=
1
lo! =0
=
1
lo! 100 11D 1
2A/0
1
& 3 2 <

( )

,
_

+ +
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

=
1
lo! A<=0 1&<1 1
10<A20
1
=
1
lo! 22=0
=
1
lo! 12=0
=
1
lo! /0
D 3 2

%%%
=
1
lo! 313/0
=
1
lo! 2D120
3 2
+
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+


T0is is an e8pression concernin! t0e 4o"r tac0yon amplit"de in *S$T% $rom t0is
e@"ation, 1e ta2e t0e 4ollo1in! n"m3ers5
!, $, 5, 7, ;, <, !$, !:, $7, 72, :2, :7, =:, =;, !22, !2<, !!=, 5$2, 5$!

!$72, !95:, !<;!, $$72, $9:2, 9;72, !2$72, $=!$2, 5!5:2, !2;9$2
First series
!, $, 5, 7, ;, <, !$, !:, $7, 72, :2, :7, =:, =;, !22, !2<, !!=, 5$2,
5$!,

Numbers Trian!"lar
e@"als or
near
$i3onacci6s
e@"als or
near
Partitions
>@"als or
near
s@uares Subse@uent
ratios
! ! ! ! !
$ $ $ 2Q1S2
5 5 5 5 3Q2S !,92
7 W 3 W A 7 =Q3 S1,33
W667,8$
; W / ; <Q=S1,<A
WX7,8$
< W / < &Q< S1,1=
!$ W10 W 13 W11 Y!,92
!: W1A W1A !: Y1%33
W667,8$
$7 W21 W21 W22 Y!,92
72 =0,AWmean
3et1een 3/
and =A
W 3= W=2 Y1,//W
1'(1)
:2 WAA W AA S A0
mean
3et1een /0
and =0
Y!,92
:7 W// :7 Y1,0/ W
W
&
/1& , 1

=: WD1 W&D Y!,92
=; W100 Y1,01 W
W
/=
<1& , 2
!22 W10A W101 !22 Y1,03 W
W
32
<1& , 2
!2< W10A Y1,0& W
W
1/

!!= W120 W11/,A

mean
3et1een
&D and 1==
Y1,10 W
W
=

5$2 W32A W 30A mean

3et1een
233 and 3<<
Y2,/&W
2'*1)
5$! W32A W 30A mean
3et1een
233 and 3<<
W3=1 mean
3et1een
2D< and 3DA
1,003 W
W
12&

Obser%ations.
T0e n"m3ers o4 t0e series are e@"al or near, initially, to t0e trian!"lar n"m3ers,
$i3onacci6s n"m3ers, or partitions, and a4ter t0ere are t0e arit0metic means% 7e
o3serve, 0o1ever, t0e presence o4 4ive s@"ares, avera!e distri3"ted5
one 4or every t1o or t0ree n"m3ers%
'3o"t t0e s"3se@"ent ratios -a n"m3er divided 3y t0e previo"s., al1ays interestin!,
1e can notice t0at incl"de s@"are roots, c"3e and so on o4 9 S3,1= , : S 1,/1&, e S
2,<1& % t0e s"3se@"ent ratio more 4re@"ent 1,A0, co"ld 3e related to t0e
appro8imate mean 3et1een 1,3= and 1,/< t0at is -1,3= Z 1,/<.Q2 S 3,01 Q2 S 1,A0A W
1,A0J or even 3etter 3et1een 1,33A and 1,//A, t0at is -1%33A Z 1,//A.Q2 S 3Q2 S 1,A0
t0e e8act val"e o4 t0e s"3se@"ent ratio, t0at is present 4ive times in t0e last col"mn%
T0at are loo2 !ood connections% >ven t0e mean 3et1een X2,<1& S 1,/=&/ and
X1,/1&033D& S 1,2<20 is e@"al to -1,/=&/ Z 1,2<20.Q2 S 2,D20/Q2 S 1,=/03%
$"rt0ermore CQ2 S 1,A<0& and t0e mean 3et1een 1,/=&/J 1,2<20 and 1,A<0& is 1,=D<
W 1,A0 t0ence very near to t0e val"e o4 t0e ratio% T0ere4ore mean 3et1een t0e val"e o4
t0e s@"are root o4 e , t0e val"e o4 t0e s@"are root o4 : and o4 t0e val"e o4 CQ2
Triangular
1, 3, /, 10, 1A, 21, 2&, 3/, =A, AA, //, <&, D1, 10A, 120, 13/, 1A3, 1<1, 1D0, 210, 231,
2A3, 2</, 300, 32A, 3A1, 3<&, =0/, =3A, =/A, =D/, A2&, A/1, ADA, /30, ///, <03, <=1,
<&0, &20, &/1, D03, D=/, DD0, 103A, 10&1, 112&, 11</, 122A, 12<A, 132/, 13<&, 1=31,
1=&A, 1A=0, 1AD/, 1/A3, 1<11, 1<<0, 1&30, 1&D1, 1DA3, 201/, 20&0, 21=A, 2211,
22<&, 23=/, 2=1A, 2=&A, 2AA/, 2/2&, 2<01, 2<<A, 2&A0, 2D2/, 3003, 30&1, 31/0,
32=0 ecc%
1artitions
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 15, 22, 30, 42, 56, 77, 101, 135,
176, 231, 297, 385, 490, 627, 792, 1002, 1255, 1575,
1958, 2436, 3010, 3718, 4565, 5604, 6842, 8349, 10143,
12310, 14883, 17977, 21637, 26015, 31185, 37338, 44583,
53174, 63261, 75175, 89134, 105558,
#o1 1e see t0e second series, 1it0 lar!er n"m3ers5
Second series.
!$72, !95:, !<;!, $$72, $9:2, 9;72, !2$72, $=!$2, 5!5:2, !2;9$2

Numbers Triangular
e@uals or
near
FibonacciAs 1artitions S@uares
no
Subse@uent
ratios
!$72 B Mean
!$92
between
!$$9 and
!$;9
=<;
!9=;
Mean !$=$
!$99
!95: W1A=0 B!9=; B!9;9 !,$5
<
+,'1-
!<;! W1&30
W1&D1
Mean
!<:2,9
W1A<A
W1DA&
Mean !;::
!,$!
<
+,'1-
$$72 B$$!!
B$$;<
Mean
$$77,9
B!9=;
$B9<7
mean
$2=2,9
!=9<
$75:
Mean
$!=;
!,!=
<
+,'1-
$9:2 B $99: B $9<7 B$75: !,!7B
!,!9C
<
+,'1-
9;72 D B 7!<!
B :;:9
Mean
97;5
B 9:27
!2$72 D B !2=7: B!2!75 !,;<
B!,;;
C+,'1-
$=!$2 D B $<:9; B2/01A,
W311&A
Mean
$<:22
$,<7
. 2'*1)
5!5:2 D B2&/A< W 311&A !,2;:
<
B E!,:!<
C!,2:!=
!2;9$2 D W <A02A W 10AAA& 5,7$
W121 3D3
Mean
=< $2=
. ,'1-

'!ain, t0e n"m3ers o4 t0is second series are near to trian!"lar n"m3ers, $i3onacci6s
n"m3ers or partition n"m3ers, or to t0e means o4 t1o respective consec"tive
n"m3ers% T0ere are not s@"ares, as in t0e 4irst series% T0e s"3se@"ent ratios -also 0ere
incl"ded !enerally 3et1een 1 and 2. are also 0ere lin2ed to constant as V, C and e or
to t0eir s@"are roots, c"3e and so on% >ven 0ere t0ere are some possi3le connections
1it0 t0e t0ree most 4amo"s mat0ematical constants V, C and e%
cFnowledgments
T0e co?a"t0ors #ardelli and Di #oto, 1o"ld li2e to t0an2 In!% Odoardo Volonterio,
4or 0is availa3ility and t0e very "se4"l and ori!inal met0od concernin! t0e discrete
and t0e analytic 4"nctions5 t0e Volonterio6s Trans4orm and t0e Volonterio6s
Polynomial%
*eferences
1. Dra!an Milicic ? (#otes on )iemann:s [eta $"nction+ ?
0ttp5QQ111%mat0%"ta0%ed"QUmilicicQ
2. (#otes on Strin! T0eory+ ? Universidad de Santia!o de *ompostela ,
'pril 2, 2013 , 0ttp5QQ111?4p%"sc%esQ
3. S% Sar2ar and G% Sat0iapalan ? (*losed Strin! Tac0yons on *Q[
#
+ ?
Decem3er <, 2013 , ar\iv50ep?t0Q030D02Dv2 , & 'pr 200=
=. *arlos *astro ? (En t0e )iemann ;ypot0esis and Tac0yons in d"al Strin!
scatterin! 'mplit"des+ ? International ]o"rnal o4 Oeometric Met0ods in
Modern P0ysics , Vol% 3, #o% 2 -200/. 1&<?1DD