CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Internal combustion engines, particularly diesel engines, are widely used as prime movers in the transport industry, power generation and also used in agricultural applications. Diesel engines operate at a relatively higher efficiency compared to their counterparts. Current and future legislation on emissions require engine developers to produce cleaner and more efficient power plant systems. Energy demand is increasing due to ever increasing number of vehicles employing internal combustion engines. Also, world is presently confronted with the twin crisis of fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation. Fossil fuels are limited resources hence, search for renewable fuels is becoming more and more prominent for ensuring energy security and environmental protection !"#$. %esides them, some other aspects such as increasing fuel price, the idea of supplying the fuel demand from local sources, lessening the import of the crude oil and creating new employments have been promoted these investigations. For the developing countries of the world, fuels of bio&origin can provide a feasible solution to the crisis. 'hen (udolf Diesel invented the diesel engine more than a century ago, he demonstrated the principle of compression ignition engine by employing peanut oil as fuel and suggested that vegetable oils would be the future fuel for diesel engines. )owever, petroleum was discovered later, which replaced vegetable oils as engine fuel due to its abundant supply. *hus, it is highly desired in present conte+t to direct the research towards renewable fuels of bio&origin, which are environment friendly, provide improved performance, while being used as diesel substitute and must not be harmful to human health !"#$. ,nstable situation on the crude oil mar-et resulting in an unpredictable price rise, as well as an increasing effort to see- for diesel substitutes led to an interest in using neat vegetable oil !##$. .ince the calorific value and Cetane number of the non&edible oils in their pure form are comparable to diesel oil, the changeover is considered relatively simple however, the impediments are their high viscosity. India is producing a host of non&edible oils such as linseed, castor, mahua, rice bran, -aran/a 01ongamia glabra2, neem 0A3adirachta indica2, palash 0%utea monosperma2, -usum 0.chlelchera tri/uga2, etc. .ome of these oils produced even now are not being properly utili3ed, and it has been estimated that some other plant&based and forest derived oils have a much higher production potential. 4egetable oils have comparable heat content,

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Cetane number, heat of vapori3ation, and stoichiometric air5fuel ratio with mineral diesel !"#$. *he non&edible oils such as neem, mahua, -aran/a, babassu, /atropha and tobacco seed oil are easily available in many parts of the world including India and are very economical comparable to edible oils. 1ongamia pinnata 06aran/a2 can be cultivated on any type of soil, and have low moisture demand. *he cultivation of these plants is easier and plant has high oil content 0#789:;2 !#"$. *he -inematic viscosity of -aran/a oil was found to be ":.< times more than that of diesel determined at =:>C. It reduced with increase in diesel amount in the blend and preheating the -aran/a vegetable oil !"?$. A similar reduction in specific gravity was also observed. )owever, the calorific value of biodiesel was found to be 9@."# AB5-g, which is less than the calorific value of diesel 0=#.#" AB5-g2 and greater than that of the -aran/a oil 09= AB5-g2. As the percentage of 6aran/a vegetable oil in the blends increased, the calorific value decreased. *he flash points of -aran/a oil and biodiesel were found to be greater than "::>C, which is safe for storage and handling !""$.

1.1 Use of vegetable oils as an alternative fuel

4egetable oils are being considered world over as one of the most promising candidates for alternative to diesel fuel. *he reasons are their renewable nature, ease of production and their suitability to diesel engines. 4egetable oils are also referred to as bio&fuels. .everal vegetable oils are being e+amined as fuels in different regions of the world. In India, edible oils have been e+cluded from being used as fuel due to their shortage even now. Inedible vegetable oils can be a valuable supplemental source of energy for India. *he country is blessed with a largely tropical climate, with a wide variety of vegetation, including oil seed bearing trees. Among the inedible vegetable oils that can be considered as potential fuels are oils of sal, seed, /atropha, mahua, neem, cottonseed, rice bran and -aran/a. .tudies have revealed that some of these oils can directly substitute diesel in generating sets and irrigation pump sets 0which need no modifications2. .uch oils when used are -nown as .traight 4egetable Cils 0..4.C2. After being e+tracted in e+pellers they are only filtered to remove suspended solid particulates !@$. *he alternative diesel fuels must be technically and environmentally acceptable and economically competitive. From the viewpoint of these requirements, triglycerides 0vegetable oils2 and their derivatives are considered as viable alternatives for diesel fuels.

*hey are biodegradable and renewable fuels. *hey have reasonably high cetane number. *he flashpoint of vegetable oils is high and hence it is safe to use them. 4egetable oils typically have large molecules, with carbon, hydrogen and o+ygen being present. *he typical molecular structure of diesel and vegetable oil is presented in Fig." 0a2 and 0b2 respectively as shown belowD ) E ) C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C E ) ) E C ) E )

0a2 Diesel oil

) C E EE H C O C E E
=

0b2 4egetable oil Fig."." *ypical molecular structure of 0a2 diesel oil and 0b2 vegetable oil From the figure it can be observed that vegetable oils are triglycerides with non&branched chains of various lengths and different degrees of saturation. 4egetable oils contain a substantial amount of o+ygen in their structure. 'hereas, diesel oil is a saturated, non& branched hydrocarbon molecule with carbon number varying from "# to "?. *hey have higher molecular mass and viscosity. Contrary to fossil fuels, vegetable oils are free from sulfur and heavy metals. *he problems with substituting triglycerides for diesel fuels are mostly associated with their high viscosity, low volatility and polyunsaturated character. Developing vegetable oil derivatives that appro+imate the properties and performance of hydrocarbon based diesel fuels can mitigate these problems, and ma-e them compatible with it through !"$D 1.1.1 1yrolysis Aicro&emulsification %lending *ransesterification P rol sis 1yrolysis is the conversion of one substance into another by means of applying

heat i.e. heating in the absence of air or o+ygen with temperatures ranging from =7:FC to ?7:FC. In some situations this is with the aid of a catalyst leading to the cleavage of chemical bonds to yield smaller molecules. ,nli-e direct blending, fats can be pyroly3ed successfully to produce many smaller chain compounds. *he liquid fractions of the thermally decomposed vegetable oil are li-ely to be similar to diesel fuels. *he pyroly3ate has lower viscosity, flashpoint, and pour point than diesel fuel and equivalent calorific values. *he cetane number of the pyroly3ate is lower. *he pyroly3ed vegetable oils contain acceptable amounts of sulfur, water and sediment and give acceptable copper corrosion values but unacceptable ash, carbon residue and pour point !<$. 1.1.! "i#ro$e%ulsifi#ation Aicroemulsions are defined as colloidal equilibrium dispersions of optically isotropic fluid microstructures, with dimensions generally in the " & "7: nm range. *hese are formed spontaneously from two normally immiscible liquids and one or more ionic or non&ionic amphophiles. A microemulsion is designed to tac-le the problem of the high viscosity of pure vegetable oils by reducing the viscosity of oils with solvents such as simple alcohols. *he formation of micro emulsions 0co&solvency2 is one of the potential 7

solutions for stable colloidal dispersions. *he droplet diameters in micro&emulsions range from ":: to "::: A. A micro&emulsion can be made of vegetable oils with an ester and dispersant 0co&solvent2 or of vegetable oils, an alcohol and a surfactant and a cetane improver, with or without diesel fuels. 'ater 0from aqueous ethanol2 may also be present in order to use lower&proof ethanol, thus increasing water tolerance of the micro& emulsions. 1.1.& 'lending .4C can be mi+ed with diesel fuels in various ratios and be used in unmodified engines. %y using appropriate blends, problems arising due to the use of only .4C in the engine, can be eradicated. Efforts can be made to lower the viscosity of .4C by dilution with solvent or ethanol or by preheating the oil !"$. 1.1.( Transesterifi#ation An ester is the condensation product of an acid and an alcohol. *ransesterification may be either an acidolysis, where the acid component of an ester is replaced by another acid, or an alcoholysis, where the alcohol component of an ester is replaced with a different alcohol. 4egetable oils are esters of fatty acids and glycerol. In the alcoholysis transesterification, the glycerine component of a vegetable oil is replaced by an alcohol. *his process is widely used to reduce the viscosity of triglycerides. *he transesterification is represented by the following equationD

Fig.".# *ransesterification of triglycerides with alcohol *he reaction, as shown in above figure is reversible and thus an e+cess of alcohol is usually used to force the equilibrium to the product side. *he stoichiometry for the reaction is 9D" alcohol to lipids however in practice this is usually increased to @D" to increase product yield. A catalyst is usually used to speed up the reaction and may be basic, acid or en3ymatic in nature. *he al-alis that are generally used include GaC), 6C), carbonates and corresponding sodium and potassium al-o+ides such as sodium

metho+ide, etho+ide, propo+ide and buto+ide. .odium hydro+ide is the most common al-ali catalyst that is used, due to economical reasons and availability. Al-ali&catalysed reactions are used more often commercially than acid catalysts, as the reactions are faster. Cnly simple alcohols can be used in transesterification such as, methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol. Aethanol is most often used for commercial and process reasons related to its physical and chemical nature 0shortest chain alcohol and is polar2. )owever ethanol is becoming more popular as it is a renewable resource and does not raise the same to+icity concerns as methanol. *he type of catalyst, the reaction conditions and the concentration of impurities in a transesterification reaction determine the path that the reaction follows !"$ !<$ . *riglycerides are readily transesterified in the presence of al-aline catalyst at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of appro+imately @: to <: C with an e+cess of methanol. *he mi+ture at the end of the reaction is allowed to settle. *he lower glycerol layer is drawn off while the upper methyl ester layer is washed to remove entrained glycerol. Aethyl ester so obtained is -nown as biodiesel. *he properties of bio&diesel as a fuel are comparable to that of diesel. "::; biodiesel 0%"::2 alone can be used in diesel engines or it can be blended with diesel and then used. *he most commonly used ratio is %#: i.e., mi+ture of ?:; conventional diesel fuel and #:; vegetable oil ester.

1.! Proble% )it* vegetable oil

Although vegetable oils may be used directly as fuel in diesel engines without refining but it posses several problems mainly related to viscosity and carbon residue. *hese problems can be minimi3ed by blending5dilution, heating5 pyrolysis, micro emulsion, per o+idation process and transesterification. 1roblems associated with vegetable oils during engine tests can be classified into two broad groups, namely, operational and durability problems. Cperational problems are related to starting ability, ignition, combustion and performance. Durability problems are related to deposit formation, carboni3ation of in/ector tip, ring stic-ing and lubricating oil dilution. It has been observed that the straight vegetable oils when used for long hours tend to cho-e the fuel filter because of high viscosity and insoluble present in the straight vegetable oils. *he high viscosity, polyunsaturated character, and e+tremely low volatility of vegetable oils are responsible for the operational and durability problems associated with its utili3ation as fuels in diesel engines. )igh viscosity of vegetable oils causes poor fuel atomi3ation, large droplet si3e and thus high spray /et penetration. *he /et tends to be a

<

solid stream instead of a spray of small droplets. As a result, the fuel is not distributed or mi+ed with the air required for burning in the combustion chamber !"#$.

1.& +olution of t*e ,roble% )it* vegetable oil

)eating and blending of vegetable oils reduce the viscosity and improve volatility of vegetable oils but its molecular structure remains unchanged hence polyunsaturated character remains !"?$!H$ . In our e+perimental study a heat e+changer is designed to preheat the vegetable oil using waste heat of the e+haust gases. )igh viscosity of -aran/a oil can be reduced by heating the oil using waste heat of e+haust gases from the engine and also blending the -aran/a oil with diesel. %lending of vegetable oils with diesel, however, reduces the viscosity drastically 0depending on level of blending2 and the fuel handling system of engine can handle the vegetable oil&diesel blends without any problems. In our e+perimental set&up direct&in/ection engines are best being run on two tan- systems as vegetable oil might either destroy the piston or get between cylinder I piston as unburned particles or because of bad spray of the in/ectors 0which then hit the rim of the piston or the cylinder wall2. 'hen the vegetable oil is warm, there is no problem with direct&in/ection. For dual tan- vegetable oil fuelled operation, with heated tan- I if cold, fuel line, I would recommend any diesel engine providing that the oil is hot before it hits the in/ector pump and is purged before shutdown. *he problems with direct&in/ection diesel engines seems to be mostly associated with carbon build&up on in/ectors and that can be reduced significantly if not eliminated by use of heated vegetable oil . *he general perception is that higher heating temperatures reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils and offer gains in engine performance. )owever, the fuel in/ection system is made up of parts that are very close fitting, such as the plunger8barrel assembly. )igh fuel inta-e temperature may have adverse effects on these closefitting parts since diesel engines normally run with fuel supplied at ambient temperature. Consequently, vegetable oils need to be heated to a temperature that is high enough to give a low viscosity similar to diesels, but not so high as to damage the in/ection system !"=$. *he most direct impact of a viscosity increase is to decrease the amount of fuel lea-age that occurs past the plungers that develop the pressure in the in/ection system. *his reduced lea-age will allow the pressure to develop faster and could contribute to

earlier in/ection timing. *he advance in in/ection timing is due to the higher bulmodulus of compressibility, or speed of sound, in the fuel blend, which leads to a more rapid transferal of the pressure wave from the fuel pump to the in/ector needle and an earlier needle lift !#:$.

CHAPTER ! -ITERATURE RE.IE/

*he literature survey discusses the development, performance, emissions and combustion characteristics of vegetable oil as fuel in compression ignition engine. A detailed review of the literature on the use of 6aran/a oil as alternative fuels is also presented. Despite the success when diesel engines are operated on vegetable oil for short term performance tests, the real measure of success when using vegetable oil as a diesel fuel e+tender or replacement depends primarily on the performance of vegetable oils in engines over a long period of time.

!.1 Introdu#tion
*hus many researchers have been involved in testing programs designed to evaluate long term performance characteristics. (esults of these studies indicated that potential ha3ards such as stuc- piston rings, carbon buildup on in/ectors, fuel system failure, and lubricating oil contamination e+isted when vegetable oils were used as alternative fuels. *his effect diminishes as the blend of vegetable oil in diesel is decreased. Cne hundred years ago, (udolf Diesel first tested vegetable oil as fuel for his engine. 'ith the advent of cheap petroleum, appropriate crude oil fractions were refined to serve as fuel and diesel fuels and diesel engines started evolving together. Jater in the "H=:Ks, vegetable oils were used again as fuel in emergency situations, during the period of 'orld 'ar II. %ecause of the increase in crude oil prices, limited resources of fossil fuels and the environmental concern, there has been renewed focus on vegetable oils and animal fats for the production of bio&diesel fuel !"$. It has been e+perienced that the use of .4C as fuel in conventional diesel engines results in a number of problems which are related to the type and grade of oil and local H

climatic conditions. Aany researchers have concluded that co-ing is a potential serious problem with unmodified vegetable oil fuels. *he in/ection, atomi3ation and combustion characteristics of vegetable oils in C.I. engines are significantly different from those of hydrocarbon based diesel fuels. *he prominent characteristics of vegetable oils when compared to diesel are & higher viscosity higher density lower calorific value and absence of sulphur or aromatic hydrocarbons. 0*able#."2

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Fuels Diesel 6aran/a (atan/yot Cotton seed .oyabean .unflower Mehyl Esters0 6aran/a (atan/yot Cotton seed .oyabean .unflower & Got available

*able #." Comparison of fuel properties Calorific Density 4iscosity Flash 1oint 4alue 0-g5m92 0mm#5s2 0 FC 2 0AB5-g2 ?"7 =.9: 0#< oC2 =9.97 7# o H"# #<.?: 0=: C2 9=.:: #:7 o H"= #".9: 0=: C2 9<.:: ##: H"# 7:.": 0#< oC2 9H.@= & o H"= @7.=: 0#< C2 9H.@# & H"? 7?.7: 0#< oC2 9H.7# & ?<@ ??: ?<= ?<# ?<? H.@: 0=: oC2 @.H= 0=: oC2 "".": 0#< oC2 "".": 0#< oC2 ":.9: 0#< oC2 9@."# =".:: =:.7? 9H.<@ =:.7< "?< "@7 & & &

Cetane Gumber =<.7: & & =?.": 9?.:: 9<.": & 7#.:: =7.7: 9<.:: =7.7:

*he high viscosity of vegetable oils results in poor fuel atomi3ation and which further leads to inefficient mi+ing of oil with air. It contributes to inefficient burning. *his causes deposit formation, carboni3ation of in/ector tips and ring stic-ing. )ence, to use vegetable oil in C.I. engine we have to either modify the oil to suit the engine or modify the engine to suit the properties of oil. *he modified multi&fuel engines developed by Elsbett in Lermany and Aalaysia, and DA. Dieselmotoren&und Leratebau Lmb) in Lermany have shown good performance when used with .traight vegetable oils and also meet the emission requirements of many countries Fangrui Aa and Ailford A. )anna 0#92 have suggested the preheating of the vegetable oil prior to in/ection as the solution to the problems of straight vegetable oils. 1reheating .4C reduces these problems drastically, hence in unmodified engines .4C can be used with higher blends when preheated. For running the engine with .4C, two tan- .4C -it has been used. 'ith two& tan- .4C -its, one tan- holds the vegetable oil and the other petro&diesel 0or biodiesel2. *he engine is started on the petro&diesel tan- and runs on petro&diesel for the first few minutes while the vegetable oil is heated to lower the viscosity. Fuel heaters are electrical or use the heat of engine coolant and the e+haust gases as a heat source. 'hen the fuel reaches the required temperature, usually <:&?:: C, the engine is switched over to the second tan- and runs on .4C. 0""2

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Lodiganur et. al. 0=2 conducted several e+periments with preheated .4C in two tansystem at different temperatures and found very encouraging results. It was found that by preheating the oil, the viscosity reduces e+ponentially with the temperature. It was observed that by preheating the mahua oil and its blends with the diesel fuel, the engine performance, especially the bra-e power output and the e+haust emissions characteristics, is improved significantly, approaching diesel li-e performance. *he higher -inematic viscosity of 6C in comparison to diesel may be attributed to greater intermolecular attraction of the long chains of their glycerides molecules and fatty esters respectively. *he following fig.#." shows the variation of the viscosity with the temperature for 6aran/a and its blends. !@$
55 50 45 40

Viscosity ( mm/s )

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 20 30 40 50 60

K100 (KO) K80 K60 K40 K20

70

80

90

Temperature ( C )

Fig.#." Effect of temperature on viscosity of 6C and its blends with diesel!@$ %I. limits of viscosityD For Lrade A diesel & #.: to <.7 c.t at 9? FC For Lrade % diesel & #.7 to "7.< c.t at 9? FC *he optimum blend will be selected on the basis of temperature of the .4C blend due to the .4C heater.

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!.! E1,eri%ental studies )it* biodiesel or +.O

%reda 6egl 072 has carried out numerical analysis of in/ection characteristics using biodiesel fuel, his wor- deals with numerical analysis of in/ection process using biodiesel5mineral diesel fuel blends with the aim to search for the potentials to reduce engine harmful emissions. *he considered fuels are neat biodiesel from rapeseed oil and its blends with mineral diesel D#. *o verify the mathematical model and the empirical e+pressions, e+periments and numerical simulation are run on a mechanical control diesel fuel in/ection A system at several operating regimes. In/ection process at many different operating regimes and using several fuel blends are then investigated numerically. Attention is focused on the in/ection characteristics, especially on fuelling fuelling at some stage of in/ection, mean in/ection rate, mean in/ection pressure, in/ection delay and in/ection timing, which influence the most important engine characteristics. *he analysis of the obtained results reveals that, while -eeping engine performance within acceptable limits, harmful emissions can be reduced by ad/usting appropriately pump in/ection timing in dependence on the biodiesel content. *his prediction is also confirmed e+perimentally. %reda 6egl 092 optimi3ed the in/ection timing e+perimentally for the biodiesel and found that the in/ection timing has to be retarded from #9 : before *DC 0for petro& diesel2 to "H: before *DC. )emmerlein et al. 0"72 established that all of the engines run on rapeseed oil passed the ECE (=H regulation relating to CC, )C, GC+ , and soot emissions in the "9& mode test. )owever, some measured emissions increased while others decreased when rapeseed oil was used as a substitute for diesel fuel. Further, higher emissions levels resulted from combustion of rapeseed oil in direct in/ection 0DI2 and small&cylinder indirect in/ection 0IDI2 engines than combustion in larger&cylinder IDI engines. Emissions of CC and )C increased by up to ":: percent and #H: percent, respectively, compared with those for diesel fuel, but it is li-ely that these levels could be reduced if the in/ector timing is advanced. Dilip .harma 0@2 concluded that Geem oil can be conveniently used to substitute Diesel oil to the e+tent of #:;. )e also conducted tests on Geem&diesel blends to optimi3e the blend ratio, in/ection pressure and carried out endurance tests for long term sustainability.

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C. 1. .igar 0<2 performed the wor- on dual fuel operation of diesel engine using the 6aran/a oil and J1L as fuels and found the successful results. )e concluded that 6aran/a& Diesel blend 06#:2 and 6aran/a methyl ester blend 0%#:2 fuels can be conveniently used as substitutes for diesel in single fuel mode. ).(aheman et al. 0#2 have carried out investigations in studying the fuel properties of -aran/a methyl ester and its blend with diesel from #:; to ?:; by volume and in running a diesel engine with these fuels. Engine tests have been carried out with the aim of obtaining comparative measures of torque, power, specific fuel consumption and emissions such as CC, smo-e density and GC+ to evaluate and compute the behaviour of the diesel engine running on the above&mentioned fuels. %ased on the result of this study it was found that blends of -aran/a methyl ester with diesel reduced emissions such as CC, smo-e density and GC+ on an average of ?:;, 7:; and #@;, respectively. )owever, the bra-e power output increased on an average @; up to biodiesel blend %=: and with a further increase in the biodiesel percentage in the blend it reduced. )ence it can be concluded that the blends of -aran/a methyl ester with diesel up to =:; by volume could replace diesel for running the diesel engine for getting less emissions without sacrificing the power output and will thus help in controlling air pollution. Avinash 6umar Agarwal et al.0"?2 have carried out e+periments to study the effect of reducing Batropha oilKs viscosity by increasing the fuel temperature 0using waste heat of the e+haust gases2 and thereby eliminating its effect on combustion and emission characteristics of the engine. E+periments were also conducted using various blends of Batropha oil with mineral diesel to study the effect of reduced blend viscosity on emissions and performance of diesel engine. A single cylinder, four stro-e, constant speed, water cooled, direct in/ection diesel engine typically used in agricultural sector was used for the e+periments. *he acquired data were analy3ed for various parameters such as thermal efficiency, bra-e specific fuel consumption 0%.FC2, smo-e opacity, CC#, CC and )C emissions. 'hile operating the engine on Batropha oil 0preheated and blends2, performance and emission parameters were found to be very close to mineral diesel for lower blend concentrations. )owever, for higher blend concentrations, performance and emissions were observed to be marginally inferior

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#.9 +ele#tion of 2aran3a oil for stud

As per the information available about the inedible oils in the literature, Aahua, Geem, 6aran/a and Batropha are the front runners in India in terms of the production and availability. %y analy3ing and comparing the properties of these oils, 6aran/a is chosen as .4C for the research. *he botanical name of 6aran/a tree is 1ongamia 1innata. It is chiefly found along the ban-s of streams and rivers or near the seacoast. It resists drought well, is moderately frost hardy and is highly tolerant of salinity. *he tree starts bearing at the age of = & < years. *he pods come to harvest at different periods of time in different parts of the country, but the harvest season e+tends in general from Govember & December to Aay & Bune. *he yield of the seed is said to range from H&H: -g per tree, indicating a yield potential of H:: to H::: -g seed5ha 0assuming ":: trees 5ha2. #7; of this yield might be safely considered as oil because the yield of oil from seeds is around #= to #<.7;. *he total yield in India is estimated to be about "97::: tons. %ut only ?::: tons of oil is presently being utili3ed which is only @; of the total estimated produce. *hus there is an ample scope for utili3ing the energy source 06aran/a oil2 as fuel !"<$. !.&.1 P* si#al and #*e%i#al ,ro,erties of fuels *he 6aran/a oil is bitter, red brown, thic-, nondrying and inedible. *he physical and chemical properties, of vegetable oil are important for combustion and storage as fuel. A comparison of the physical properties of 6aran/a oil and Diesel is given in *able #.". 0"<, "?2 Iodine .alueD *he iodine value of a substance is a measure of the degree of chemical instauration in a chemicals olefinic bond. Iodine values are used to determine the o+idative stability of a fuel in order to determine storage stability. )igher iodine value indicates more unsaturated bonds, which equate to less storage stability. *hus iodine number refers to the amount of iodine required to convert unsaturated oil into saturated oil. *he iodine value of -aran/a oil is ?#.<?. Duffield has suggested that iodine value greater than ""7 are unacceptable. Calorifi# .alueD *he calorific value of a fuel is a measure of the amount energy 0calories2 that the fuel contains per unit mass. *he calorific value of -aran/a oil is 9<&9? AB5-g as compared to =:&=< AB5-g that of diesel.

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*able #.#. Comparison of physical properties of -aran/a oil and diesel

.. Go. " # 9 = 7 @ < ? H ": "" "# "9

1arameters .aponification 4alue Iodine value Acid 4alue 0Aa+.2 Aoisture 0; ma+.2 Color in "5= inch cell 0MN7(2 (efractive Inde+ 0=: FC2 .pecific Lravity 09: FC2 Cloud 1oint 0FC2 1our 1oint 0FC2 Calorific 4alue 0AB5-g2 4iscosity 0.t at 9:: C2 Cetane number Flash 1oint 0FC2

6aran/a oil "?7 & "H7 ?: & H: #: :.#7 =: ".=<9 & ".=<H :.H: & :.H= "7 &# to &7 9<&9? <=."= 7".: #9:

Diesel : 9?.9: :.:@ #=.@@ ":#.7 ".=<# :.?# & :.?@ "9 " =:&=< ?.7= =<.? @@

Densit D *he density of a fuel is a measure of its weight per volume. *he density of the fuel is important because many diesel engine fuel in/ection pumps use the weight of the fuel for measurement and dispensing. A denser fuel would therefore be dispensed in a lower volume. *he density of -aran/a oil is :.H" -g5m9, and that of diesel is :.?#&:.?@ -g5m9 at "7 C temperatures. .is#osit D It is the measure of the thic-ness of a fluid. 4iscosity is an important measure of a fuel because the atomi3ation characteristics of the fuel are affected by it. Aoreover it is important for the flow of oil through pipelines, in/ector no33les and orifices. 4iscosity of fluids varies inversely to temperature. 6aran/a oil has a viscosity of <=."= .t at 9: C, ==.?: .t at =: C and ?.7H .t at ":: C while that of diesel is ?.7= .t at 9: C. Cetane Nu%berD It is the measure of ignition quality of diesel fuels. *his is the amount of time it ta-es for the fuel air mi+ture to ignite, once it is in/ected into the combustion chamber. )igher Cetane number has shorter ignition delay. *he Cetane number of diesel is =?. Cloud PointD Cloud 1oint is the temperature at which the fluid develops ice crystals and begins to clog small openings, such as fuel filters. *his measure becomes important in cold climates. *he cloud point of 6aran/a oil is "7 C and of diesel fuel is "9 C.

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Pour PointD 1our point is the lowest temperature at which a fluid will flow. *his measure is relevant in cold places. *he pour point of -aran/a oil is 8# C to 87 C while that of diesel is around " C ma+. 4las* PointD Flash point of a fuel is defined as the temperature at which it will ignite when e+posed to a flame or spar-. *he flash point of -aran/a oil at #9: C is much higher than that of diesel, which is @@ C. 'hile this higher flashpoint of -aran/a oil does not affect its combustion in CI engine, this ma-es it easier to handle and store. Chemical compositionD 6aran/a oil is reported to contain al-aloids demetho+y-anugin, gamatay, glabrin, glabrosaponin, -aempferol, -an/one, -anugin, -arangin, neoglabrin, pinnatin, pongamol, pongapin, quercitin, saponin, O&sitosterol, and tannin. Air&dry -ernels have "H; moisture, #<.7; fatty oil, "<.=; protein, @.@; starch, <.9; crude fiber, and #.=; ash. Destructive distillation of wood yields, on a dry basisD charcoal 9";, pyroligneous acid 9@.@H;, acid =.9;, ester 9.=;, acetone ".H;, methanol ".";, tar H;, pitch and losses =.=; and gas :."# cu m5-g. Aanurial values of leaves and twigs are respectivelyD nitrogen "."@, :.<" phosphorous 01#C72 :."=, :."" potash 06#C2 :.=H, :.@# and lime 0CaC2 ".7=, ".7?;. Fatty acid composition of 6aran/ oil is given in *able #.9 *able#.9. Fatty acid composition of 6aran/a oil .. Go. Fatty Acid " # 9 = 7 @ < ? 1almitic .tearic Cleic Jinoleic Jignoceric Arachidic %ehenic Eicosenoic .tructure Formula "@D: "?D: "?D" "?D# #=D: #:D: ##D: #:D" C"@)9#C# C"?)9@C# C"?)9=C# C"?)9#C# C#=)=?C# C#:)=:C# C##)==C# C#:)9?C# 'eight 0;2 9.< & <.H #.= & ?.H ==.7 & <".9 ":.? & "?.9 "." & 9.7 #.# & =.< =.# & 7.9 H.7 & "#.=

CHAPTER &
"<

E5PERI"ENTA- +ET$UP
*his chapter discusses the details of the engine and smo-e meter used for e+perimental investigation. *his fle+ibility of use ma-es it a versatile engine and is frequently used as mobile genset, agriculture pumpset for remote areas etc. An alternator is connected to this engine in the laboratory to evaluate the feasibility of use with alternate fuels.

&.1 Introdu#tion
E+perimental setup consisted of 6irlos-ar single cylinder water&cooled, four&stro-e Diesel engine, which has been modified to measure various parameters required to determine the performance of the engine. *o the Engine an electric Dynamometer was coupled to measure torque. *he air was inducted to the Engine through a calibrated air bo+, which was used to measure the airflow rate. Fuel supply system consists of a burette flow meter, which was used to measure the volumetric fuel consumption. Cooling circuit was a run through system, having a water flow meter. *hermocouples were installed at various places on the engine to measure different temperatures. . Aeasurement of smo-e was done with the help of )art ridge smo-e meter.

Fig. 9." 6irlos-ar Diesel Engine A4" Aodel

"?

&.! Engine
6irlos-ar ma-e single cylinder Diesel engine 0A4"2 0figure9."2 was used for study as it is most versatile water cooled engine and is widely used for agriculture purpose as well as electric generation. *he specifications of the engine used are as mentioned below in *able =." Table &.1 +,e#ifi#ations of t*e Engine +.No. ". #. Co%,onent Game of the engine *ype of engine Unit & & Des#ri,tion 6irlos-ar Cil Engine "odel A.1 4ertical, four stro-e cycle, single acting, totally enclosed, 9. =. 7. @. <. ?. H. ":. Go. of cylinders Direction of rotation I. (ating at "7:: rpm %ore .tro-e Cubic Capacity Compression (atio Go. of In/ection 1umps and *ype & high speed, C.I. engine " Counter cloc-wise 0'hen loo-ing at flywheel 2 9.< 07.:2 ?: "": :.779 "@.7 D " " number, .ingle cylinder, flange "". "#. "9. Lovernor type Class of governing Filter type Air Fuel Jubricating Cil & & & & & mounted without camshaft Aechanical centrifugal type %" Dry oil bath filter filter type with with paper paper paper

-'0bhp2 mm mm liters & &

element %ypass element %ypass element Diesel as per I. D "=@: @.7 )D& type 9 as per I. D =H@8"H?#

"=. "7. "@.

(ecommended fuel specification Fuel Cil *an- Capacity Jubricating Cil specification

& liters &

"H

"<.

Aode of .tarting

&

Lear end 5 Flywheel end )and start

"?.

Apparatus required for starting

&

E+tension shaft .tarting )andle Decompression arrangement "@: ""= 99 #.7 ".: Cooling 'ater <

"H.

'eight of engine Engine alone Flywheel Aa+imum pressure Aa+imum

-g -g -g 1a pa & lit5min

#:. #". ##.

permissible permissible

bacinta-e

depression Aethod of Cooling Cooling water flow rate 0For run through system cooling2 0Attached with water flow meter2 Jubricating oil sump capacity Jubricating oil consumption .FC at rated hp per "7::rpm Fuel refilling time

#9. #=. #7. #@.

lit. lit.

9.9 ".:; of sfc ma+imum #=7 g5-'h0"?: g5bhp5hr2 @ hrs 0'hen engine running at rated output2

&.& "odifi#ation in engine

*he main modification of the e+perimental setup are two fuel tan-s 0Diesel and 6aran/a oil2, heat e+changer.. *he engine is started with diesel and once the engine warms up, it is switched over to 6aran/a oil. After concluding the tests with 6aran/a oil, the engine is again switched bac- to diesel before stopping the engine until the 6aran/a oil is purged from the fuel line, in/ection pump and in/ector in order to prevent deposits and cold starting problems. *his purging typically ta-es about "7 min at idling. A heat e+changer is used to preheat the vegetable oil using waste heat of the e+haust gases. A

#:

thermocouple was provided in the e+haust line to measure the temperature of the e+haust gases. 4oltmeter and ammeter were used to measure the voltage and current consumed by the load in the load ban-.

Fig 9.# Diagram of e+perimental set &up

&.( D na%o%eter
1ower&star ma-e electric dynamometer was used to measure torque. It consisted of an alternator to which electric bulbs were connected to apply load. *he specifications of alternator used are given below in *able9.#.

Table &.! +,e#ifi#ations of t*e D na%o%eter +. No. ". #. 9. =. 7. @. Te#*ni#al +,e#ifi#ations Aa-e 64A 4oltage Current Frequency (ating #" Des#ri,tion 1ower star 9.7 #9: 4olt "= Amp. 7: C5s Continuous

<.

(. 1. A

"7::

&.6 Air flo) %easure%ent

Airflow to the engine was measured with the help of an Air bo+ 0=7P=7P7: cm 92. It was used to dampen out the pulsation of air. An orifice of diameter #:mm having C d Q :.@ was fitted at the entrance on one of the side walls. *he outlet was at the bottom, through which it was connected to the air filter mounted on the engine. 1ressure inside the air bo+ remained less than atmospheric pressure during operation, which was measured with the help of a manometer mounted on one of the side walls. *he amount of air induced was obtained with the help of the following relation Air induced 5 second Q Cd P Aorifice P 0# P g P hw P w 5 a2"5# 'here Cd Q :.@ 0m95s2

Aorifice Q :.:::9"="7 0meter#2 hw Q Aanometer reading 0meters2

w Q Density of water 0"::: -g5cubic meter2 a Q Density of air 0"."7< -g5cubic meter2

&.7 4uel flo) %easure%ent

%urette method was used to measure the volumetric fuel flow rate. A glass burette having mar-s was connected to fuel tan- and the engine through a *ee valve. Initially line was connected to the engine and burette, so that the burette got filled with the fuel while the supply of fuel to the engine was not interrupted. In order to measure the fuel consumption the valve was turned to a position so that the fuel started going to the engine from the burette. *he time ta-en by the engine to consume a fi+ed volume of fuel was measured with the help of stopwatch. *his volume divided by the time gave the volumetric flow rate.

&.8 Te%,erature %easure%ent of inta9e air, e1*aust gas and )ater

##

*hermocouples attached to a si+&channel selector switch and digital panel meter were installed at required points on the engine to measure temperature of inta-e air, e+haust gas and cooling water.

&.: .ariation of in3e#tion ti%ing and in3e#tor o,ening ,ressure

(emoving or inserting shims of different thic-ness between the fuel in/ection pump and cam varied the in/ection timing of the diesel& -aran/a blend fuel. %y ad/usting a screw on top of the in/ector, the spring load on the in/ector needle was varied leading to change in in/ector opening pressure. A series of e+periments were carried out over a considerable period of time to determine and compare the engine performance and smo-e emission characteristics using Diesel and 6aran/a&Diesel blends.

&.; E1,eri%ental te#*ni<ue

A series of e+periments were carried out over a considerable period of time to determine and compare the engine performance, and e+haust emission characteristics using Diesel and 6aran/a&Diesel blends. &.;.1 Perfor%an#e and fuel #onsu%,tion tests *he engine was first run on 6aran/a&Diesel blend under different load conditions 0no load to full load2 as well as different in/ection pressures 0"@:,"<:,"?: and "H: -gf5cm#2 to set a basis of comparison. *he engine was then run with 6aran/a&Diesel blends under similar conditions of load and in/ection pressure under different fuel in/ection timing 0#9, #", "H, "<, and "7 degree %*DC2 From the above tests bra-e thermal efficiency, bra-e specific fuel consumption, e+haust gas temperature, indicated thermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency were found under different operating conditions of load and in/ection pressures as mentioned above. From the e+perimental data thus generated conditions of optimum in/ection timing and optimum in/ection pressure were obtained for all loads. &.;.! +%o9e %easure%ent E+haust smo-e was measured with the help of REnvirotech A1A <:: .mo-e meterR. *his smo-e meter wor-s on a comparative basis 0figure9.#2. It contains two dimensionally and optically similar tubes. *he reference tube is connected to the clean air blower. Air is drawn from the clean air inlet through a damper. *he smo-e tube is

#9

connected to the smo-e inlet via the smo-e bypass valve. *his inlet tract contains a temperature sensor, moisture trap and has a pressure relief valve controlled outlet, a picoff for the manometer connection and a vane at the tube entry.

Fig. 9.9 Envirotech A1A <:: .mo-e meter *he light source and photoelectric cell are each mounted on an arm pivoted on each end of a spring located control shaft, which is operated by a control -nob. *he opacity of the smo-e sample is compared to a clean air sample by first ta-ing reading through the clean air tube to set the 3ero, then moving the light and photoelectric cell to the smo-e tube for an instantaneous comparative reading of the opacity of the tube sample.

#=

CHAPTER ( E5PERI"ENTA- PROCEDURE

In e+perimental set&up different sets of reading are ta-en by changing the fuel in/ection timing from #9 to "7 degree before top dead centre by inserting different shim of different thic-ness and by changing the in/ection pressure from "@: to "H: 6gf5cm#

(.1 "et*od to #*ange fuel in3e#tion ti%ing

.teps necessary for fuel timingD ". (emove air inta-e manifold so that the fuel in/ector pump can be removed without interference. #. .et throttle lever at full speed. 9. (emove in/ector pump side cover. *his will enable you to visually chec- to insure that the fuel rac- pin inside the pump properly aligns with the opening in the top of pump housing when being removed to prevent binding or shearing of the pin. *his pin is critical to proper pump operation and if damaged will require replacement of the complete pump. =. *he in/ector pump internal unit can now be loosened and removed. It may be necessary to remove fuel lines from in/ector no33les to aid in pump removal 7. *here are several shims located /ust below the pump top plate which will be used to ad/ust the timing. *hese shims are .::@ inch thic- and are equal to "&SF or appro+imately 9""@T of distance on the circumference of the flywheel. Addition of shims will retard the timing and removing shims will advance the timing. @. If the mar- on the flywheel is below the pointer, the fuel is being in/ected sooner than required and the fuel timing must be retarded. .hims must be added until the timing mar-s are aligned. *he opposite is true if the flywheel mar- is above the pointer. .ee image to the right. <. If at all possible, it is better to operate the engine with the timing advance rather than retarded. ?. (eplace fuel in/ector pump, ma-ing sure the fuel rac- pin aligns with the housing opening and is properly inserted into the slotted arm. *ighten in/ector pump cover in place. (econnect fuel line from fuel filter to pump. (epeat steps # thru "# on engine timing. H. If timing is satisfactory, then reassemble. %e certain that all plates, covers, fuel lines and connections are tight and free of lea-s so that safe operation may be e+pected when the engine

#7

is started. Clean engine thoroughly. ":. CautionD %e sure all fuel lines and connections are -ept clean during ad/usting, to prevent fouling of no33les when reassembled.

(.! "et*od to #*ange in3e#tion ,ressure

*he opening pressure of the no33le can be chec-ed and read/usted on a no33le tester. AICC )&.56DE1 HHA. *his tester permits accurate chec-ing and setting of the opening pressure and observation of the spray pattern of no33les. In engine no33le assembled with no33le holder. *he no33le holder servesD *o fi+ the no33le on the engine cylinder. *o connect it with high pressure pipe from fuel in/ection pump. *o facilitate ad/ustment of opening pressure.

*he high pressure pipe is connected to the connector on the no33le holder body. An edge type filter is normally installed in the connector for protection. It retains a particle which becomes separated from inside the high pressure pipes due to vibrations during operation. *he inlet passage in the no33le holder body leads to the annular groove or the inlet passage of the no33le body and thus connects the no33le with the pressure line of the in/ection pump. *he no33le is fi+ed to the pressure face of the holder with retaining nut. A pressure spring is located in the upper portion of the holder body and presses on the no33le needle. *he initial tension of the spring determines the opening pressure. Its compression can be ad/usted by a set screw. !#=$

#@

Fig =." AICC Go33le 1ressure *ester

CHAPTER 6 RE+U-T+ AND DI+CU++ION

(esults obtained from e+perimental investigations are presented and discussed in this chapter. In this preheated 6=: blend with diesel is used as fuel having viscosity similar to diesel. Effect of the in/ection timing and in/ection pressure on performance parameter li-e bra-e specific fuel consumption, bra-e thermal effiency are presented.

6.1 Introdu#tion
After finali3ing 6aran/a oil as substitute fuel, attempts were made to reduce its viscosity by preheating the 6aran/a oil using the e+haust gases coming out from the engine. It was found that temperature obtained in the heat e+changer is not adequate to bring down the viscosity in close range to diesel. It was then decided to use 6aran/a oil as blending fuel in Diesel to obtain 6aran/a&Diesel blend. In the present study, viscosity was reduced by both preheating and blending. %efore carrying out detailed e+perimentation, finali3ation of the optimum 6aran/a& Diesel blend was done. It was observed e+perimentally that the blend could be preheated up to 77&@7 UC with heat e+changer developed. From the fig #." it is observed that at this temperature range substitution of Diesel by 6aran/a oil to the e+tent of =:; ma-es a blend having viscosity equal to that of pure Diesel at room temperature. *hus the results in this chapter pertain to 6aran/a&Diesel blend having =:; 6aran/a oil and @:; Diesel oil. Engine performance and smo-e emission are covered in e+perimental investigations.

6.! Effe#t of in3e#tion ti%ing on bra9e s,e#ifi# fuel #onsu%,tion

In/ection timing is a very important parameter that significantly influences all engine characteristics. *his is mainly due to the fact that in/ection timing influences the mi+ing quality of the air 8fuel mi+ture and, consequently, the combustion process, including harmful emission. %ra-e specific fuel consumption is a comparative parameter that shows how efficiently an engine is converting fuel into wor-. *his parameter is preferred, rather than thermal efficiency, because all quantities are measured in standard and accepted physical unitsD time, horsepower and mass. %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption 0%.FC2 has been plotted against load for various in/ection #<

pressures at constant speed of "7:: rpm for different in/ection timing from #9U to "7U %*DC. Figures 7." to 7.7 show some typical curves for variation of %.FC. As seen from plots %.FC decreases with increase in of power output and then starts increasing after a point for all in/ection pressures under study. *he point at which it becomes minimum is referred to as the Tbest economical loadT point, which occurs at around ?:&?7; load for 6aran/a&Diesel blend irrespective of in/ection pressures. *o ta-e the effect of in/ection timing on performance parameter in/ection timing is varied from #9 U to "7U %*DC. In/ection pressure is varied from "@: 6gf5cm # to "H: 6gf5cm#at every in/ection timing. %ra-e specific fuel consumption decreases as the fuel in/ection pressure increases "@: to "?: 6gf5cm# 0Fig 7."2. Further increases in fuel in/ection pressure results in increased %.FC at an in/ection timing of #9 U %*DC. 'hen we retard the in/ection timing, different trend are observed in %.FC 0Fig. 7.#2. At "< U %*DC, minimum %.FC observed at "@: 6gf5cm# and increase in %.FC observed with increase in in/ection pressure. Jowest %.FC 0:.#H:? 6g56'h2 is observed at in/ection pressure "@: 6gf5cm # at an in/ection timing "< U %*DC. .light increase in the specific fuel consumption was observed at retarded in/ection timing from "<U to "7U %*DC. Fig. 7." to 7.7 shows the variation of %.FC as a function of load at different in/ection timing from #9U to "<U %*DC.

#?

Fig 7." 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of #9 U %*DC

#H

9:

Fig 7.# 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of #" U %*DC

9"

Fig 7.9 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of "H U %*DC

Fig 7.= 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of "< U %*DC

9#

Fig 7.7 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection 99

timing of "7 U %*DC

6.& Effe#t of in3e#tion ti%ing on bra9e t*er%al effien#

%ra-e *hermal Efficiency 0%*E2 is an important parameter, as it provides a measure of net power developed by the engine, which is readily available for use at the engine output shaft. In this %ra-e thermal effiency curves are plotted at different in/ection timing and in/ection pressure. *ypical variation of %ra-e *hermal Efficiency 0%*E at standard conditions2 with load for various in/ection pressures at constant engine speeds are shown in Figures 7.@ to 7.":. It has been observed from these plots that the bra-e thermal efficiency was slightly increases with retarding the in/ection timing from #9U to "<U %*DC after that decrease in %*E are observed from "<U to "7U %*DC. .ame pattern was observed for all in/ection pressures under study. *his can be attributed to good fuel atomi3ation and good mi+ing air&fuel supply. From these plots it was also observed that ma+imum value of %*E lay between ?:&H: ; of full load for all in/ection pressures under study. 1lots showing the variation in bra-e thermal efficiency as a function of load for different in/ection pressure and in/ection timing indicate that for 6aran/a&Diesel blend the ma+imum value of %*E was obtained at "@: -g5cm# through out the operating range. *he ma+imum value of thermal efficiency at that in/ection pressure &=.;1 > for in/ection timing "< U %*DC. (eduction in bra-e thermal efficiency from &=.;1 to &=.:; percent has been observed over the change in in/ection timing from "<U to "7U %*DC.

9=

Fig 7.@ 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of #9U %*DC

97

Fig 7.< 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of #"U %*DC

9@

Fig 7.? 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of "HU %*DC

9<

Fig 7.H 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of "<U %*DC

9?

Fig 7.": 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection timing of "7U %*DC 9H

6.( Effe#t of in3e#tion ,ressure on bra9e s,e#ifi# fuel #onsu%,tion

Fig. 7."" to 7."= shows the effect of in/ection pressure on bra-e specific fuel consumption for different in/ection timing. (etarding the in/ection timing decreases the pea- cylinder pressure because more of the fuel burns after *DC. In this at in/ection pressure "@: 6gf5cm#, lowest %.FC observed at "< U %*DC, after that %.FC start increases. Different trend are observed at different in/ection pressure.

Fig 7."" 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection 1ressure of "@: 6gf5cm#

=:

Fig 7."# 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection 1ressure of "<: 6gf5cm#

="

Fig 7."9 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection 1ressure of "?: 6gf5cm#

=#

Fig 7."= 4ariation of %ra-e .pecific Fuel Consumption as a function of Joad at an in/ection 1ressure of "H: 6gf5cm#

=9

6.6 Effe#t of in3e#tion ,ressure on bra9e t*er%al effien#

Fig.7."7 to 7."? shows the variation of bra-e thermal effiency versus load for different in/ection timing from #9U to "7U %*DC for all in/ection pressure. For all the in/ection pressure ma+imum thermal Effiency obtained at "< U %*DC. *his is mainly due the good mi+ing of air& fuel mi+ture and good spray atomi3ation.

Fig 7."7 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection 1ressure of "@: 6gf5cm#

==

Fig 7."@ 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection 1ressure of "<: 6gf5cm#

=7

Fig 7."< 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection 1ressure of "?: 6gf5cm#

=@

Fig 7."? 4ariation of %ra-e *hermal Effiency as a function of Joad at an in/ection 1ressure of "H: 6gf5cm#

=<

6.7 +%o9e e%ission and e1*aust te%,erature

.mo-e is produced during acceleration, overloading or even during full load operation of the engine. ,nder these conditions more fuel is burned and the prevailing temperatures inside the combustion chamber become very high. %ecause of this high temperature there is thermal crac-ing of molecules rather than normal o+idation. *his thermal crac-ing is in the form of soot5carbon. *his soot is a graphite structure, /et blac- in colour and is called smo-e. 4ariation of smo-e as a function of load for Diesel as well as preheated 6aran/a&Diesel blend at an in/ection pressure of "@: -gf5cm # and in/ection timing "<U %*DC is shown in Figure 7."H, which shows minimum smo-e during idling which increases with load. .mo-e density for 6aran/a&Diesel blend was greater than that of diesel. *his is possibly a result of poor spray atomi3ation and non 8uniform mi+ture formation with 6aran/a oil. .mo-e density increases from "? )., to 7# )., with the increases in load in case of diesel oil while the smo-e density increases from 9# )., to @? )., with the increases in load in case of preheated 6aran/a&Diesel blend . .mo-e density is measured e+perimentally for different in/ection pressure and in/ection timing, from this it is observed that effect of in/ection timing and in/ection pressure on smo-e is not very significant. E+haust gas temperature indicates the cylinder temperature. *he temperature of e+haust gas was measured at all the e+perimental conditions. A curves for variation of e+haust gas temperature with load for Diesel and 6aran/a&Diesel blend are shown in Figure 7.#:. As seen from the plots the e+haust gas temperature increases with load. At increased load conditions generation of heat is increased and time available for heat transfer being the same 0constant speed engine2, resulting in increased e+haust gas temperature. It is also seen that the e+haust gas temperature for 6aran/a&Diesel blend was less then the e+haust gas temperature for Diesel through out the load range for all in/ection pressures under study. .

=?

80

70

60

Smoke Density (HSU)

50

40

30

Diesel 6 =: %lend 1reheated

20

10

0 0 1000 2000 Load (Watt) 3000 4000

Fig 7."H 4ariation of .mo-e Density as a function of Joad

=H

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 1000 2000 Load (W) 3000 4000
Diesel K40 Blend Preheated

E !aust "as Temperature(C)

Fig 7.#: 4ariation of E+haust Las *emperature as a function of Joad

7:

CHAPTER 7 CONC-U+ION
Cn the basis of the observations and the results of the e+perimental investigations on a single cylinder, four stro-es, constant (1A, stationary, water cooled, compression ignition engine, run on 6aran/a&Diesel blend and Diesel oil at different in/ection pressure and in/ection timing, the following conclusions may be drawn from the present study. ". *he properties of 6aran/a &Diesel blend are comparable with those of pure Diesel. *he viscosity of 6aran/a oil was reduced by 0i2 preheating the oil 06aran/a oil2 and 0ii2 by blending the 6aran/a oil with diesel. #. A suitable e+perimental setup was developed to reduce the viscosity of 6aran/a oil close to that of conventional diesel in order to ma-e it suitable for use in a C.I. engine and to evaluate the performance parameter with new alternate fuel. 9. )eating of the 6aran/a& Diesel blend is done by utili3ing the heat content of the e+haust gases coming out from the engine. From this heat e+changer the temperature of the 6aran/a 8 Diesel blend could be raised to 7:&@7 UC throughout the operating range of load. =. First step towards the optimi3ation of the performance parameters was to find the optimum 6aran/a&Diesel blend. It was found that substitution of Diesel oil by 6aran/a oil to the e+tent of =:; was best possible in the temperature range of 77&@7 UC as the viscosity of blend becomes equal to that of pure Diesel. 7. A successful operation of a compression ignition engine, fuelled with 6aran/a&Diesel blends over a wide range of load, in/ection pressures and in/ection timing without causing any undesirable combustion phenomena was observed. @. *here was significant effect of in/ection timing on engine performance. For the above 6aran/a&Diesel blend in/ection timing of "<U %*DC was found to be the optimum in/ection timing, as highest bra-e thermal efficiency and lowest bra-e specific fuel consumption were observed over the entire load range at this in/ection timing. <. *here was significant effect of in/ection pressure on engine performance. For 6aran/a& Diesel blend in/ection pressure of "@: -gf5cm# was found to be the optimum in/ection

7"

pressure, as highest bra-e thermal efficiency and lowest bra-e specific fuel consumption were observed over the entire load range at this in/ection pressure. ?. .light low values of bra-e thermal efficiency and higher values of bra-e specific fuel consumption could be attributed to low calorific value of 6aran/a oil as compared to that of Diesel oil. H. .mo-e is formed as a result of thermal crac-ing of molecules at elevated temperatures. 1lots showing variation of smo-e with load, showed minimum smo-e during idling which increases with load. .lightly more smo-e emissions were observed with 6aran/a& Diesel blend over the entire load range mainly due to poor atomi3ation of 6aran/a oil. Effect of different in/ection timing and in/ection pressure on smo-e is not very significant. ":. E+haust gas temperature increases linearly with load. .imilar patterns were obtained for all in/ection pressures under study. It was also seen that the e+haust gas temperature for 6aran/a&Diesel blend was less than the e+haust gas temperature for Diesel oil through out the load range for all in/ection pressures under study. "". Aodified maintenance schedule may however be adopted to control carbon deposits formed during long term usage of vegetable oil blends.

7.1 +#o,e for furt*er resear#*

". .tudy on different blends of 6aran/a&Diesel can be carried out in stationary C.I. engine and the comparison of the performance parameter of the 6aran/a&Diesel blend with diesel. #. 9. =. .tudy the effect of advancing the in/ection timing on performance parameter and emission characteristics. .tudy the effect of advancing and retarding of in/ection timing on emission characteristics li-e CC, )C, GC+. .tudy the effect of vegetable oil on engine component li-e in/ection pump, no33le.

7#

(eferencesD
". #. 9. =. (amadhas A. .., Bayara/ .. and Auraleedharan C., V,se of vegetable oils as I.C. engine fuels 8 a reviewW (enewable Energy #HD <#<&<=#, #::=. (aheman, ). and 1hadatare, A. L., VDiesel engine emissions and performance from blends of -aran/a methyl ester and dieselW %iomass and %ioenergy #< %reda 6egl, VE+perimental Investigation of Cptimal *iming of the Diesel Engine In/ection 1ump ,sing %iodiesel FuelW Energy I Fuels, 4ol.#:, pp. "=@:&"=<:, #::@ Lodiganur .haranappa, .. (ana 1rathap (eddy and Ch. .uryanarayana Aurthy, V.tudy on the performance and e+haust emissions of a diesel engine using preheated Aahua oil and its blends as fuelW International Conference on IC Engines and Combustion 0ICCGICE&#::<2, Bawaharlal Gehru *echnological ,niversity 6u-atpally , )yderabad, #::<D 7. @. <. ?. %reda 6egl, VGumerical analysis of in/ection characteristics using biodiesel fuelW Fuel 4ol.?7, pp.#9<<8#9?<, #::@. Dilip .harma, V.tudies on alternate fuel substitution in engine operated end utility systemW A 1h.D thesis AGI*, Baipur, #::=. C. 1. .igar, VComparative investigation on combustion and performance of a dual fuel engine using J1L and %iodiesel 06aran/a Cil2W A 1h.D thesis, AGI*, Baipur, #::@. Abolle Abolle, Loukou Kouakou, Henri Planche , *he viscosity of diesel oil and mi+tures with straight vegetable oilsD 1alm, cabbage palm, cotton, groundnut, copra and sunflower %iomass and %ioenergy,#::? H. ":.

C.A.I. Gwafor, Emission characteristics of diesel engine running on vegetable oil with
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M.C. .harma, %. .ingh, Development of biodiesel from -aran/a, a tree found in rural India, Fuel 0#::<2

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Deepa- Agarwala, Jo-esh 6umar, Avinash 6umar Agarwal, 1erformance evaluation of a vegetable oil fuelled compression ignition engine, (enewable Energy,#::< .. 6erschbaum, L. (in-e, Aeasurement of the temperature dependent viscosity of biodiesel fuels, Fuel ?9 0#::=2 #?<8#H" .. %ari, *.). Jim et al., Effects of preheating of crude palm oil on in/ection system performance and emission of a diesel engine, (enewable Energy #< 0#::#2 99H897" )emmerlein, G., 6orte, 4., (ichter, )., and .choroder, L., XX1erformance, E+haust Emissions and Durability of Aodern Diesel Engines (unning on (apeseed Cil,KK .AE *echnical 1aper .eries Go. H":?=?, .AE, 'arrendale,1A, "HH".

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19.

characteristics

of Batropha oil 0preheated and blends2 in a direct in/ection compression ignition engine, www.biodiesel.org Jast accessed on Ban. 9:, #::?. A.E. *at and B.). 4an Lerpen,(eport on Aeasurement of %iodiesel .peed of .ound and Its Impact on In/ection *iming,Gational (enewable Energy Jaboratory, Iowa .tate ,niversity Ames, Iowa #". ##. 1.6. .rivastava and Aadhumita 4erma, Aethyl ester of -aran/a oil as an alternative renewable source energy, Fuel 0#::<2 A. *. %ial-ows-i and *. 1e-demir et al. , 1reliminary approach towards a CDI system modification operating on neat rapeseed oil, Bournal of 6CGE. Internal Combustion Engines #::7, vol. "#, "&# #9. #=. Fangrui Aa, Ailford A. )anna, V%iodiesel productionD a reviewW %ioresource *echnology 4ol.<:, pp. "&"7, "HHH. *echanical information on fuel in/ection equipment for diesel engine by AICC %C.C)

#:.

7=

APPENDI5
FC(A,JAE ,.ED )eat .upplied to the engine Q 0mass flow rate of fuel2P0calorific value2 )eat ta-en away by water Q 0mass flow rate of water2P0specific heat of water2P0rise in *emp.2 )eat ta-en away by e+haust gases Q 0mass flow rate of air N fuel2P0specific heat of gases2P0rise in temp.2 4olumetric Efficiency Q 0volume of air actually induced2 5 0swept volume2 Air induced 5 s Q Cd P Aorifice P 0# P g P hw P w 5 a2"5# .wept 4olume Q 0Go. of cylinders2P0APJ2P0Go. of wor-ing cycles2 %.FC Q 0Fuel consumed in -g5hr2 5 0bra-e power2 %*E Q 0bra-e power2 5 0heat supplied2 Aass flow rate of air Q 0Air induced 5s2 P 0Density of Air2

CCG.*AG*.D Cd of orifice Q :.@ Diameter of orifice Q #: mm .pecific heat of e+haust gases Q " -B5-g&6 Density of diesel fuel Q :.?# g5cc

77

Density of 6&=: fuel Q :.?<? g5cc Calorific value of diesel fuel Q ==,::: -B5-g Calorific value of 6&=: fuel Q =:, : =7.@-B5-g .pecific heat of water Q =."? -B5-g Density of water Q "::: -g5cubic meter Density of air Q "."7< -g5cubic meter (oom temperature Q 9# C

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