04 - NTH - Project Report 1-94 Hard Rock Tunnel Boring

CONTENTS PAGE
PREFACE 1
0 INTRODUCTION 3
1 CROSS SECTIONS 7
2 ADVANCE RATE 14
3 CUTTER LIFE 33
4 COSTS 40
5 T U N N l N ~ 69
6 GEOLOGY 81
7 BORING PROCESS 105
8 GROUND SUPPORT 134
APPENDICES 145
PREFACE
HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING
PROJECT REPORT 1-94
The report is part of a project programme on tunnelling, consisting of the following
reports:
4-79 TUNNELLING
Large Cross Sections
1-81 SHAFT EXCAVATION
8-87 DEEP AND LONG UNDERSEA TUNNELS
2-88 TUNNELLING
Prognosis for Drill and Blast*
3-88 TUNNELLING
Costs for Drill and Blast*
5-88 ROCK CAVERNS*
8-88 ROAD TUNNELS
Drill and Blast or Tunnel Boring
13-90 DRILLABILITY
Drilling Rate Index Catalogue*
10A-91 TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT
Bolting
lOB-91 TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT
Shotcrete
10C-91 TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT
Concrete Lining
17-91 TUNNELLING
Ventilation
14A-93 ROCK BLASTING TECHNIQUE
Blasting Vibrations
1-94 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING
7-95 SINKING OF DEEP SHAFTS
Drill and Blast
* Available in English. See also Appendix C.
1
PREFACE
A considerable amount of information on tunnelling has been brought up to date
and systematized through the reports - to be used for
- economic dimensioning of tunnels
- choice of tunnelling alternative
- time planning
- cost analysis, tender, budgeting and cost control
- choice of tunnelling method and equipment
The performance and cost models of these reports are also available as programs
for personal computers:
- Drill Pattern, Drill and Blast Tunnelling
- Hard Rock Tunnel Boring, Prognosis and Costs
- Hard Rock Tunnel Boring, Transport Analysis
- Tunnelling, Ventilation
- Drillability, Drilling Rate Index Catalogue
- Joint Plotting, Joint Diagrams
Two programs for follow-up of tunnel boring are also available:
- Cutter Consumption
- Machine Utilization
Trondheim, March 1995
Professor
2
o. INTRODUCTION
Contents
Page
0.1 PROJECT REPORT 1-94 4
0.2 BACKGROUND 5
0.3 TUNNEL BORING VS DRILL AND BLAST TUNNELLING 6
3
O. INTRODUCTION
0.1 PROJECT REPORT 1-94
0.1 Project Report 1-94
The report provides-methods and necessary data for calculation of time
consumption and costs for tunnel boring. Geological parameters of significance
for performance and costs are presented in detail. The boring process with
chipping mechanism and cutter abrasion is described.
The report also gives a brief treatment of cross section conditions for tunnel
boring, a description of equipment systems behind the TBM, including transpor-
tation of muck from the TBM to the rock dump.
The 1994 edition is an updated version of the project reports 1-76, 1-79, 1-83 and
1-88. The report has been prepared by a project group consisting of the civil
engineers Bard Sandberg, Amund Bruland, Jan Lima and Professor Odd
Johannessen. Dr.ing. O. Torgeir Blindheim has made substantial contributions to
the English edition.
The report has been completed by Amund Bruland.
The project group alone is responsible for the conclusions of the report.
Financial support has been granted by
- Luftfartsverket
- Statkraft Anlegg AS
- Vegdirektoratet
- Norwegian Research Council.
For reference, we ask for the following to be used:
University of Trondheim, NTH-Anleggsdrift (l994):
Project Report 1-94 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING
4
o. INTRODUCTICIN
0.2 BACKGROUND
0.2 Background
The prognosis model is based on job site studies and statistics from tunnelling in
Norway and abroad. The data have been systematized and normalized. The results
are regarded as being representative for well organized tunnelling.
The prognosis model has been developed continuously since 1975. During this
period it has gone through several phases:
prognosis model for performance and costs developed on the basis of
collected job site data
the model was verified and adjusted to data from running jobs
the model has been applied in the planning of a number of tunnel
projects for calculation of time consumption and costs for tunnel boring
the same tunnel projects have then been studied during construction and
have given additional data - resulting in adjustments of the model.
33 job sites with 230 km of bored tunnel have been carefully mapped. Data from
job sites abroad has also been studied. In some of the projects, tunnel boring has
been utilized under very demanding rock conditions. All together, this has resulted
in fundamentally new knowledge about tunnel boring, which is incorporated in
Project Report 1-94.
5
o. INTRODUCTION
0.3 Tunnel Boring vs Drill and Blast Tunnelling
0.3 TUNNEL BORING VS DRILL AND BLAST TUNNELLING
When comparing drill and blast tunnelling to tunnel boring, the comparison must
take into account cross section area, time consumption and total costs.
In addition to the direct tunnelling costs, the total costs include rock support,
cleaning of invert, construction and operation of transport facilities, communi-
cations and power supply, labour housing and auxiliary plants, share of general
costs, and finally, interest costs during the construction period. See also example in
Project Report 3-88 TUNNELLING Costs for Drill and Blast.
Most of the items vary with the tunnelling method, either because of the method
itself (rock support, cleaning of invert) or because of different time consumption
(operation of all auxiliary functions, interest in construction period).
Tunnels may be longer for tunnel boring than for drill and blast tunnelling, due to
increased advance rates and reduced ventilation requirements. This facilitates a
more favourable tunnel system layout, e.g. with fewer adits.
For geological reasons, it may be advantageous to choose a different route for
tunnel boring than for drill and blast tunnelling.
It is important that the method is evaluated at an early phase in the planning
process - to ensure full benefit of possible gains by the use of tunnel boring.
6
1. CROSS SECTIONS
Contents
Page
1.1 GEOMETRICAL CONDITIONS
8
1.11 Tunnel Profile
8
1.12 Tunnel Slope
8
1.13 Curve Radius
8
1.2 WATER TUNNELS
9
1.3 SEWAGE TUNNELS
11
1.4 ROAD TUNNELS 12
1.5 RAILROAD TUNNELS 13
7
1. CROSS SECTIONS
1.1 GEOMETRICAL CONDITIONS
1.11 Tunnel Profile
1.1 Geometrical Conditions
Tunnel boring gives a circular profile with smooth surface. Machines with
diameters from 1.2 m to 12 m (1.1 m
2
to 113 m
2
) have been developed for boring
in hard rock.
The diameter of a given machine may be changed when rebuilt. Alterations
amounting to 10 - 15 % are possible, depending on diameter and manufacturer.
(For some machines, the diameter may be changed even more; 100 % from
smallest to largest diameter.)
1.12 Tunnel Slope
Tunnel boring machines can be built for boring at all tunnel slopes. The slope is
limited by the muck transport system.
Track transport must be used for diameters under approximately 6 m. The slope is
then limited to approximately 2 %. Trackless transport is feasible for diameters
over approximately 7 m. The practical slope limits are then 1:6, presupposing a
roadway pavement of high quality. Both trackless and track transport demand a
minimum slope of 0.2 % for required drainage of the tunnel. Shafts can be bored
with slope from 25 to vertical. Scraping or flushing of muck facilitates boring at
even lower slope. Development of special equipment for trackless transport in
small cross sections, pumping of muck or use of conveyors may alter the slope
limitations.
1.13 Curve Radius
The minimum curve radius for tunnel boring depends on both the TBM and the
back-up equipment. Tunnel boring machines have a minimum curve radius of 40 -
80 m (without boring 15 - 25 m). The back-up equipment, i.e. the conveyor belt,
determines the minimum curve radius. When using long back-up equipment, the
minimum curve radius is 150 - 450 m. The possible conflict between the back-up
equipment and installed rock support also affects the minimum curve radius.
8
1. CROSS SECTIONS
1.2 WATER TUNNELS
1.2 Water Tunnels
Loss of head in a bored tunnel is smaller than in a blasted tunnel with the same
cross section, because of the circular, smooth profile.
Figure 1.1 shows the relation between the cross section of a blasted and a bored
tunnel with the same capacity (hydraulic equivalent cross sections). The diagram is
calculated on the basis of the assumptions shown i Table 1.1.
Cross Section 8 m
2
20 m
2
50 m
2
Blasted cross section
- Absolute roughness, mm
- Manning's number 32.8 33.9 34.6
Bored cross section, schistose rock
- Absolute roughness, mm 4.5 4.5 4.5
Bored cross section, homogenous rock
- Absolute roughness, mm 3.0 3.0 3.0
Table 1.1 Roughness for varying tunnel cross sections.
Marginal costs for bored tunnels increase with increasing cross sections, whereas
they decrease for drill and blast tunnels. Furthermore, the marginal costs for bored
tunnels are very dependent on the rock mass borability. For economic optimization
of cross sections, a different relation between blasted and bored cross sections than
those shown in Figure 1.1 will be obtained. Such calculations must be carried out
for each individual project.
The relation between economic optimal cross sections for a specific project (drill
and blast tunnelling and tunnel boring) is shown in Figure 1.2.
9
1. CROSS SECTIONS 1.2 Water Tunnels
6
1.9 5
1.8
1.7 H++-f"I'
4
3
60 50
1 6 1 1 1 ~
10 20 30 40
Cross section blasted tunnel, m
2
Figure 1.1 Equivalent cross sections. Lower: Relation between blasted and bored
cross section, AiA
b
Upper: TBM diameter of equivalent cross section.
I'
-
ll"!" DRI6Sr==
10 20 30 40 50 60
Blasted Cross Section, ~ . m
2
Figure 1.2 Relation between economic optimal cross sections for tunnel boring
and drill and blast tunnelling. Example from a specific project.
10
1. CROSS SECTIONS
1.3 SEWAGE TUNNELS
1.3 Sewage Tunnels
In blasted sewer tunnels, it is often necessary to concrete a V-shaped channel in
the invert to achieve a self-cleaning effect for low flow rates.
In bored tunnels, it is not necessary to concrete such a channel, because the
circular cross section is sufficiently self-cleaning when bored with accurate control
of slope. It is presupposed that all TBM muck and other objects are removed from
the invert.
11
1. CROSS SECTIONS
1.4 ROAD TUNNELS
1.4 Road Tunnels
The circular cross section is not suited for road tunnels. Due to required traffic area
and free clearance, cross sections will be unnecessarily large if bored, see Figure
1.3.
Cross sections will be better utilized if the lower part of the tunnel is enlarged by
blasting, see Figure 1.3. As little slashing as possible must be done in order to
preserve the smooth surface of the bored tunnel. However, slashing is time con-
suming, and often prolongs the construction time.
Another alternative is to bore this part of the cross section as well. Equipment for
this purpose is being developed.
Road tunnels are discussed in more detail in Project Report 8-88 ROAD
TUNNELS Drill and Blast or Tunnel Boring (Norwegian edition only).
'0"
Traffic area
Bored cross section
Figure 1.3 Cross sections for road tunnels.
Traffic area
Bored and slashed cross section
12
1. CROSS SECTIONS
1.5 RAILROAD TUNNELS
1.5 Railroad Tunnels
Cross section conditions for railroad tunnels are similar to those for road tunnels,
but the cross section may often be better utilized.
Figure 1.4 shows relevant tunnel profiles for single track railroad tunnels, electric
traction.
E
o
N
ci
Boring
A=63.6m
2
Boring and slashing
A=44.2+10.0=54.2m
2
Figure 1.4 Cross sections for railroad tunnels.
13
2. ADVANCE RATE
Contents
Page
2.1 PENETRATION PARAMETERS
15
2.10 Introduction 15
2.11 Rock Parameters 15
2.12 Machine Parameters
18
2.2 NET PENETRATION 21
2.21 Fracturing 21
2.22 Basic Penetration 23
2.23 Net Penetration Rate 25
2.24 Torque Demand 25
2.25 Other Advance Rate Limitations 26
2.3 GROSS ADVANCE RATE 27
2.31 Machine Utilization 27
2.32 Additional Time Consumption 30
2.4 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION 31
14
2. ADVANCE RATE
2.1 PENETRATION PARAMETERS
2.10 Introduction
2.1 Penetration Parameters
Net penetration rate depends on rock properties and machine parameters.
Rock Mass Parameters
- fracturing
- Drilling Rate Index, DRI
- abrasiveness, CLI
- porosity
Table 2.1 Machine and rock parameters.
2.11 Rock Parameters
Machine Parameters
- cutter thrust
- cutterhead rpm
- cutter spacing
- cutter size and shape
- installed power
To estimate time consumption and costs, a geological preinvestigation, adjusted to
tunnel boring, is required. This section gives a numeric description of required
geological parameters and may be an aid at an early planning phase. See Chapter 6
for detailed studies of geological conditions.
Degree of Fracturing
The rock mass fracturing is the most important penetration parameter for tunnel
boring. In this context, fracturing means fissures or joints with little or no shear
strength along the planes of weakness. The less the distance between the fractures
is, the greater the influence on the penetration rate is.
Rock mass fracturing is characterized by degree of fracturing (type and spacing)
and the angle between the tunnel axis and the planes of weakness.
Joints (Sp): Includes continuous joints that can be followed all around the tunnel
profile. They can be open (e.g. bedding joints in granite) or filled with clay or
weak minerals, e.g. calcite, chlorite or similar minerals.
15
2. ADVANCE RATE
Fissures (8t): Includes non-continuous joints (can only be followed partly around
the tunnel profile), filled joints with low shear strength and bedding plane fissures
(partings), e.g. as in mica schist and mica gneiss.
Homogenous Rock Mass (Class 0): Includes massive rock without joints or
fissures (may appear in intrusive dikes, sills, batholites, etc.). Rock mass with filled
joints with high shear strength (e.g. joints healed with quartz, epidote, etc.) may
approach Class O.
\
\
The degree of fracturing in systematically fractured rock mass is divided into
classes for practical use when mapping (see Table 2.2). The classes include both
space between and type of weakness planes. Figure 2.1 shows recorded fracture
classes for various rock types in bored tunnels.
Fracture Class
Qoints Sp/fissures St)
o
0-1
I-
I
II
III
IV
Distance between
Planes of Weakness
[cm]
160
80
40
20
10
5
Table 2.2 Fracture classes with corresponding distance between planes of
weakness.
Rock Drillability
Rock drillability is evaluated on basis of the Drilling Rate Index DRI and the
Cutter Life Index CLI. The test methods are described in Project Report 13-90
DRILLABILITY Drilling Rate Index Catalogue. Variation of DRI and CLI for
some rock types is shown in Figures 2.2 and 2.3 (data from Norwegian tunnels).
The influence of rock porosity is described in Section 6.2.
16
2. ADVANCE RATE
Limestone
Calcareous shale
Greenshist
Phyllite
Mica shist
Mica gneiss
Granitic gneiss
Amphibolitic gneiss
Quartz shist
Quartzite
Basalt
Quartz diorite
(Trondhjemite)
I I I
I
o 0/1
1/11
II
11/111
III
III/IV
IV
Figure 2.1 Recorded degree of fracturing for various rock types.
Amphibolite
Phyllite
Mica gneiss
Mica schist
Gneiss
Granite
Granitic gneiss
Greenstone
Limestone
Quartzite
Shale
Sandstone
o 10 20 30 40
10% 25% 50% 75% 90%
!
50 60 70 80 90 100
Drilling rate index, DRI
Figure 2.2 Recorded Drilling Rate Index for various rock types.
17
2. ADVANCE RATE
Amphibolite
Phyllite
Mica gneiss
Mica schist
Gneiss
Granite
Granitic gneiss
Greenstone
Limestone
Quartzite
Shale
Sandstone
-
-
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Cutter life index, CLI
10% 25% 50% 75% 90%
!
Figure 2.3 Recorded Cutter Life Index for various rock types.
2.12 Machine Parameters
To estimate advance rate and cutter life, the machine parameters are required. At
an early stage of planning, the parameters must be assumed.
Cutter Thrust
Figure 2.4 shows a general outline of maximum gross average thrust per cutter disc
as a function of cutter diameter and TBM diameter.
Cutterhead RPM
The cutterhead rpm is inverse proportional to the cutterhead diameter. This is
because one needs to limit the rolling velocity of the peripheral cutter. Figure 2.5
shows cutterhead rpm as a function of cutterhead diameter and cutter diameter.
18
2. ADVANCE RATE 2.1 Penetration Parameters
M
B
kN/c
320
280
240
200

2 3 6 7 8 9 10
TBM diameter. m
Figure 2.4 Recommended maximum gross average thrust per disc.
RPM
,
rev/min
' ,
I
1 de-432-500mm
,
, ,
15 2 d
e
=394mm
f--+--
1.
I
,
3 de 356mm
r--
.2. ,
10
f--+-- 3.
,
- -
I-
I
, ,
-
-.....
-.J.
5
,
I
i
I, !
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
TBM diameter, m
Figure 2.5 Cutterhead rpm.
19
2. ADVANCE RATE
60
50
40
30
de 500mm
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Figure 2.6 Normal number of cutters on the cutterhead.
P
tbm
kW
3500
TBM diameter, m
de-483-500mm
2500
1500
500
.-....

-
,
, ,
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Figure 2.7 Normal installed cutterhead power.
TBM diameter, m
20
2. ADVANCE RATE
2.2 NET PENETRATION
2.20 Introduction
2.2 Net Penetration
Net penetration rate is defined as meters tunnel bored per hour when the cutterhead
rotates with thrust against the face.
2.21 Fracturing
Fracturing is expressed by the fracturing factor ks, which is dependent on the
degree of fracturing (type and spacing) and the angle between the tunnel axis and
the planes of weakness, a.
The orientation of weakness planes is determined from measurements of strike and
dip.
a = arcsin (sina
f
sin (at - a)
as =
strike angle
a
f
=
dip angle
at =
tunnel direction.
[2.1.]
The fracturing factor for fissures and joints is shown in Figure 2.8, as a function of
fissure or joint class and angle between the tunnel axis and the planes of weakness.
For more than one set of weakness planes, the total fracturing factor is as follows:
n
k L k. - (n - 1) . 0.36
s-lot SI
i = 1
k
si
= fracturing factor for set no. i
n = number of fracturing sets.
[2.2]
21
2. ADVANCE RATE
2.2 Net Penetration
The rock mass properties for TBM boring is expressed by the equivalent fracturing
factor.
koR'
1.25
[2.3]
2
1.00
0.75
1 k
s
- 0.36
2 k
s
> 2.00
4.0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
DRI
-
IV
~
".. -
1.0 ~
.-
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle between tunnel axis and planes of weakness, 0.0
Figure 2.8 Fracturing factor. Correction factor for DRI 7= 49.
22
2. ADVANCE RATE
2.22 Basic Penetration
2.2 Net Penetration
Basic penetration in mm/rev as a function of equivalent thrust and equivalent
fracturing factor is shown in Figure 2.9. For cutter diameter and average cutter
spacing different from Figure 2.9, equivalent thrust is given by:
i
o
mm/rev
10.0
8.0
"
,
,#,
, il
6.0
(kN/cutter)
, wr
[2.4]
I Equivalent thrust, 300kN/c It"
-
250 kN/c It
, 200 kN/cC:
150 kN/c I::
4.0
2.0
100 kN/c It
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Equivalent fracturing factor, k
ekv
Figure 2.9 Basic penetration. de = 483 mm and a
e
= 70 mm.
23
2. ADVANCE RATE 2.2 Net Penetration
'.
--'-,; ,
,..
'.
.- ....
1 4

. b "'" ,. "
300 340 380 420 460 500
Cutter diameter, mm
Figure 2.10 Correction factor for cutter diameter de *' 483 mrn.
-

\-\ :. . ,-
":-. ",'
= . . , ""
., . '. ' . . ,; ., .
. ',':: >.
- . . . ...
. .: ..
60 65 70 75 80 85
Average cutter spacing, mm
Figure 2.11 Correction factor for average cutter spacing a
c
'* 70 mrn.
24
2. ADVANCE RATE
2.23 Net Penetration Rate
2.2 Net Penetration
Net penetration rate I is a function of basic penetration and cutterhead rpm.
I = i . RPM . ~
o 1000
2.24 Torque Demand
(m/hr) [2.5]
For high penetration or when boring in fractured rock, one must check that there is
sufficient cutterhead power installed to utilize the estimated thrust. The machine is
torque limited if the installed power is too low to rotate the cutterhead for a given
penetration. Then the thrust must be reduced until the required torque is less than
the torque capacity. Necessary torque is given by:
(kNm) [2.6]
0.59 =
r
tbm
=
N
tbm
=
k
c
=
relative position of the average cutter on the cutterhead. When the
cutterhead design is known, the factor may be calculated, see
[7.6].
cutterhead radius
number of cutters on the cutterhead
cutter coefficient (rolling resistance), see [2.7].
[2.7]
Figure 2.12 shows the cutter constant Cc as a function of cutter diameter. Necessary
torque decides the installed power. Necessary installed power is given by [2.8].
25
2. ADVANCE RATE
T 2 1t . RPM
n
60
.,.
I-'-t-+-Kfi'l'" rI" '
C
c
' ,.... ..
:.: ..;, ": .
.. ;. "0 ~ ..
O 05
., t,
. t-+:t::;t;+tt:l' . . . ~ "
.......... . h
. ~ .:.
':" ....... ~ .
:':\ .
~ . . \. :; .'.
t. ; .. ~ . .'.'
(kW)
2.2 Net Penetration
[2.8]
300 340 380 420 460 500
Figure 2.12 Cutter constant.
For details on torque demand, see Section 7.23.
2.25 Other Advance Rate Limitations
Cutter diameter, mm
Besides limitations due to available torque, the system's capacity (TBM and back-
up equipment) for muck removal may limit the net penetration rate. Particularly,
muck removal may limit the penetration rate for large diameter machines.
When boring through marked single joints or heavy fractured rock, it may be
necessary to reduce the thrust due to too high machine vibration level and very
high momentary cutter loads.
26
2. ADVANCE RATE
2.3 GROSS ADVANCE RATE
2.30 Introduction
2.3 Gross Advance Rate
Gross advance rate is given in meters per week as an average for a longer period.
Gross advance rate depends on net penetration rate, machine utilization and the
number of working hours during the period.
2.31 Machine Utilization
The machine utilization is net boring time expressed in per cent of total tunnelling
time. Total tunnelling time includes
1) boring T
b
2) regripping T
t
3) cutter change and inspection T
c
4) maintenance and service of TBM T
tbm
5) maintenance and service of back-up equipment T
bak
6) miscellaneous Ta.
The activities are expressed in hours per kilometre. Time consumption used in this
report is representative for the better part of today's tunnelling practice. The
machine utilization is given by:
u =
(%)
[2.9]
Boring
Boring time depends on net penetration rate 1.
1000
I
(hrlkm)
[2.10]
27
2. ADVANCE RATE
Regripping
Regripping time depends on stroke length of the thrust cylinders and time per
regrip.
1000 . t
lak
60 . 1
s
(hr/km) [2.11]
Is = stroke length, typically 1.5 - 2.0 m
t
lak
= time per regrip.
As an average, time per regrip teak is 4.5 minutes. Time consumption varies with
gripper hold, stroke length, TBM diameter, boring in curves and capacity of the
hydraulic system. Under favourable conditions the time consumption will be
somewhat lower, but may increase substantially under difficult conditions.
Cutter Change
Time for cutter change and inspection depends on cutter ring life H
h
, net pene-
tration rate I and time per changed cutter t
e
.
1000 . t
e
60 . H . I
h
(hr/km)
[2.12]
Time per changed cutter varies with the cutter size. Typically time consumption is
t
e =
t
e =
H
h =
45 minutes for cutter diameter de :5 432 mm (17 inches)
60 minutes for cutter diameter de 483 mm (19 inches).
cutter ring life
28
2. ADVANCE RATE
The inspection time per changed cutter increases when boring in rock with low
abrasivity. This gives an increased total time per changed cutter. Time per changed
cutter also depends on number of cutters changed at one time. Few cutters changed
each round gives higher unit time and may give reduced cutter life.
Divided cutter rings are currently being tested in hard rock. The method may prove
to be efficient. The advantage of divided cutter rings is that only the ring itself is
changed, not the complete cutter assembly. Use of divided cutter rings may result
in better working conditions (reduced handling of heavy items) and lower time
consumption per changed cutter.
Other Activities
Time consumption for repair, maintenance and service of TBM and back-up equip-
ment, and miscellaneous activities, is shown in Figure 2.13. The time consumption
is representative for good tunnelling practice. Time for possible main bearing
failure and other long lasting stops is not included.
Miscellaneous includes the following:
- normal rock support in good rock conditions
- waiting for transport
- tracks or roadway
- surveying, moving of laser
- water, ventilation, electric cable
- cleaning
- other (travel, change of shift, etc.).
In addition to the listed items, miscellaneous includes time loss connected to the
tunnelling method and organization, and unforseen time consumption.
For long headings (> 8 km), miscellaneous demands an increasing part of the
available tunnelling time. Waiting for transport will increase substantially if the
capacity of the transport system is too low.
29
2. ADVANCE RATE
h/km eEffiffi
150 I-'-+++-+-+-t-++-
50
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Figure 2.13 Time consumption for other activities.
2.32 Additional Time Consumption
Net penetration rate, mlhr
Estimation of time consumption for a tunnel is based on weekly advance rate,
estimated on the basis of net penetration rate and total utilization. In addition, extra
time must be added for
- assembly and disassembly of TBM and back-up equipment in the tunnel
- excavation of niches, branchings, dump stations etc.
- rock support in zones of poor quality
- additional time for unexpected rock mass conditions
- permanent rock support and lining work
- downtime TBM (additional time for major machine breakdowns)
- dismantling of tracks, ventilation, invert cleanup, etc.
30
2. ADVANCE RATE
2.4 EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
Geometrical Conditions
2.4 Example of Application
Figure 1.1
Cross section for drill and blast
Equivalent cross section TBM
Equivalent tunnel diameter
Geology
26 m
2
26/ 1.63 =15.9 m
2
4.5 m
Figure 2.8
[2.3]
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Tunnel length in mica schist
Drilling Rate Index
Degree of fracturing
Angle between tunnel axis and
planes of weakness a
Fracturing factor k
s
Equivalent fracturing factor k
ekv
= 1.40 . 1.10
Machine Parameters
TBM diameter d
tbm
Cutter diameter de
Gross thrust per cutter M
B
Cutterhead rpm
Number of cutters N
tbm
Avetage cutter spacing a
e
Net Penetration Rate
3200 m
DRI =60
St II
45
1.40
= 1.54
4.5 m
483 mm
290 kN/c
11.1 rev/min
30
70 mm
[2.4]
Figure 2.9
[2.5]
Equivalent thrust M
ekv
= 290 . 1.QO . 0.975 =
Basic penetration i
o
Net penetration rate I = (8.4 . 11.1 . 60) / 1000 =
283 kN/c
8.40 mm/rev
5.59 m/hr
31
2. ADVANCE RATE
Torque Check
Figure 2.12
[2.7]
[2.6]
[2.8]
Figure 2.7
[2.10]
[2.11]
[2.12]
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.13
Cutter constant Cc
Cutter coefficient k
c
=0.034 . 8.40
1jz
=
Necessary torque
To =0.59 . 2.25 . 32 . 290 . 0.0985 =
Necessary power Po = 1213 . 2 . Jt . 11.1 /60 =
Installed power P
lbm
Gross Advance Rate
Penetration rate for mica schist
Cutter life for mica schist H
h
Cutter change and inspection t
c
Stroke length TBM Is
Time per regrip t
lak
Machine Utilization
Boring
Regripping
Cutter change
Repair and service of TBM
Repair and service of back-up equipment
Miscellaneous
Total
0.034
0.0985
1213 kNm
1410 kW
1720 kW
5.59 m/hr
5.00 hrle
60 minle
1.83 m
4.50 min
178.9 hr/km
41.0 hr/km
35.8 hr/km
30.0 hr/km
17.0 hr/km
127.0 hr/km
429.7 hr/km
[2.9] Machine utilization (178.9/429.7)' 100 % = 41.6 %
Weekly advance rate
for 101 hr/week
101 . 5.59 . 0.416
=
235 m
32
3. CUTTER LIFE
3.1 CUTTER WEAR
3.10 Introduction
3.11 Cutter Life Parameters
3.12 Cutter Ring Life
Contents
Page
34
34
34
38
39
33
3. CUTTER LIFE
3.1 CUTTER WEAR
3.10 Introduction
The cutter ring life is mainly dependent on the following factors:
3.1 Cutter Wear
Rock Mass Properties
- Cutter Life Index CLI
- rock content of abrasive
minerals
Table 3.1 Cutter life parameters.
3.11 Cutter Life Parameters
Machine Parameters
- cutter diameter
- cutter type and quality
- cutterhead diameter and shape
- cutterhead rpm
- number of cutters
The cutter ring life, in boring hours, is proportional to the Cutter Life Index CLI.
Figure 3.1 shows basic cutter ring life as a function of CLI and cutter diameter.
Correction for TBM Diameter
Correction factor for TBM diameter is shown in Figure 3.2. Centre and gage
cutters have a shorter lifetime than face cutters. With increasing TBM diameter, the
ratio of centre and gage cutters to face cutters decreases.
Correction for Cutterhead RPM
Cutter ring life is inversely proportional to cutterhead rpm. Correction factor for
varying cutterhead rpm is shown in [3.1].
34
3. CUTTER LIFE
50/d
tbm
k
RPM
=
RPM
d
tbm
= TBM diameter
RPM = cutterhead rpm.
200
3.1 Cutter Wear
[3.1 ]
de - 483mm
M
100 ' : ...
I
I 356mm
20 40 60 80 100 120
Figure 3.1 Basic cutter ring life, H
o
.
Cutter life index, CLI
35
3. CUTTER LIFE 3.1 Cutter Wear
k'l' Flat cutterhead
-
1.5
.-
-
1.0
Dowed cutterhead
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Figure 3.2 Correction factor for cutter ring life.
Correction for Number of Cutters
TBM diameter, m
When the number of cutters differs from the prognosis model, the life of the
average cutter will change. Correction for deviating number of cutters is:
N
tbm
= actual number of cutters
No = normal number of cutters (Figure 2.6).
Correction for Quartz Content
Cutter ring life varies with the rock quartz content. See Figure 3.3.
[3.2]
36
3. CUTTER LIFE 3.1 Cutter Wear
"",.
-.; ...
ka '.
. -

EEE=E::::E==E=::E
Mica schist
Mica gneiss
Gneiss
'., , Granitic gneiss
1.4 Granite
.... . mg_
_ "
f--+---+---+:l!' . ", ..

0.6 . -,;,'
20 40 60 80 100
Quartz content, %
Figure 3.3 Correction factor for cutter ring life.
The correction factor in Figure 3.3 is based on normalized field and laboratory
data. For rock types of Group 1, the curve may be explained by the fact that CLI
and rock quartz content are not independent variables.
When using the prognosis model, CLI and rock quartz content should not be varied
independently. For rock types of Group 1, one should be cautious when using
quartz content close to 0 % and 27 %.
37
3. CUTTER LIFE
3.12 Cutter Ring Life
Average life of cutter rings is given by [3.3] - [3.5].
3.1 Cutter Wear
(hr/c)
[3.3]
H = H . I
m h
(m/c)
[3.4]
[3.5]
H
o
=
basic average cutter ring life
H
h
=
average cutter ring life
H
m
=
H
f
=
I =
net penetration rate
d
tbm
=
TBM diameter.
H
o
(and HI' see Appendix D, page 161) expresses life of one cutter ring in the
average cutter position (r
avg
"" 0.59 . r
tbm
) in machine hours. E.g. one ring has a life
of 200 hours in position 12 on a 3.5 m diameter cutterhead with 26 cutters.
H
h
, H
m
and H
f
expresses averaged cutter consumption for the cutterhead or the
tunnel. E.g. H
m
=10 mlc means that for each 10m of tunnel, the total averaged
wear on all the cutters on the cutterhead corresponds to one cutter ring.
38
3. CUTTER WEAR
Machine Factors
TBM diameter
Domed cutterhead
Cutterhead rpm
Number of cutters N
tbm
Cutter diameter de
Geology
Tunnel length in mica schist
Cutter Life Index
Rock quartz content
Net penetration rate I
Cutter Life
4.5 m
11.1 rev/min
32
483 mm
3200 m
CLI =20
25 %
5.59 m/hr
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
[3.1]
[3.2]
Figure 3.3
Basic cutter ring life H
o
Correction for TBM diameter k<p
Correction for cutterhead rpm k
RPM
Correction for number of rings k
N
Correction for quartz content k
Q
107 hr
1.15
1.00
1.07
1.22
[3.3] H
h =
107 . 1.15 . 1.00 . 1.07 . 1.22 I 32
=
5.02 hr/c
[3.4] H
m =
5.02 . 5.59
=
28.06 m/c
[3.5] H
f =
5.02 . 5.59 . Jt . 4.5
2
I 4
=
446 sm
3
/c
Page 161 H
t =
5.02 . 32
=
161 hr/c
39
4. COSTS
Contents
Page
4.0 INTRODUCTION
41
4.1 NORMALIZED COSTS
42
4.10 Introduction
42
4.11 Costs for Assembly and Disassembly 42
4.12 Costs for TBM and Back-up Equipment 42
4.13 Cutter Costs 42
4.14 Total Costs Behind the Face
43
4.15 Labour Costs 43
4.16 Addition for Declined Adit 43
4.17 Example of Application 51
4.2 TBM AND BACK-UP EQUIPMENT 52
4.21 Depreciation 52
4.22 Interest 54
4.23 Maintenance 54
4.24 Downtime 54
4.25 Service 55
4.26 Electric Power 55
4.27 Example of Application 57
4.3 HAULING 60
4.31 Track Transport 60
4.32 Trackless Transport 64
4.4 OTHER COSTS 66
4.41 Ventilation 66
4.42 Electrical Installations 66
4.43 Water Supply 66
40
4. COSTS
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Tunnel costs are divided into the following items:
4.0 Introduction
Main Item
1. Assembly and disassembly
2. Boring
3. Back-up Equipment
4. Hauling
5. Other costs
6. Labour costs
Table 4.1 Cost items.
I Minor Item
2.1 TBM
2.2 Cutters
4.1 Transport
4.2 Roadway or tracks
4.3 Tip
5.1 Ventilation
5.2 Electrical installations
5.3 Water
Depreciation of the main equipment for tunnelling is based on the concept of
economic useful life. This method of depreciation is further described in Project
Report 15A-92 HEAVY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY Costs, Performance and
Maintenance. Additional equipment is depreciated partly on time and partly on use.
The costs in this report are estimated in the same way as the costs in Project
Report 3-88 TUNNELLING Costs for Drill and Blast.
One should add costs for unforseen conditions during the tunnel excavation. As a
rule of thumb, additional costs for unforseen conditions amounts to 10 % of the
estimated normalized costs.
All costs are based on the price level of January 1994. The Department of Building
and Construction Engineering calculates the necessary correction factors for price
level.
41
4. COSTS
4.1 NORMALIZED COSTS
4.10 Introduction
4.1 Normalized Costs
The nonnalized costs are an evened and nonnalized summary of the detailed cost
analyses given in Section 4.2 - 4.4.
The nonnalized costs are mainly used for estimation of various alternatives (routes,
cross sections and tunnelling methods). For a more detailed cost analysis, see
component costs.
4.11 Costs for Assembly and Disassembly
Costs for freight, concreting of starting blocks, assembly and disassembly, and
backing the machine out of the tunnel are shown in Figure 4.1.
4.12 Costs for TBM and Back-up Equipment
Figures 4.2 and 4.3 show costs for TBM and back-up equipment as a function of
TBM diameter and net penetration rate.
4.13 Cutter Costs
Besides rings, the cutter costs include bearings, hubs and other cutter parts. Figure
4.4 shows basic cutter costs COb as a function of cutter ring life and cutter diameter.
Average cutter costs are calculated as follows:
N
tbm
c
b
= COb'
I
m
(NOK/m)
[4.1]
1
m
= net penetration rate over the tunnel
N
tbm
= number of cutters on the cutterhead.
42
4. COSTS
4.14 Total Costs Behind the Face
Figure 4.5 shows total costs for work behind the face as a function of TBM
diameter and tunnel length. The costs include transport of muck, ventilation,
electrical installations and water supply.
4.15 Labour Costs
Labour costs include all work connected to the tunnelling, including work at the
adit and rig area. Hourly wages are estimated as 180 NOK/hr + 50 % social
security costs for work in the tunnel and 140 NOK/hr + 50 % social security costs
for work outside the tunnel.
The following number of personnel is estimated:
TBM
Transport
Adit
Rig area
3
1-3 (track transport)
2-3
1.
TBM includes TBM-operator and crew for the back-up equipment and for work
behind the face. Transport is locomotive drivers. Adit work consists of work at the
adit, cutter workshop, mechanical workshop and external workers for special
welding, electrical installations, etc. Figure 4.6 shows labour costs as a function of
net penetration rate, tunnel length and cutter ring life.
Ground support work is not included. This means ground support which requires
the boring to be halted, i.e. grouting, assembling of segments, etc. Ground support
carried out during boring is done by the TBM crew.
4.16 Addition for Declined Adit
Figure 4.7 shows additional costs for declined adit (length 300 m) as a function of
net penetration rate and tunnel length.
43
4. COSTS
eng
mill.NOK
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
TBM diameter, m
Figure 4.1 Costs for assembly and disassembly of TBM and back-up equipment.
44
4. COSTS
C
tbm
NOKlm
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
, LI,
I
m
=40m/hr E
=--
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Figure 4.2 TBM costs.
TBM diameter, m
45
4. COSTS
C
bak
NOKlm
2500
2000
1500
Track transport
Im=1.0m/hr II Trackless I-I---+-----H
.. transport
::.Iii.
I
m
=1.0m/hr E
1000
= ....
500
I
m
=40m/hr '"
. I
m
=6.0m/hr
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
TBM diameter, m
Figure 4.3 Costs for back-up equipment.
46
4. COSTS
Cob
NOKlhr&c
100
80
1 de -483mm
2 de =432mm
3 de =356mm
60
40
H - - I - - - - t - - - ~ .. 2~ ...........
3 '"
20
.....
....
100 200 300 400 500 600
Figure 4.4 Basic cutter costs.
Cutter life, hr
47
4. COSTS
1.1
1.0
k;b
Track transport

1.2 _

Tunnel length, km
4000 2
1 3 4 5 6
Net penetration rate, m/hr
L
t
-14kmE
3000111111111Llwrl
. L,-10kmE
.... - L,-6km
--
CObs
NOKlm
L, 2km
1000
-
Jrack transport
Trackless
transport
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
TBM diameter, m
Figure 4.5 Basic costs for work behind the face. Correction factor for track
transport for net penetration rate 1
m
* 3 m/hr [k
ib
] and for tunnel length
L
t
*6 km [k
,b
].
48
4. COSTS
k
dl
I
m
=6rnJhr'
1.1
....

"""
1.0
I
m
-1m/hr
0.9

1.2
1.0
4m 5m 6m 7m
TBM diameter, m
COIn
NOKlm
"
2000
I'Iol , Track transport
,.
1000
t-t:1=:;:::tt:l1' Trackless
I- transport
...1
2 4 6 8
Cutter life, hr/c

H=
2 3 4 5 6
Net penetration rate, mlhr
Figure 4.6 Basic labour costs. Correction factor for TBM diameter d
tbm
'* 5.5 m
(track transport) [k
d1
]. Correction factor for cutter ring life
H
hm
'* 2.0 hr/c [khrl.
49
4. COSTS
100
50
2
! I
4 6 8 10
d
tbm
- 9m Ii .
d
tbm
- 6m t!
d
tbm
= 3m
12
Tunnel length. km
Figure 4.7 Additional costs for declined adit. Costs for reloading of muck in the
tunnel are included in work behind the face.
50
4. COSTS
Average net penetration rate for the tunnel 1
m
Average cutter ring life for the tunnel HI
Average cutter ring life for the tunnel H
hm
TBM diameter d
lbm
Cutter diameter de
Number of cutters NIbm
Tunnel length L
I
3.70 m/hr
112 hr
2.73 hr/c
5.5 m
432 mm
41
8300 m
Figure 4.1 Assembly and disassembly 5.7 . 10
6
/8300
=
687 NOK/m
Figure 4.2 TBM costs
=
2950 NOK/m
Figure 4.3 Costs for back-up equipment
=
810 NOK/m
Figure 4.4 Average cutter costs c
b
=34 . 41 13.70
=
377 NOK/m
Figure 4.5 Costs for work behind the face
1450 . 0.97 . 1.02
=
1407 NOK/m
Figure 4.6 Labour costs 900 . 1.00 . 0.95
=
855 NOK/m
Figure 4.7 Additional costs for declined adit
=
43 NOK/m
Sum
=
7129 NOK/m
Unforseen 10 %
=
713 NOK/m
Total
=
7842 NOK/m
In addition, corrections for efficiency factor and price increase must be made. For
definition of efficiency factor, see Project Report 3-88 TUNNELLING Costs for
Drill and Blast. Correction for price level is calculated from January 1994.
51
4. COSTS
4.2 TBM and Back-up Equipment
4.2 TBM AND BACK-UP EQUIPMENT
4.21 Depreciation
The cost estimates are based on the following assumptions:
TBM diameter
(m)
3.5
9.5
Economic
life, t
L
(hr)
14000
20000
Downtime factor, k Economic
useful life, t
B
(hr)
0.33
I
12140
I
0.33 17340
A major refurbishment or sale of the machine is presupposed at 8000 hr (TBM
diameter 3.5 m) and 11430 hr (TBM diameter 9.5 m). Following these assump-
tions, undepreciated capital (and assumed market value) is approximately 12 % at
the time of refurbishment. For other TBM diameters, economic life is presupposed
to follow a linear curve between the given values. Time for the major refurbish-
ment is estimated at a rest (remaining) value of 12 %. Back-up equipment is
supposed to have the same economic life as a TBM of corresponding diameter.
100
R= IA(4,-t)2
12
b
~
o
ai
::J
co
>
en
Q) Refurbisment
oc 12 -------------------------- ~ I
8000 t
8
=12140 t (Machine hours, hr)
Figure 4.8 Model for depreciation of TBMs. ~ b m =3.5 m.
Costs are calculated as an average for the period until rest value of 12 % is
reached. The costs are based on purchase prices for TBM and back-up equipment
as shown in Figures 4.9 and 4.10.
When estimating costs for a specific tunnel project, it may be necessary to calcu-
late depreciation, interest and maintenance costs separately for that tunnel.
52
4. COSTS
mill.NOK
75.0
50.0
25.0
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
TBM diameter, m
Figure 4.9 Purchase price for TBM delivered at the site, excluding investment
tax, cutters and spare parts.
.- '
mill.NOK
10.0
5.0
Track transport I
Trackless
transport
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
TBM diameter, m
Figure 4.10 Purchase price for back-up equipment delivered at the site, excluding
investment tax.
53
4. COSTS
4.22 Interest
Interest on TBM and Back-up Equipment
A real interest rate of 7 % is assumed (nominal interest rate corrected for inflation,
etc., see Project Report 15A-92 HEAVY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY Costs,
Performance and Maintenance). The interest is calculated for the average undepre-
ciated capital. For the period until 12 % rest value is reached, the average unde-
preciated capital is approximately 49 %.
It is supposed that the machine as an average bores 1250 hours annually. This
means it will take about 6.4 years for a 3.5 m diameter TBM to reach 8 000 hours.
When estimating costs for a specific tunnel job (in Norway), one should assume a
lower interest rate, from 5 % to 7 %, depending on the duration of the job.
Interest on Spare Parts
It is assumed that the job site has a stock of spare parts which constitutes 12 % of
the depreciation basis of the TBM. Interest costs are calculated for spare parts and
two cutter dressings (price per dressing is approximately 2 % of TBM price).
4.23 Maintenance
Maintenance costs include spare parts and other materials, and workshop costs for
repairs carried out at a central workshop. The fixed part of the maintenance costs
for TBM and back-up equipment is shown in Figure 4.11.
4.24 Downtime
Indirect costs for downtime are incorporated in the total utilization. Major down-
time costs include inspection or failure of main bearing and axles, etc., and are
estimated as 20 % of the maintenance costs.
54
4. COSTS
4.25 Service
Service costs include materials for routine service, e.g. oil change, lubrication and
change of filters. Figure 4.12 shows service costs for TBM and back-up equipment.
4.26 Electric Power
The costs include the consumption of electric power. Installations, cables, etc. are
included in Section 4.42 Electrical Installations.
Figure 4.13 shows energy consumption for TBM and back-up equipment. For high
penetration rate, it may be necessary to check the curve against cutterhead torque.
Cost of electric power is estimated at 0.20 NOK per kWh.

NOKlhr 1,5
1,0
600
400
200
2 3 4 5
Net penetration rate, m/hr
-
-
TBM
Back-upf-t-+--t-
-
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
TBM diameter, m
Figure 4.11 Fixed maintenance costs for TBM and back-up equipment. Correction
for net penetration rate 1
m
'* 3.0 m/hr [kir]'
55
4. COSTS
NOKlhr
200
100
TBM
Back-up
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Figure 4.12 Service costs for TBM and back-up equipment.
TBM diameter, m
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
TBM diameter, m
Figure 4.13 Energy consumption for IBM (90 %) and back-up equipment (10 %).
Correction for net penetration rate 1
m
i= 3.0 m/hr ~ k ]
56
I '
I ,
4. COSTS
4.27 Example of Application - Machine Costs TBM
Assumptions (see also page 51)
TBM diameter d
tbm
Tunnel length L
t
Average net penetration rate 1
m
Machine utilization u
5.5 m
8300 m
3.70 m/hr
41.5 %
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.8
a) Average Costs for the First 9145 hr
Purchase price TBM
Investment tax 7 %
Depreciation basis
Rest value after 9145 hr, 12 %
Depreciation
=
=
46.000 mill. NOK
3.220 mill. NOK
49.220 mill. NOK
- 5.906 mill. NOK
43.314 mill. NOK
Section 4.22 Machine hours per year
49.220 . 10
6
Variable maintenance costs 13 = _
16000
2
Section 4.22 Average rest value
Capital Costs
43.314 . 10
6
=
1250 hr
0.1923 NOKlhr
2
48.9 %
Figure 4.8 Depreciation TBM
9145
49.220 . 10
6
0.07
= 4736 NOK/hr
Section 4.22 Interest TBM 0.489
1250
=
1348 NOK/hr
57
4. COSTS
Section 4.22 Interest on spare parts and cutters
49.220 . 10
6
(0.12 + 2 . 0.02)
. 0.07
=
441 NOK/hr
1250
Maintenance Costs
Figure 4.11 A) Fixed 4671.17 = 546
B) Variable 0.1923 . 9145
=1758
=
2304 NOK/hr
Section 4.24 Major downtime, 20 % of A + B
=
437 NOK/hr
Figure 4.12 Service costs
=
189 NOK/hr
Figure 4.13 Electric power 1400 . 1.12 . 0.20
=
314 NOK/hr
Sum
=
9769 NOK/hr
m =
3.70 m/hr
Sum
=
2640 NOK/m
b) Cost Calculation for a Specific Tunnel (New Machine)
Total boring hours 8300/3.70
=
2243 hr
Period of interest payment (including assembly,
disassembly and waiting for new contracts) 2.0 years
Rest value after boring the tunnel
49.220 . 10
6
. (13874 - 2243)2
=
34.59 mill. NOK
13874
2
Depreciation
(49.22 - 34.59) . 10
6
=
14.63 mill. NOK
58
4. COSTS
Average rest value
I 2243 (t
B
-t)2dt
A J = 0.847 . 49.22 . 10
6
= 41.69 mill. NOK
2243 0 t
B
2
14.63 . 10
6
Figure 4.8 Depreciation TBM
=
2243
49.22 . 10
6
0.05 . 2.0
6522 NOK/hr
Section 4.22 Interest TBM 0.847'
--------=
2243
1858 NOK/hr
Section 4.22 Interest on spare parts and cutters
49.22 . (0.12 + 2 . 0.02)
_________ . 10
6
0.05 . 2.0
2243
Maintenance Costs
=
351 NOK/hr
Figure 4.11 A) Fixed 467 . 1.17
B) Variable 0.1923' 2243
Section 4.24
Figure 4.12
Figure 4.13
= 546
= 431
Major downtime, 20 % of A + B
Service costs
Electric power 1400 1.12 . 0.20
Sum
m
Sum
=
977 NOK/hr
=
195 NOK/hr
=
189 NOK/hr
=
314 NOK/hr
=
10406 NOK/hr
=
3.70 m/hr
=
2812 NOK/m
59
4. COSTS
4.3 HAULING
4.30 Introduction
4.3 Hauling
Hauling costs are estimated for track transport and trackless transport. Transport by
subcontractor is assumed for trackless transport. Required transport capacity is
defined by fully utilizing the TBM capacity.
4.31 Track Transport
Hauling costs for track transport includes
- transport of muck
- rails
- switches
- tip costs.
Transport
Figure 4.14 shows hauling costs for track transport as a function of tunnel diame-
ter, t\.mnellength and net penetration rate. The costs are based on use of diesel
locomotives.
The costs include rails, sleepers, switches, production of track sections as well as
installation, maintenance and dismantling of the track. Rails, sleepers and switches
are depreciated partly on an annual and partly on a reuse basis. Rail costs as a
function of tunnel length and net penetration rate are shown in Figure 4.15.
Bypass Stations
Figure 4.16 shows costs for necessary California Switch(es) as a function of tunnel
length, TBM diameter and net penetration rate.
60
4. COSTS
Rock Dump
4.3 Hauling
Figure 4.17 shows dumping costs as a function of tunnel length and TBM diameter
for aboveground and underground dump stations. Dumping costs include costs
connected to the rock dump. The costs also include reloading and transport with
dump trucks from underground dump stations.
NOKlm
1000
I
m
=2.0m/hr
--- I
m
=6.0rn/hr I
d
tbm
- 8m
i '
d
tbm
- 6.5m
-
II
-
d
tbm
- 4.5m
2
, ,
.,..
4 6 8 10
d
tbm
- 4.5m
d
illin
-3m
12
Figure 4.14 Hauling costs for track transport.
Tunnel length, km
61
4. COSTS
NOKIm
200
150
100 '
2 4
, , ,
6 8 10
4.3 Hauling
, 1
m
2m1hr
1
m
6m1hr
12
Tunnel length, km
Figure 4.15 Track costs including switches at the rock dump. Weight of rails is
35 kg/m.
NOKIm
50
2
d
tbm
8m
--- d
tbm
=5rn
4 6 8 10 12
Tunnel length, km
Figure 4.16 Costs for necessary number of California Switches.
62
4. COSTS
NOKlm
1800
1600
d
tbm
- 8m
1200
d
tbm
= 6.5m
800
400 ,
4.3 Hauling
underground station e
--- overground station b=
d
tbm
- 4.5m
2 4 6 8 10 12
Tunnel length, km
Figure 4.17 Dumping costs for track transport.
63
4. COSTS
4.32 Trackless Transport
Hauling for trackless transport includes
- transport of muck, including dumping costs
- roadway
- turning table.
Transport
4.3 Hauling
Transport costs are based on transport by subcontractor. Figure 4.18 shows
transport costs including dumping set up, as a function of tunnel length and TBM
diameter.
NOK/m
4000
2000
2 4 6 8 10
d
lbm
- 12m
d
ulln
10m
d
tbm
8m
12
Tunnel length, km
Figure 4.18 Averaged hauling costs including dumping set up.
64
4. COSTS
Roadway and Turning Table
4.3 Hauling
Roadway costs as a function of tunnel length are shown in Figure 4.19. Costs
include pavement, grading and maintenance of drainage ditch.
300
100
11__
. Turning table.
2 4 6 8 10 12
Tunnel length. km
Figure 4.19 Costs for roadway and turning table. Trackless transport.
65
4. COSTS
4.4 OTHER COSTS
4.41 Ventilation
4.4 Other Costs
I,'
11;
il.
The costs include ducts, duct couplings, materials for duct mounting and mainte-
nance, depreciation and repair of fans and ducts, electric power and dismantling of
the ventilation system.
Costs for filtration of air from the cutterhead are included in the back-up equip-
ment costs.
Ventilation costs are shown in Figure 4.20.
4.42 Electrical Installations
The costs for electrical installations in the tunnel and at the rock dump are shown
in Figure 4.21.
The costs include transformer, high voltage cables, materials for mounting and
maintenance of cables, and dismantling of cables.
Costs for transformers at the back-up equipment, flexicable, etc., are included in
the back-up equipment costs.
4.43 Water Supply
The costs include pumps, water pipes, materials for mounting, and dismantling of
the installations.
The costs for water supply are shown in Figure 4.22.
66
4. COSTS
NOKlm
Track
- - - Trackless
4.4 Other Costs
d
tbm
9m
500 I1111111111111111111IIIII1
200
100
2 4 6 8 10 12
Tunnel length, km
Figure 4.20 Ventilation costs. The costs are calculated for optimal supply of fresh
air, medium drillability and net penetration rate 1
m
=3 m/hr.
67
4. COSTS
NOKlm
4.4 Other Costs
2 4 6 8 10 12
Tunnel length, km
Figure 4.21 Costs for electrical installations in the tunnel and at the rock dump.
NOKlm
100
I
m
-1m/hr
-
I
m
-3m/hr
50
;;
1
m
6m/hr
2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 4.22 Costs for water supply.
Tunnel length, km
68
5. TUNNELLING
Contents
Page
5.0 INTRODUCTION
70
5.1 CUTTERS
72
5.11 Inspection of Cutters
72
5.12 Changing Cutters
72
5.2 BACK-UP EQUIPMENT
73
5.3 OTHER WORK
74
5.31 Ventilation
74
75
5.33 Water, Compressed Air
75
5.4 TRANSPORT
76
5.40 Introduction
76
76
78
5.5 CREW
80
69
5. TUNNELLING
5.0 INTRODUCTION
5.0 Introduction
Work operations in the tunnel are divided into the following categories:
Main Item
1. Boring
2. Back-up Equipment
3. Loading, hauling
4. Other work
5. Rock support
Table 5.1 Activities in the tunnel.
Minor Item
1.1 TBM - boring, maintenance
1.2 Cutters - changing, inspection
2.1 Operation, maintenance
3.1 Loading
3.2 Hauling
3.3 Laying of tracks, track mainte-
nance (or roadway)
4.1 Ventilation - installation, main-
tenance
4.2 Electrical installations
4.3 Miscellaneous
All work operations except hauling take place near or on the TBM and back-up
equipment. Problems with one type of work will easily delay the whole boring
operation.
Figure 5.1 shows a general layout of work operations.
70
5
.
T
U
N
N
E
L
L
I
N
G
c 0
(
1
)
.
.
.
.
(
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)
C
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-
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)
.
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t
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
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(
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)
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J
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5
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n
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r
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r
a
l
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t
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f
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r
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p
e
r
a
t
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c
k
t
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a
n
s
p
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r
t
.
7
1
5. TUNNELLING
5.1 CUTTERS
5.11 Inspection of Cutters
5.1 Cutters
Inspection of cutters is carried out once or twice each shift to control the condition
of the cutters as to
- ring wear
- ring slip or rings with excessive bevel edge abrasion
- frozen bearings
- loose bolts.
Inspection of buckets and scraper wear is carried out at the same time.
5.12 Changing Cutters
Changing cutters is one of the heaviest work operations for tunnel boring. Replace-
ment frequency per bored tunnel meter increases with increasing machine diameter.
Delays due to loose bolts may occur when boring in hard and abrasive rock.
The trend towards larger cutters (diameter 500 mm and larger) will require
increased mechanization of cutter change operations. Increased mechanization is
desirable for
- transport of cutters to and from the face and the back-up equipment
- changing of cutters at the face.
In order to ease the cutter changing operations, cutters with divided rings are being
developed. For divided rings, only the ring, and not the complete cutter, is changed
at the face.
When designing TBMs, one should stress the cutterhead design, a high degree of
mechanization and equipment to make cutter changing easier and more effective.
For tunnel projects with considerable cutter wear, it may be advantageous to
change cutters outside ordinary working hours.
72
5. TUNNELLING
5.2 BACK-UP EQUIPNIENT
5.2 Back-up Equipment
The back-up equipment is the expression used for the system of special sections
trailing behind the TBM itself. The main function is to carry muck from the TBM
to the transport equipment and load the muck for transport out of the tunnel.
A conveyor transfers muck from the cutterhead, through the back-up equipment
and loads it onto muck cars or dump trucks. As an alternative, conveyors may be
used for longer transport.
Besides the system for muck handling, the back-up equipment includes
- transformers
- electric cabinets
- cable reel
- dust filters or scrubbers
- equipment and systems for
* cutter change
* installation of tracks
* installation of ventilation tubes
* installation of electric cables
* installation of water pipes
- operator's cabin
- arrangements for loading (remote control, shunting system)
- workshop
- lunch room
- optional equipment for grouting and rock support work.
Choice of back-up equipment and transport arrangements will depend on
- tunnel diameter
- net penetration rate
- tunnel length
- tunnel gradient.
Swell factor for TBM muck (chips) is 1.9 - 2.0 and for drill and blast it is 1.65.
Transport requirements will therefore be higher than for drill and blast tunnelling.
73
5. TUNNELLING
5.3 OTHER WORK
5.31 Ventilation
Ventilation requirements are determined by
- rock drillability and mineral content
- dust from the face and the conveyors
- generation of heat
- humidity
- diesel exhaust from the transport equipment.
5.3 Other Work
Dust problems are reduced by water spraying and by sucking ventilation from the
face, see Figure 5.2. Dry filters, water scrubbers or electrostatic filters are used for
air filtration.
Gas seepage from the rock may under special conditions influence the ventilation
requirements, see Section 8.1.
Ventilation requirements on which the cost calculations are based (Section 4.41),
are shown in Figure 5.3. A detailed method for estimation of ventilation require-
ments is given in Project Report 17-91 TUNNELLING Ventilation.
r-- Flushing
r-Rubber dust shield
r--Flushinq behind cutterhead
1
Air outlet behind backup
I Dust f i I ters I
Workshop and backup
Operator _ ..... Loadi ng operator
__--JJI
....-....-.-C 'II! Ventilation in
pressure
Figure 5.2 General layout of dust suppression.
74
5. TUNNELLING
5.3 Other Work
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
d
tbm
m
Figure 5.3 Fresh air requirements for TBM and back-up equipment.
High voltage (5 - 10 kV) is conducted into the tunnel to the transformer on the
back-up equipment. To ensure continuous supply of electricity, the back-up equip-
ment is fitted with a cable reel containing 300 - 400 m of flexicable. The cable is
rolled out automatically with TBM advance.
5.33 Water, Compressed Air
Water is needed for spraying, cooling and cleaning. Compressed air is needed at
the back-up equipment for drilling of bolt holes for cables, ventilation tubes, etc.,
and for tools and possible rock support work. Compressors are placed at the
back-up equipment.
75
5. TUNNELLING
5.4 TRANSPORT
5.40 Introduction
5.4 Transport
This section gives a short description of different transport systems and the
importance of the basic factors to achieve a continually high transport capacity for
tunnel boring.
See the supplement 1-94 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING Transport, for comp-
lete calculation models for transport of TBM muck. The supplement treats track
transport (use of locomotives and muck cars) and trackless transport (use of
trucks). Another alternative is to use belt conveyors for transportation of the TBM
muck.
Efficient transport operation depends on tracks of good quality. Underdimensioned,
poorly laid or maintained tracks result in reduced speed and frequent derailing.
Track transport operations must therefore be carefully planned. Back-up equipment,
muck cars, locomotives, shunting and dumping arrangements, tracks and system for
installing tracks, must be rational and functional.
Sufficient drainage of the tunnel is maintained by minimum 0.2 % incline.
Installation of tracks takes place in the area between the TBM and the back-up
equipment, see Figure 5.1. A crane mounted on a monorail system under the bridge
conveyor is used.
Systems for track installation may vary:
- prefabricated track sections with steel sleepers and blocks of wood or steel
as support, see Figure 5.4 A and C
- single rails mounted on wood or steel sleepers
- single rails bolted to the invert with special fastening brackets, see Figure
5.4 B (suitable in hard rock only, bolts are prone to loosen in medium to
soft rock)
- rails mounted on concrete segments.
76
5. TUNNELLING
5.4 Transport
A
fasten i ng bracket
B
Figure 5.4 Examples of rail fastening.
Choice of track system must be adapted to the back-up equipment and transport
volumes. Large cross sections and/or transport demands may necessitate installation
of a double tunnel track.
Standard distance between rails is 900 mm. Weight is 25 - 35 kg/m. 35 kg rails are
recommended. The length of rail sections is typically 6 - 12 m.
Bypass stations can be
- California Switch - a movable bypass station running on the track
- build-up of the invert to sufficient bypass width
- blasted niches.
77
5. TUNNELLING
5.4 Transport
The circular cross section is unfavourable with regard to trackless transport.
Use of vehicles with tilted wheels enables transport to take place directly on the
invert. In weak rock, wheels will gradually leave grooves in the invert, causing
difficulties for the transport. This method is therefore best suited in hard rock.
When using standard transport equipment, the roadway may be built as a
- muck roadway, see Figure 5.5
- double track concreted roadway
- concrete segment roadway.
For tunnel diameters less than approximately 8 m, bypasses must be established by
- excavating niches
- filling up the invert until required width is established.
The bypasses may also be utilized as a turning place before the trucks back into
the back-up equipment for loading.
For tunnel diameters larger than approximately 8 m, the trucks are turned using a
turning table behind the back-up equipment, see Figure 5.6.
78
5. TUNNELLING
5.4 Transport
Muck
I Roadway
I
,
:.::. ~ i t h
Geotextile filter
"-- Drai nage pipe
Figure 5.5 Roadway. Sorted muck may be used if the rock quality is suitable.
Figure 5.6 Turning table - electrically and hydraulically operated.
79
5. TUNNELLING
5.5 CREW
The tunnel boring crew normally consists of:
5.5 Crew
Operator TBM
Back-up equipment
Transport/loading
Sum
1
2
2 - 3
5 - 6
person(s)
"
"
persons
(increasing with tunnel length)
Additional personnel is required for:
- electrical work
- cutter workshop
- miscellaneous work - loading/reloading of track sections, etc. at the adit
- external assistance like welding etc.
One of the members of the crew working at the back-up equipment must be a
mechanic. More than one of the tunnelling crew must be able to operate the TBM.
This reduces the vulnerability of the tunnelling operations in cases of absence.
For tunnels with systematic rock support, a larger crew will be required.
80
6. GEOLOGY
Contents
Page
6.1 ROCK MASS PROPERTIES
82
6.2 ROCK DRILLABILITY
83
6.3 ROCK ABRASIVENESS
85
6.4 CUTTER LIFE INDEX
86
6.5 ROCK MASS FRACTURES
87
6.51 Classification of Fractures 87
6.52 Marked Single Joints 93
6.6 GEOLOGICAL PREINVESTIGATIONS 95
6.61 Engineering Geological Profile 95
6.7 CHOICE OF ROUTE 100
6.8 FOLLOW-UP MAPPING 101
6.81 Cutter Consumption 101
6.82 Machine Utilization 104
6.83 Use of Information 104
81
6. GEOLOGY
6.1 ROCK MASS PROPERTIES
6.1 Rock Mass Properties
With regard to borability, the rock mass consists of rock and planes of weakness.
Rock mass properties concerning tunnel boring are described by
- degree of fracturing
- rock drillability
- rock abrasiveness
- porosity.
82
6. GEOLOGY
6.2 ROCK DRILLABILITY
6.2 Rock Drillability
Rock drillability is evaluated by the Drilling Rate Index DRI and the Cutter Life
Index CLI. The test methods are described in the Project Report 13-90 DRILL-
ABILITY Drilling Rate Index Catalogue.
Compressive strength and point load strength are useful supplementary parameters,
but are by themselves not sufficient to determine rock drillability.
Porosity must be measured for rock types with porosity higher than approximately
2 %. The porosity's influence on the DRI is negligible. Boring in North Atlantic
basalts (Faeroe Islands) has shown that porosity has a significant influence on the
net penetration rate. A rough estimate of the influence of porosity on the penetra-
tion rate is shown in Figure 6.1. For estimation of net penetration rate, [2.3] in
Section 2.21 is changed to k
ekv
=k
s
-
101
k
OR1
k
por
4.0 .. ~
.,'... . .....
.- ,'.. .'..:": .'
'.- .":':,'. .. ':.::',
.....,..... :/:,.:'
3.0
2.0
..... :......
..::....
.... '. .. ...... I I
......... : ......
. .
........ . .
.......... .....: .
. ..... .......::.
..::::.',
1.0
....:.: :. . : .
. .....::...
:.' ... ':: ... '
2 4 6 8 10 12
Porosity, %
Figure 6.1 Influence of porosity on penetration rate.
Compressive strength, point load strength and shear strength are often used as
penetration rate parameters. In Figure 6.2, 80 parallel tests of compressive strength
and DRI are compared and grouped according to rock type. Compressive strength
was measured at the Department of Geology and Mineral Engineering, NTH,
following the ISRM standard. 32 mm diameter drillcores have been used.
83
6. GEOLOGY
6.2 Rock Drillability
Figure 6.2 shows that the' compressive strength underestimates the borability of
foliated or schistose rocks such as phyllite, mica gneiss, mica schist, shale and
green schist.
Different laboratories measure differing values for the compressive strength for
parallel tests of the same rock samples. Registered deviations have been consider-
able. The deviations are caused by differences in size of samples, water content at
testing and applied loading speed.
i tic gneiss
=
4l
>
'iii 200
III
4l
..
a.
g
u
100
Greenstone -f-
Greenschist =1
4l
>
200
4l
..
a.
g
u
1001 ::;::
, ' : Marble
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
= C:olcareous shale
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Drilling Rate Index,ORI Drilling Rate Index, ORI
Quartzite
" Si Itstone =
20 30 40 50 60 70 80, 90 100
100
4l
>
'iii

..
a.
g
u
: 1,: 0--' , :: '
'I,
0" Shale
60 70 80 90 100 20 30 40
:
g' 300I--+--k--f--t--+--+--t---I--t---1
Vi
100
Drilling Rate Index,ORI Drilling Rate Index, ORI
Figure 6.2 Relation between Drilling Rate Index DRI and compressive strength 0c
(NTH) grouped according to rock type.
84
6. GEOLOGY
6.3 ROCK ABRASIVENESS
Cutters with Carbide Inserts
6.3 Rock Abrasiveness
Rock abrasiveness on carbide inserts is expressed by the Abrasion Value AV.
Cutters with Steel Rings
Rock abrasiveness on ring steel is expressed by the Abrasion Value Steel AVS.
AV and AVS are described in the Project Report 13-90 DRILLABILITY Drilling
Rate Index Catalogue.
-
50
c
E
"'-
01
E
V1
40
>
-<
30
10
60 70
AV (mg/Smin)
Figure 6.3 Relation between Abrasion Values AV and AVS for various rock types
and quartz content Qin percent.
85
6. GEOLOGY
6.4 CUTTER LIFE INDEX
6.4 Cutter Life Index
The Cutter Life Index CLI is estimated on the basis of the Abrasion Value Steel
AVS and Siever's J-value SJ by means of the empirical relation
CLI =13.84 . (SJ/AVS)0.3847
Variation of CLI value for some rock types is shown in Figure 2.3.
The Cerchar Abrasivity Index CAl is often used for estimation of cutter life.
Establishment of a correlation between CAl and CLI is desirable and may increase
the use of the prediction models in this report.
Figure 6.4 shows a rough correlation of CAl and CLI. The correlation should only
be used for rough estimates.
CAl
Quartzite
6.0
4 m ~
Mica shist
Basalt
2.0 __
10 20 30 40 50
CLI
60
Figure 6.4 Correlation of Cerchar Abrasivity Index CAl and Cutter Life Index
CLI.
86
6. GEOLOGY
6.5 ROCK MASS FRACTURES
6.50 Introduction
6.5 Rock Mass Fractures
Planes of weakness in the rock mass contribute considerably to the net penetration
rate for tunnel boring. In this context, "planes of weakness" means planes with
little or no shear strength along the planes. The significance of the planes of
weakness depends on:
Rock Mass Properties
- type, frequency and orientation of
the planes of weakness
- rock drillability
Machine Factors
- thrust level
- cutter spacing
- machine diameter
- torque capacity
The interaction between rock mass properties and machine factors is described in
Chapter 7.
6.41 Classification of Fractures
One distinguishes between
1. Systematically fractured rock mass
- parallel oriented joints and fissures
- foliation planes or bedding planes (partings).
2. Marked single joints.
Classification of weakness planes includes (see Section 2.11):
type of planes with regard to openness, clay- or mineral filling, rough-
ness and planeness, and continuity
joint and fissure spacing (average distance between planes of weakness)
orientation to the tunnel axis.
Nature is, however, far more varied than such a simplified classification can
express. Sometimes, continuous joints predominate, at other times bedding plane
fissures or foliation planes are more dominant.
87
6. GEOLOGY
In weak, schistose rock, e.g. mica schist, it is difficult to distinguish between the
schistosity of the rock and fissures along the schistosity planes (see Figure 6.5). It
is then essential not to include the effect of the schistosity twice, i.e. both in the
drillability parameter and as an addition for planes of weakness. This is particularly
important when compressive strength is used as a parameter for drillability.
Rock sample
Crossjoi nts or -fi ssures
Figure 6.5 Schistosity fissures and cross jointing in a schistose rock - e.g. mica
schist, quartz schist, etc.
In schistose rocks with high tensile strength parallel to the schistosity planes, e.g.
mica gneiss, cross joints will often give the highest penetration rate additions.
Surface mapping of cross jointing in this type of rock mass is difficult. Core
drilling may then be used to find the jointing frequency. The orientation to the
tunnel axis will still be difficult to determine.
Folding may also complicate the picture. In such cases, one has to make an
approximate evaluation of the degree of fracturing.
Figures 6.6 - 6.14 show examples of evaluation of degree of fracturing. Classifica-
tion is first and foremost relevant when one set of weakness planes predominates.
If more than one set occur, the influence from each set can be estimated, but for
the combined influence sound judgement must be exercised.
88
6. GEOLOGY
Figure 6.6 Mica gneiss, Fissure Class 1-.
Figure 6.7 Granitic gneiss, Fissure Class 0-I. The fissures are exposed by iron
oxide precipitation.
89
6. GEOLOGY
Figure 6.8 Granitic gneiss, Joint Class 0-1.
Figure 6.9 Drill cores of phyllite with space between fissures giving Fissure Class
IV+. Such a high fissure class is not common except in shear zones.
90
6. GEOLOGY
Figure 6.10 Phyllite, Fissure Class III. The planes are uneven and rough.
Figure 6.11 Mica schist, Fissure Class IV.
91
6. GEOLOGY
Figure 6.12 Mica gneiss, Fissure Class III+.
Figure 6.13 Mica schist, Fissure Class II.
92
6. GEOLOGY
Figure 6.14 Gneiss, Fissure Class 11-.
6.42 Marked Single Joints
Single joints are recorded individually. They are marked discontinuities in the rock
mass, such as large exfoliation joints and feather joints. They may be completely
open, lead water or be filled with clay. Minor gouge seams can be counted as
particularly prominent single joints.
Fairly large gouge seams, clay zones and zones of heavily fractured rock result in
very high local net penetration rates. Due to the risk of stability problems, one
should ignore this effect and rather consider possible delays, see Section 8.1.
93
6. GEOLOGY
Figure 6.15 Marked single joints (mica layers) in granitic gneiss.
Figure 6.16 Marked single joint in tunnel (mica layer from Figure 6.15).
94
6. GEOLOGY
6.6 GEOLOGICAL PREINVESTIGATIONS
6.60 Introduction
6.6 Geological Preinvestigations
The rock mass borability is far more essential to performance and costs for tunnel
boring than for drill and blast tunnelling. Engineering geological mapping must
therefore be adjusted to the tunnelling method.
The prognosis model emphasizes the numerical description of geological conditions
so that the rock mass borability may be quantified as good as possible by the
engineering geological preinvestigations.
The extent of preliminary mapping must be considered for each project. Where the
cost differences between tunnel boring and drill and blast are small, or the rock
mass is especially difficult to bore, an extensive mapping should be carried out.
6.61 Engineering Geological Profile
To illustrate the conditions along the projected route, it is useful to draw a length
profile. The profile should show overburden, distribution of rock types and rock
mass borability expressed numerically. Faults and zones requiring rock support that
will delay advance must be indicated. See example in Figure 6.17.
Sampling
Rock samples for determination of the drillability indices DRI and eLi are taken
with 0.3 - 3.0 km distance depending on conditions. Hand samples and photos
along the route should be taken during sampling or mapping.
It is important to take representative samples. Surface samples may not be repre-
sentative. They have been exposed to weathering. Weathering particularly affects
the Siever's J-value in rocks with high mica content. Drillability indices from
surface samples must be adjusted before used in estimations. It is advantageous to
take rock samples from road cuts etc., where the rock is less affected by weather-
ing. When sampling in stream beds or screes, one should be particularly observant
of weathering.
95
6. GEOLOGY
Samples collected near rock boundaries 15 m) in metamorphic rocks, are often
not representative for the zone as a whole. They may be recrystallized and have
higher or lower strength than the rock elsewhere in the zone, depending on rock
type. Heavy blasting when sampling may influence the brittleness value.
Core Drilling
In terrain with extensive overburden of loose deposits or heavily surface weathered
rock, drilled cores with diameters down to 32 mm may be used to determine the
drillability indices and the type of weakness planes. Furthermore, the degree of
fracturing in the depth may be estimated. However, it is difficult to determine the
orientation of the weakness planes from core drilling.
The use of RQD to determine the degree of fracturing may be very misleading.
The method does not give the orientation of the weakness planes to the borehole.
Mapping of Discontinuities
The degree of fracturing in the rock mass is, if possible, recorded from the surface.
It is an advantage to record fractures in nearby tunnels, road cuts, river cuts, cliffs
and outcrops.
Some joints and fissures are surface phenomena, e.g. exfoliation joints and fissures
from frost shattering in schistose rocks. These planes of weakness do not extend to
the depth, and should not be included in the estimates.
In drill and blast tunnels one will get an 1I0verexposedll impression of the degree of
fracturing. Fractures categorized as fissures in a bored tunnel and at the surface,
will often appear as joints in drill and blast tunnels. In addition, the fracturing
frequency may be overestimated.
Binoculars and aerial photos are useful aids to get an overall picture when mapping
marked single joints or larger fracture zones.
97
6. GEOLOGY
Figure 6.18 Example of exfoliation joints in granitic gneiss.
Figure 6.19 Pictures from a start tunnel in granitic gneiss. Fissure Class II in the
bored tunnel appears as Joint Class 11+ in the drill and blast section.
98
6. GEOLOGY
Seismic investigations to determine the degree of fracturing of surface rock has
been used. Seismic methods are, however, not sufficiently developed to determine
the degree of fracturing at depth.
Due to their crucial influence on advance rates and costs, especially in hard rock, it
is important to map discontinuities with great care. Such mapping should only be
done by staff who have gained experience and skills from follow-up studies in
bored tunnels.
99
6. GEOLOGY
6.7 CHOICE OF ROUTE
6.7 Choice of Route
Due to the increased tunnel length that can be excavated from one adit, tunnel
boring may allow a different overall tunnel lay-out than that for drill and blast
tunnelling.
For drill and blast tunnelling, one generally seeks to locate tunnels in rock mass
with as little fracturing as possible in order to limit rock support work. The
approach may be different for tunnel boring. The improved stability in bored
tunnels may justify the deliberate location of tunnels in moderately fractured rock
mass to benefit from the favourable effects of fracturing on advance rates and
costs.
One should also take into account the variation of rock drillability (DRI and eLI)
when locating tunnels.
100
6. GEOLOGY
6.8 FOLLOW-UP MAPPING
6.80 Introduction
6.8 Follow-up Mapping
Mapping should be a natural part of the follow-up work of tunnel boring oper-
ations. Achieved penetration rates, cutter consumption, extent of rock support and
costs should be related to the rock mass. Furthermore, the engineering geological
preinvestigations should be verified. Valuable experience can be gained from this.
To facilitate follow-up work and communication, station numbers should be
marked on the tunnel wall at short intervals (e.g. 1 m). An example of follow-up
mapping is shown in Figure 6.20.
6.81 Cutter Consumption
Follow-up work for cutters includes both cutter consumption and costs. Processing
data from the cutter change log to cutter consumption implies a lot of calculation
work. A FORTRAN programme has been developed for this purpose and is
available at the Department of Building and Construction Engineering.
An example of listing of cutter consumption is shown in Figure 6.21. Cutter
consumption applies to the distance between station numbers for two successive
cutter changes. Average cutter life for the cutterhead is calculated as follows:
(m/c)
[6.1]
2
dtbm 3
H
f
= H
m
Jt (sm Ic)
4
[6.2]
[6.3]
101
6. GEOLOGY
Shift log
Station no. 2450
2500
I
I
I b
D
Penetration rate
Thrust
190 210 210 195
Amperage
240 215 205 245
Cutter change +
4
Mapping
Station no.
2450
~ o t s
2500
I
iL--,
I
..
Left
TrTIV
I
( I
Roof
\\\\\
\
'"
\
\
777//
I
~
Right I
I
Fracturing
Sp II StO+
Single
joint
Angle
d
tbm
a=atan-
Ljo;nt.
Rock
Gneiss
Other
@ Penetration test
plus rock sample
to determine DRI
and CLI
Figure 6.20 Example of follow-up mapping.
102
(j)
.
G)
m
"Ij AVERAGED CONSUMPTION BETWEEN CUTTER CHANGES
0
QQ'
r
t:: TUNNEL X
""I
0
('l)
?'
FROM TO CUM/ HR/ M/ CUT/ LENGTH NO OF CUTTERS % CUTTERS
G)
N CH. CH. CUT CUT CUT M CHANGED CHANGED P P1 P1/P
-<
......
tr:1 .1 - 27.6 104.8 49.81 3.16 .317 27.5 5 12.2 2.10 .06 .03
>:
27.6 - 87.4 199.3 10.71 6.01 .166 59.8 1 2.4 2.60 .56 .22
.g
87.4 - 90.0 209.5 10.01 6.31 .158 2.6 2 4.9 3.25 .63 .19
-
90.0 - 96.0 209.2 6.59 6.30 .159 6.0 2 4.9 1. 25 .96 .77
('l)
96.0 - 162.0 201.1 4.56 6.06 .165 66.0 6 14.6 2.52 1. 33 .53
0 162.0 - 179.0 200.8 4.08 6.05 .165 17.0 3 7.3 2.50 1. 48 .59
......
179.0 - 195.0 206.9 4.31 6.23 .160 16.0 2.4 1. 45
""I
1 2.67 .54
('l)
195.0 - 261. 2 202.8 4.03 6.11 .164 66.2 6 14.6 2.50 1. 52 .61
()
0 261. 2 - 280.0 190.4 3.86 5.74 .174 18.8 6 14.6 1. 79 1. 48 .83
""I
280.0 - 315.0 223.7 5.60 6.74 .148 35.0 1 2.4 1. 59 1. 20 .76
0-
('l)
315.0 - 332.0 233.3 6.05 7.03 .142 17.0 4 9.8 2.62 1.16 .44
0-
332.0 - 345.2 262.4 6.91 7.91 .126 13 .2 3 7.3 1. 74 1.15 .66
()
t::
345.2 - 352.0 261. 3 6.33 7.88 .127 6.8 3 7.3 .99 1.24 1. 26
.....
352.0 - 380.0 261.1 5.86 7.87 .127 28.0 1 2.4 1. 63 1. 34 .83
.....
('l)
380.0 - 387.0 260.9 5.72 7.86 .127 7.0 6 14.6 3.89 1. 37 .35 ""I
()
387.0 - 410.0 159.3 3.49 4.80 .208 23.0 2 4.9 1. 21 1. 37 1.14
0
410.0 - 415.6 162.2 3.23 4.89 .205 5.6 1 2.4 1. 87 1. 51 .81
=='
en
415.6 - 436.5 180.9 3.44 5.45 .183 20.9 3 7.3 1. 82 1. 59 .87
t::
3
436.5 - 488.0 218.0 4.18 6.57 .152 51. 5 1 2.4 2.02 1. 57 .78
"'C:l
488.0 - 512.6 229.9 4.52 6.93 .144 24.6 13 31.7 1. 95 1. 53 .78
.....
512.6 - 562.0 152.9 3.32 4.61 .217 49.4 1 2.4 1. 44 1. 39 .97
....
0
?
562.0 - 589.0 154.2 3.35 4.65 .215 27.0 5 12.2 1. 42 1. 39 .98
589.0 - 590.0 87.8 1. 94 2.64 .378 1.0 4 9.8 1. 00 1. 36 1. 36
590.0 - 608.0 75.0 1. 64 2.26 .442 18.0 17 41.5 1. 38 1. 38 1. 00
608.0 - 611. 0 141. 4 2.67 4.26 .235 3.0 1 2.4 1. 00 1. 59 1. 59
611. 0 - 645.0 141. 4 2.66 4.26 .235 34.0 4 9.8 1. 55 1. 60 1. 04
(J)
645.0 - 650.0 153.7 2.68 4.63 .216 5.0 1 2.4 1. 00 1. 73 1. 73
650.0 - 656.0 129.3 2.23 3.90 .257 6.0 2 4.9 2.00 1. 75 .87
CO
656.0 - 672.0 128.8 2.19 3.88 .258 16.0 3 7.3 1. 78 1. 77 1. 00
"l1
672.0 - 679.0 154.9 2.55 4.67 .214 7.0 6 14.6 7.00 1. 83 .26
0
679.0 - 721.0 159.1 2.55 4.79 .209 42.0 6 14.6 2.10 1. 88 .90
0
721.0 - 747.0 169.5 2.74 5.11 .196 26.0 5 12.2 1. 63 1. 86 1.15
:E
I
747.0 - 765.0 176.3 2.86 5.31 .188 18.0 1 2.4 1. 80 1. 85 1. 03
c
765.0 - 785.0 176.4 2.86 5.32 .188 20.0 2 4.9 4.00 1. 86 .46
'0
785.0 - 792.0 164.1 2.68 4.95 .202 7.0 1 2.4 1. 75 1. 85 1. 06 s:
792.0 - 799.0 168.0 2.75 5.06 .197 7.0 2 4.9 1. 00 1. 84 1. 84

'0
...... 12.
0
::3
W
(0
6. GEOLOGY
6.82 Machine Utilization
Downtime, its extent and cause, is recorded in the shift log. A computer pro-
gramme has been developed at the Department of Building and Construction
Engineering to calculate the machine utilization based on the records.
6.83 Use of Information
Expedient and precise follow-up work provides information which can be used to
improve the current tunnelling, e.g.:
net penetration rate; penetration curves in every new rock type
cutter consumption; life, net penetration rate and economy of different
cutter types
machine utilization; register work operations and downtime factors in
order to implement measures that can improve the machine utilization.
Subsequently, data from the follow-up work will be put into a data bank and
contribute to improve the prognosis model and thus provide a better basis when
planning new projects.
104
7. BORING PROCESS
Contents
Page
7.1 CHIPPING
106
7.2 MACHINE FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 111
7.21 Thrust - Penetration Curves 111
7.22 Cutter Edge 114
7.23 Torque Demand
115
7.24 Cutterhead RPM 118
7.3 BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS 120
7.31 Marked Single Joints 120
7.32 Prognosis for Marked Single Joints 122
7.33 Systematically Fractured Rock Mass 124
7.4 CUTTER WEAR 126
7.41 Cutter Types 126
7.42 Cutter Wear Caused by Rock 128
7.43 Cutter Wear Caused by Fractures 131
7.44 Machine Factors Affecting Cutter Wear 131
105
7. BORING PROCESS
7.1 CHIPPING
7.1 Chipping
Tunnel boring is a fonn of rotating, crushing boring. The cutterhead is thrust with
large force against the tunnel face while rotating. The cutterhead penetrates into the
rock face for each revolution, i.e. 1 - 15 mm.
In the contact zone between cutter edge and face, the rock is crushed to powder.
From this zone, cracks propagate towards the sides, and the rock spalls off along
these cracks between the cutter grooves as coarse chips.
Fissure
Crushed rock powder ----'
edge
groove
Figure 7.1 The chipping mechanism.
Sideways chipping from the cutter edge is the result of crack fonnation in the rock
along the principal stress trajectories. This crack fonnation is the least energy
demanding failure mechanism for a material. Specific energy is distributed on
crushing and crack fonnation in a relation of approximately 9 to 1.
The stress fields under a cutter edge, and how efficiently they are utilized when
boring, may be studied indirectly by recording chip crack patterns (see Figures 7.2a
and 7.2b).
106
7. BORING PROCESS
7.1 Chipping
l/1
l/1
(1)
C
_01
u
0'1
-
O'I.qo
C
" "
'il
0
t..
..,
N
lJ'llJ'l
(1)
....
NCXl
""""
>,
"
II
.c
0
a..
VI lJ'lN

l/1
(1)
C
01
u
-
0
0
.- !:'o.qo
.c
c.
" "
E
0
..,
N
lJ'llJ'l
l/1
l/1
(1)
C
01
u
....
0
i
ON
,\
.-
""N
.c :\
c. /I /I
E
0
.., N
lJ'llJ'l
Figure 7.2a Typical chip shapes and crack patterns for various rock types.
107
7. BORING PROCESS
7.1 Chipping
QJ
....
to
::J
.::rN
I/) NIO
I/)
II II
\ ::J
rc
CI
..,
N
(/)
III III
QJ
....
E
QJ
.....,
.!: cc-
"0
-10
c:
II II
0
to
CI
-. N
I- III III
I/)
I/)
;/
QJ
c:
Cl
u

.-
In!'
....
-In
I \
c:
\
II II
rc
CI
to
-.
N
<..:>
III III
QJ
....
_.::r
I/) _In
0
II
.::i.
II
to
.., CI
<
1Iluf'
Figure 7.2b Typical chip shapes and crack patterns for various rock types.
108
7. BORING PROCESS
Chipping displays the following main tendencies:
7.1 Chipping
Rocks with high brittleness have most crack formation and chipping to
the sides.
Rocks with medium to low brittleness have less crack formation and
chipping. The chips are thicker and have a distinct and curved "chipping
crack".
Rocks with high surface hardness (low SJ) have particularly thin and
long chips. The cutter edge rolls on the surface without indention.
Rocks with low surface hardness (high SJ) have a lot of crushed rock
powder in the cutter grooves and comparatively thick and rectangular
chips (not shown in Figure 7.2).
Increasing thrust results in thicker and more rectangular chips.
In fractured rock, chips are more cubed, since one or more of the
chipping planes are fissure or joint planes.
It is the chip shape, and not as previously assumed the chip size, which
reveals the efficiency of the chipping mechanism.
The cutter edge indention determines the depth of the crack formation into the rock
face, and thus how efficient the chipping will be.
DR I = 44
5J = 32
5
20
= 38
---
-
DRI = 44
5J = 7
5
20
= 45
Figure 7.3 Importance of indention depth on crack formation, chip thickness and
shape.
The fundamental relations between drillability parameters and machine factors for
efficient chipping, are shown in Figure 7.4.
109
7. BORING PROCESS
7.1 Chipping
en
c
u
co
c..
til
L
(1)
.-
.-
:::J
U
Br itt I eness
u
co
c..
co
u
....
til
:::J
L
l:
I-
Surface hardness
Figure 7.4 Fundamental relations between drillability parameters and machine
factors.
Since the indention, i
p
, is so important for the chipping, drillability parameters
should include rock resistance to indention.
The Drilling Rate Index DRI is an indirect measure for the required boring work,
where:
the brittleness value expresses the amount of energy required to crush
the rock
the Siever's J-value expresses the depth the cutter can be thrust into the
rock; in other words how efficiently the rock brittleness (cracking
tendency) can be utilized.
For more information on material properties for TBM chips, see Project Report
16-91 TBM MUCK Properties and Utilization (in Norwegian only).
110
7. BORING PROCESS 7.2 Machine Factors Affecting Performance
7.2 MACHINE FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
7.21 Thrust - Penetration Curves
Gross Thrust
Gross average thrust per contact point is gross machine thrust divided by number
of contact points (cutter discs or carbide insert rows).
Gross thrust includes friction of the cutterhead, loss of hydraulic pressure in pipes
etc. during boring. Normally this makes up approximately 10 %. High cutterhead
side support pressure against the tunnel wall may increase the friction considerably.
This occurs generally when boring in sharp curves and during the training period
for new operators. Towing of the back-up equipment during boring will also reduce
the thrust.
The constantly varying surface of the rock face (fractures, mixed face, etc.) will
result in an uneven distribution of the total thrust on the different cutters. The
momentary load on a single cutter may be up to 10 times the average load (see
Figure 7.8). The load is also unevenly distributed on the centre, face and gage
cutters (normally lowest in the gage).
Planes of weakness in the rock mass and mixed face produce heavy impacts on the
cutterhead and vibrations in the machine. To avoid damage to machine and cutters,
the available machine thrust capacity can not always be utilized.
The trend in recent years has been use of larger cutters and increased thrust per
contact point. Maximum average thrust is limited by the life of cutter bearings,
ring steel hardness and sufficient ring fastening to hubs. Gross thrust can also be
limited by the ability of the machine's main bearing to carry the cutting loads and
overturning moments from steering and boring in rock layers of different hardness.
Penetration Curves
Thrust level and cutter spacing must be adapted to rock properties to achieve
efficient chipping. The relation between penetration and gross thrust per contact
point is shown in Figure 7.5.
111
7. BORING PROCESS
7.2 Machine Factors Affecting Performance
If the gross thrust is very low, the cutters will roll and wear against the rock face
with low penetration and high cutter costs as a result.
c:
o
..
::l

Q)
a.
c:
.Q

as
c:
Q)
a.
.
-
Gross thrust per cutter disc
Figure 7.5 Penetration curve.
The penetration curve will be moved upwards and have a lower penetration
coefficient b in a fractured rock mass - depending on the degree and orientation of
fracturing, see Section 7.3.
The curves may level out somewhat for high thrust levels. Limitations are e.g. that
cutters "butt with their hubs", insufficient muck removal from the invert, blocking
of cutterhead buckets in rocks with high SJ or rocks with high clay content or
other weak minerals, or extremely good chipping. Extremely good chipping
produces an uneven rock face with heavy vibrations in the TBM as a result.
Penetration Curves - Linear Test Rigs vs TBM
Penetration tests with linear test rigs in laboratories show that required gross thrust
for chipping is proportional to the contact area A
c
under the cutter edge. The
following formula applies to cutters with a constant cross section:
112
M =
B
. r . 1
e 0
(kN/c)
[7.1]
1 =
o
(mm1rev) [7.2]
O"e = rock compressive strength
be = cutter edge width
r
e
= cutter radius
M
1
= critical thrust (necessary thrust to achieve 1 mm1rev).
Results from linear test rigs can be compared directly with tests on a Mobile Miner
with linear cutter action. A direct comparison between linear test rigs and circular
tunnel boring is not possible due to the variation of the penetration coefficient b for
TBM boring.
The penetration coefficient b is the factor in the prognosis which represents the
chipping frequency, in other words how many times the cutterhead rotates before a
total chipping has occurred at the face, see Figure 7.6.
.. Chips from first passing

<2J Chips from second passing
Figure 7.6 Chipping at the face.
113
For tunnel boring, the penetration coefficient implies:
b =2.0 An average total chipping at the face per revolution of the cutter-
head.
b < 2.0 The cutters break chips greater than the cutter spacing (double
chipping). In principle, the spacing should be increased.
b > 2.0 The cutterhead rotates several times before a total chipping at the
faee has occurred. In principle, the spacing should be decreased.
7.22 Cutter Edge
Cutter rings are given different shapes as shown in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7 Cutter rings with wedged and "constant cross section" design.
The shape of the cutter edge affects boring performance:
Wedged rings give high penetration rate as long as the edge is sharp.
Penetration rate drops rapidly with edge bluntness. Edge bluntness
reduces cutter indention due to increased edge width.
Constant cross section rings give more even penetration rate over the
ring life.
114
The penetration rate prognosis is based on an average cutter bluntness.
In abrasive rock with low SJ, cutters must be replaced very frequently. The cutter
edge will be worn down to a flat shape and not to the normal rounded shape. This
results in lower penetration rate than expected due to an inevitable lag in cutter
replacement.
Cutters with carbide inserts may be used under such conditions. Cutter replacement
wiHthen be reduced. The breaking edge of the cutter, i.e. the carbide inserts, will
preserve their shape and give better penetration rate over the cutter life.
Cutter wear forms are described in Section 7.4.
7.23 Torque Demand
Required torque to rotate the cutterhead depends on:
- cutterhead diameter
- number and position of cutters
- gross thrust per cutter
- cutter coefficient.
Cutter coefficient
The cutter coefficient k
c
is the ratio between gross drag force SB and gross thrust
force M
B
on the cutter (see Figure 7.8). The cutter coefficient depends on:
- type of cutter (diameter and edge shape)
- cutter spacing
- indention depth
- skidding
- degree of fracturing
- cutterhead shape.
115
7. BORING PROCESS
M
a
=gross thrust capacity
M
a
= gross thrust capacity
e
Sa =gross drag force
..
II

I I .
r
c
I I r
c
- I
p
I I
I I
"'"-77/----,=-""'"7>.,..-"'""7'77....... - - - I

R
a
= gross resultant force
e
Sa = gross drag force
J'! ..
/1
/ 0) I
// I
/ I
/ I
--,.,.,..-""777-77/----,.",.....:.:><. I
I
R
a
=gross resultant force
Figure 7.8 Cutter coefficient k
c
=tans in homogeneous and fractured rock.
116
7. BORING PROCESS
The cutter coefficient is, in principle, the rolling resistance of the cutter. The
rolling resistance is obtained by moment equilibrium for the cutter bearing axle.
k' =
c
/2 . r . i
= V c p
2
- 1
p
= tanco
[7.3]
The indention depth i
p
cannot be measured. When normalizing data, the penetration
i
o
must be used, and the constant Cc or c' estimated.
k = tanl; :::: c' . tanco
c
which can be simplified to:
/2 . r . i - i:
:::: c' . tan (atan V Co)
r - i
c 0
Fa
./
2
. rc 1
0
k = c . i :::: c' . _V _
ceO r
c
[7.5]
The orientation of weakness planes also affects the cutter coefficient - although to
a smaller extent.
Worn down cutters will give a somewhat higher coefficient due to reduced
diameter and the tendency to create deep grooves before chipping. In extreme
cases, the cutter may "butt with its hub", and thus increase the coefficient
dramatically.
117
7. BORING PROCESS
Torgue Demand
Torque demand is found by the following formula:
~ N N
T" = Lr
i
. SBi = Lr
i
M
Bi
k
ci
~ l ~ l
[7.6]
= 0.59 . r . N . M . k
tbm Ibm B c
(kNm)
The factor 0.59 . r
lbm
is the position for the average cutter on the cutterhead. The
factor may be calculated when the cutterhead design of a machine is known.
Required power installation is found by:
T . 2 . Jt . RPM
p" = -"------
60
(kW)
[7.7]
Most machines are designed for a cutter coefficient of k
c
=0.10 0.02 at maxi-
mum thrust capacity.
If more torque is required, the voltage from transformers can be increased. This
results in increased strain on electric motors when starting up. An increase in
voltage must therefore only be done after consultation with machine manufacturer
and electrotechnical experts. For 380 V motors, the torque increases with the ratio:
U 2
T
k
= (----) . To
380
(kNm)
[7.8]
118
7. BORING PROCESS
7.24 Cutterhead RPM
Cutterhead rpm is approximately constant for machines with electric motors. The
machines are designed with a fixed and very high reduction in gear boxes and ring
gears. Some machines are designed with rpm regulation (variable frequency drive).
Choice of cutterhead rpm depends on:
- main bearing life
- cutter bearing life (determined by gage cutter rpm)
- limitations as to installed power (lack of space on small diameter machines)
- vibration level on machines with rpm regulation.
Cutterhead rpm has been undergoing a rapid development as new machines have
larger cutters, increased peripheral speed and increased power installation.
Field studies show that penetration per revolution is nearly independent of cutter-
head rpm, as long as the rpm is within reasonable limits.
119
7. BORING PROCESS
7.3 BORING IN FRACTURED ROCK MASS
7.30 Introduction
7.3 Boring in Fractured Rock Mass
Net penetration rate increases when boring in fractured rock mass. The additional
penetration due to fracturing is not only dependent on rock conditions, but on the
TBM as well.
Chipping mechanisms for boring in fractured rock mass vary with type of disconti-
nuities, i.e. whether they are marked single joints or systematical planes of weak-
ness. The prognosis for boring in fractured rock mass is based on extensive records
from tunnel projects, mainly in Norway, but also in other countries.
7.31 Marked Single Joints
A typical progress for boring through a marked single joint is shown in Figure 7.9.
L
A-A A-A
Void area
Station no 1420
kN/cutter
1430
'----"
1440
u=atan <f>
m/hr
Figure 7.9 Penetration rate progress for boring through a marked single joint.
Net penetration rate increases until section A-A, where the "void area" is largest,
and decreases towards the end of the joint. Penetration rate increase is caused by
an unevenly broken face. Fall-outs along the joint plane leaves a "void area" in the
120
7. BORING PROCESS
face (see Figure 7.10). The void area is largest at section A-A where the extent of
the joint equals the tunnel diameter. The void area implies that a few cutters lose
contact with the face, and therefore cannot take any load. This load is transferred
to cutters still in contact with the face, thus increasing the effective thrust for these.
Penetration curves show that penetration rate increases with increasing thrust.
The addition in penetration due to jointing is approximately proportional to the
void area in the face. The void area can be estimated and used when normalizing
penetration rate data.
Figure 7.10 Void area formed by a fall-out from the face along a joint in
amphibolitic schist.
If more than one single joint occurs at the same time, the total effect must be
estimated and overruled by judgement, see Figure 7.11. The TBM will in such
zones often be torque limited. Thrust is kept more or less constant when the joint
is met until the machine vibrates excessively or is torque limited. Thrust is then
reduced, and increased again when the joint is disappearing.
121
7. BORING PROCESS
From mapping
Measured in tunnel
(m/hr) _
Figure 7.11 Penetration rate progress for boring through more than one single joint.
The length of a single joint along the tunnel increases linearly with TBM diameter.
Thus, larger machines utilize the advance addition over a longer distance.
7.32 Prognosis for Marked Single Joints
This specific model is based on a small number of observations. The theoretical
penetration addition is shown in Figure 7.12. Normalized penetration addition is
shown in Figure 7.13.
oR.
..
)1 /---"\""
V. '.
-..-
goo
Angle between tunnel axis and single joint
Figure 7.12 Theoretical progress for averaged penetration addition for marked
single joints.
122
7. BORING PROCESS
c:
o

"0
-g 30
c:
o
:;:;

Q)
c:

Q)

10
10 20
DRI=40
30
. DRI=45
40 50
DRI=50
60
Angle between tunnel axis and planes of weakness, a
Figure 7.13 Average penetration addition for marked single joints.
Example of Application
Zone with equal DRI
Net penetration rate for the zone
Tunnel length of marked single joints
600 m
3.78 m/hr
150 m
Average net penetration rate for tunnel length of marked single joints:
(DRI =49, ex =20), Figure 7.13 3.78' (l + 13.5/100) =4.27 m/hr
Average penetration rate for the zone:
600
=3.89 m/hr
600-150 150
+--
3.78 4.27
123
7. BORING PROCESS
7.33 Systematically Fractured Rock Mass
"Trains" of joints and fissures are treated as systematic discontinuities in the rock
mass. Description and classification of these are given in Section 6.5.
The penetration rate addition is a combination of two factors.
Primarily, one has the effect of thrust concentration due to void area as described
in Section 7.31 for single joints. The void area for systematically fractured rock
mass is considerably smaller than for marked single joints. This is due to a higher
shear strength along the planes of weakness, resulting in fewer fall-outs from the
face.
Secondarily, one gets chipping along the planes of weakness.
Figure 7.14 Void areas in fractured andesite.
124
7. BORING PROCESS 7.3 Boring in Fractured Rock Mass
When boring perpendicular to weakness planes with a small distance between
planes, cutters will break the rock directly against the planes of weakness.
When boring "on end" in heavily fractured rock mass or in rocks with low shear
strength along the foliation planes, chips are broken in two ways as shown in
Figure 7.15. Chips in section C are broken as slivers along jointing or foliation
planes.
, I
II I
I I I I
I I I
I II I
,I !
I
I II I
I
I
II I II I
I
A I, I
I
I II I
I
I
I I II I
'I I
I I
II I
I ,
, I
a. = goo
- - - - -
- - - -
B
0.= 0
0
c
Figure 7.15 Various chipping patterns for boring in heavily fractured rock.
125
7. BORING PROCESS
7.4 CUTTER WEAR
7.41 Cutter Types
A typical single disc cutter consists of:
- a removable cutter ring with split ring
- hub
- two conical bearings
- sealings
- shaft with retainers.
7.4 Cutter Wear
Several cutter types are available. The different cutter types can be divided into
groups:
- single disc cutters with constant cross section or wedged edge
- multi-disc cutters with constant cross section or wedged edge
- single or multi-disc cutters with carbide inserts
- steel cutters with carbide insert rows
- single disc cutters with divided rings.
The prognosis model applies to the most commonly used single disc cutters.
Multi-disc cutters have more or less gone out of use due to thrust limitation caused
by bearing capacity.
Use of cutters with carbide inserts usually results in higher cutter costs. However,
they should be preferred for shaft operations where it is important to keep cutter
replacement at a minimum.
Single disc cutters with carbide inserts are undergoing constant development - but
are at present not economically favourable. The problem is partly that the steel
around the carbide inserts is worn too quickly or that the inserts are crushed.
However, this cutter type may be used for boring in especially hard and abrasive
rocks.
126
7. BORING PROCESS
7.4 Cutter Wear
Single disc cutters with steel discs/carbide insert rows
.!l
Multi-disc cutters with steel discs/carbide insert rows
------- Cutter disc
....,:\Olo'l!!!!W---- Bearings
Section through a single
disc steel cutter
Figure 7.16 Examples of different cutter types.
127
7. BORING PROCESS
7.42 Cutter Wear Caused by Rock
7.4 Cutter Wear
Cutter ring consumption per tunnel meter is primarily determined by rock abrasive-
ness and rock mass discontinuities. Rock abrasiveness on the cutter edge is caused
by two factors:
- time-dependent abrasion on ring steel or carbide inserts
- rock hardness (resistance to indentation).
Time-dependent Rock Abrasiveness
The cutter edge is abraded by the crushed rock powder left in the cutter groove
after each pass. The abrasiveness of the powder on ring steel is expressed by the
abrasion test AVS.
Rock Hardness
Rock hardness determines the amount of crushed rock powder produced per pass
and the size of the contact area between the cutter edge and the crushed powder.
Rock hardness is expressed by the Siever's J-value.
Cutter Life Index CLI
The Cutter Life Index CLI is an empirical index based on correlation of the rock
tests AVS and SJ against recorded cutter ring life (see Project Report 13-90
DRILLABILITY Drilling Rate Index Catalogue). However, it is still necessary to
consider the rock mineral content when estimating cutter ring life.
The mineral content of the rock determines the effective time related abrasiveness
of a mineral. Soft minerals is crushed to such an extent that they do not function as
mineral grains any longer. The hard minerals become overexposed, which again
results in a higher ring edge abrasion. The enhanced abrasion is greater for
increasing content of weak minerals such as mica, calcite and amphibole.
128
7. BORING PROCESS
7.4 Cutter Wear
The effect is illustrated in Figure 7.17 for granite, mica gneiss and mica schist.
Vicker's hardness number VHNR for a granitic gneiss is estimated below.
Mineral Mineral Content Mineral Hardness Total Hardness
(%)
VHN VHNR
Quartz 30 1060 318
Feldspar 63 800 504
Amphibole 2 600 12
Mica 5 110 6
840
10L.-__""---_'"-....l-.......................................__--'
100 200 300 400 500 600 lOlllD!IJlm 2000
Total Vickers Hardness, VHNR
129
quartzite
(Q:>5l1';)
granitel
gneiss
linstone

900f----_;__-t--I--+----i-+-+-+----

_
600 _

fIIo,.th Atlantic basal t

!

I I
greenstone/green schist
30f------t--l---t--+-
: I
201----+-----"'--'-
:c' 2001-----+------+
i
,g

$ 501----+----,.---I!3l
a

Figure 7.17 Recorded cutter ring life as a function of Vicker's hardness number
VHNR for RPM::: 38/d
tbm

7. BORING PROCESS
Abrasion Pattern
7.4 Cutter Wear
Ring abrasion is an interaction between rock powder abrasiveness, powder quantity
and ring area in contact with the powder.
Ring abrasion is temperature dependent. Water flushing not only reduces dust at
the cutterhead, but also reduces the ring temperature. Ring abrasion increases when
"dry boring" occurs.
a b
Figure 7.18 Cross sections of replaced rings from boring in different rock types.
The flat edge (a) occurs when boring in rock with high resistance to indention
and high abrasiveness, e.g. granitic gneiss. The small indention and small
amount of crushed rock powder in the groove results in large point-abrasion and
low side-abrasion.
The double-curved edge (b) occurs when boring in rock with average resistance
to indention and high abrasiveness, e.g. mica schist with a high quartz content.
The combination produces large point-abrasion.
The heavily abraded ring (c) occurs for a combination of low resistance to
indention and low abrasiveness. A great loss of weight for the whole ring is
characteristic for this abrasion form.
The sharp edge (d) occurs when boring in rock with particularly low resistance
to indention and low abrasiveness, e.g. in calcitic slate. A large amount of
crushed powder flows past the sides of the ring. This produces great side-
abrasion and low point abrasion. The effect is called self-sharpening. A large
indention gives increased ring temperature which amplifies the effect.
130
7. BORING PROCESS
7.43 Cutter Wear Caused by Fractures
7.4 Cutter Wear
The cutter edge will be exposed to large momentary loads in fractured rock mass
or when extremely good chipping occurs. The ring then has a tendency to chip
along the edge. This is not a problem if ring-chipping is small. Heavy ring-
chipping may result in bevel edge wear, disc loosening and frozen bearings.
Chipping along the edge increases with increasing thrust and steel hardness.
For tough boring in fractured rock mass with unfavourable orientation, frozen
bearings may be a problem. This applies especially to boring through marked
single joints and mixed face conditions because of large momentary loads on the
cutters, see Figure 7.8.
Observations indicate that bearing life in rock mass with many marked single joints
is about 15 % below average bearing life. Sealing problems also increase under
such conditions. Bearing life has been observed to increase by about 15 % when
boring with reduced thrust in heavily fractured rock mass. Fall-outs from the face
may cause cutter housings to break off. For such rock mass conditions, cutterhead
rpm should be reduced or the cutter housings protected by a front shield.
7.44 Machine Factors Affecting Cutter Wear
Machine factors affecting cutter wear are:
Tough boring, especially right after a cutter change. New steel rings are
particularly brittle and prone to chipping along the edge. Boring results
in ductile hardening of the ring steel.
At the start of the tunnel when all the cutters are new, the ring life will
be higher due to an even ring wear before the cutter changes start. Extra
life is more evident for smaller machines.
After a cutter change, new cutters will have larger diameter than the
others. If the difference between adjacent cutters is too big, additional
loads and high abrasion on the protruding cutters is the result.
131
7. BORING PROCESS
7.4 Cutter Wear
Heavy vibration of the cutterhead results in high side-loads on cutters
and additional abrasion. This is most evident for the centre cutters.
The centre cutters are more prone to skidding than the others,due to
their small track radius. Skidding results in uneven abrasion and reduced
ring life. The problem increases with increasing cutter diameter.
Absence of free rolling combined with high side-loads will reduce cutter
bearing life.
Prolonged ring life for the centre cutters is obtained by sacrificing the
two cutters next to the centre cutters. This means that those two cutters
must always be less worn than the centre cutters.
Hubs are worn approximately proportional to rings. Worn down hubs
will, due to reduced stiffness, reduce bearing life considerably by
frequent blockages (frozen bearings). Ring-slip will increase as well.
For shaft boring with TBM on steep inclines, the cutter life has been
observed to increases by 10 - 15 %. The increase is due to a better
muck removal from the face.
When boring on decline, a large amount of muck will gather between
the tunnel invert and the face. Due to the extra crushing of loose rock,
the gage cutter life is reduced. A 30 - 50 % reduction of ring life has
been recorded.
The gage cutters may be difficult to change if they are worn too much,
due to a reduced tunnel diameter. An acceptable ring life may still be
obtained by reducing the spacing for the gage cutters and increasing the
amount of material in the ring (increased edge width).
Cutter life (in rolled distance) is quite even over the cutterhead, apart
from centre and gage cutters. This fact, combined with the effect that all
the cutters revolve with different speed about themselves, produces a
replacement curve as shown in Figure 7.19. If the life of the gage
cutters is very low, the muck scrapers should be checked frequently.
132
7. BORING PROCESS
5
--
7.0
"C

::J
0
..c
C)
c
....
6.0 0
.c

Q)
>
10
5.0 Q)
0:::
4.0
7.4 Cutter Wear
3.0
2.0
1.0
f- 6.5m
4.5m
3.5m
Center

Gage
d
tbm
3.5m 1+-+-+-+4+++-+4
4.5m f+--+-+-+-ll-+++-H
6.5m 1++-++-11-++-+---t
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Relative cutter position, iN
tbm
Figure 7.19 Recorded and normalized replacement curve on flat cutterheads for
different TBM diameters. Domed cutterheads have a more evened out
transition between face and gage cutters. The relative ring life is basis
for the TBM diameter correction factor kcp.
133
8. GROUND SUPPORT
8.0 INTRODUCTION
8.1 STABILITY PROBLEMS
8.2 ROCK SUPPORT METHODS
8.3 TBM VS DRILL AND BLAST
Contents
Page
135
136
141
144
134
8. GROUND SUPPORT
8.0 INTRODUCTION
8.0 Introduction
Tunnel boring as tunnelling method affects the remaining rock mass less than drill
and blast tunnelling, with considerably improved stability as a result. In normal
rock conditions (e.g. average Norwegian rock mass), ground support is not
necessary or reduced to a minimum.
However, tunnel boring is less flexible than drill and blast tunnelling in tackling
stability problems at the face. Unforeseen problems may therefore cause long
delays and additional costs.
It is vital to locate stability problems through the engineering geological preinvesti-
gations with regard to type and extent. Accordingly, the TBM should be equipped
to overcome the expected stability problems and the extent of the ground support.
The tunnel crew must have the necessary know-how to handle different stability
problems.
135
8. GROUND SUPPORT
8.1 STABILITY PROBLEMS
Crushed Zones
8.1 Stability Problems
Steep and dry crushed zones containing clay seldom represent any acute danger.
Fall-outs do seldom occur until 1/2 - 2 days after boring into the zone. The time
span enables ground support work to be carried out efficiently in the area behind
the TBM, see Figure 5.1. However, this requires a predetermined strategy to tackle
stability problems with regard to time and ground support method - to avoid
unnecessary loss of time due to ad hoc solutions from zone to zone.
Fall-outs begin almost immediately when boring into zones of "water-sick" clay,
loos material such as "sugar-cube" jointed rock or clay-infected, medium to heavily
jointed, blocky rock. This requires ground support right behind the cutterhead.
The most difficult zones to handle, are zones with low dip angle in the tunnel
direction. Zone material and unsupported rock have a tendency to fall on the
machine without any warning when boring into the zone. The most extensive
ground support work carried out in bored Norwegian tunnels has been in altered
mineral zones (e.g saussurites).
Gripper hold may disappear in fairly large crushed or altered zones. Railroad
sleepers etc., can be used for packing to get new gripper holds. It is difficult to
maintain the tunnel alignment in wide zones. Reboring into good ground is also
difficult when the gripper hold is poor.
Mechanically Weak Rock
Rock with low strength combined with rock stress results in squeezing ground. The
whole tunnel must be supported with dense bolting, ring beams or concrete
segments to maintain the tunnel profile.
Rock Spalling
Required ground support work in rock spalling ground is considerably less in bored
than in drill and blast tunnels. This is due to the favourable cross section with an
136
8. GROUND SUPPORT
even and undamaged rock surface. Ground support work is only necessary at
higher stress levels, and for a smaller part of the circumference. Furthermore,
shorter bolts are required. Less scaling is also required for spalling ground.
Rock spalling appears first as stress loosening of blocks along joints and fissures.
High rock stress appears as bending along the schistosity planes in weak and
schistose rocks.
Fractured Rock Mass
Scaling and spot bolting is extensively reduced in bored tunnels. The rock mass
must be heavily fractured or have clay-infected fractures before systematic bolting
is required. Horizontal joints may cause unexpected fall-outs of blocks.
Figure 8.1 Keel formed rock spalling in the roof due to horizontal tectonic stress.
The spalling was initiated by the fissure in the foreground. Rock type
is granitic gneiss.
137
8. GROUND SUPPORT
Figure 8.2 Ground support against moderate spalling. Rock type is granitic gneiss.
Figure 8.3 Fall-out in limestone along horizontal bedding and vertical joints.
138
8. GROUND SUPPORT
Figure 8.4 Bolting in a drill and blast branch-off tunnel. The large amount of
ground support is due to the disturbance of the stress concentration
around the bored tunnel. Stress and rock conditions as in Figure 8.1.
Water Inflow
Large water inflow into bored tunnels require as extensive measures as for drill and
blast tunnelling. Small water inflows rarely represent any problem. An exception is
projects where lowering of the ground water table must be avoided. This requires
extensive pregrouting. Where possible, the tunnel system should be designed with
an incline of at least 0.2 %, to ensure self draining.
Systematic probe drilling and pregrouting of varying extent is required in tunnel-
ling operations under the sea level, e.g. fjord crossings.
139
8. GROUND SUPPORT
Gas Inflow and Heat
Inflow of toxic or explosive gases into tunnels rarely occurs in Norway.
Heat due to high rock temperatures or hot water inflows demand air cooling
systems. Heat rarely represents any problem in Norway, even with our high
geothermal gradient.
These problems may however seriously disrupt tunnel boring, and must be
addressed properly if they are expected to occur.
140
8. GROUND SUPPORT
8.2 ROCK SUPPORT METHODS
Alertness
8.2 Rock Support Methods
Net penetration rate and torque increase when boring into zones and minor gouge
seams. This is a warning to the operator of possible poor rock mass quality ahead.
A limit value for the combination of high net penetration rate and low thrust
should be predetermined. When the limit is reached, the operator must stop the
machine and inspect the rock mass at the face. When boring in zones, the stability
of the exposed roof must be carefully assessed, especially when cutters are being
changed.
Usually a machine can only back up a few stroke lengths before it butts into the
back-up equipment.
Scaling
Scaling is required after boring through heavily fractured zones and minor gouge
seams. Scaling is often a sufficient ground support method.
Bolting
Drilling is carried out with jacklegs or carriage mounted pneumatic or hydraulic
hammers at or behind the TBM (see Figure 5.1). The bolting should be carried out
while boring to get a best possible machine utilization. When a longer part of the
tunnel has to be supported, the crew should be increased by 1 or 2 persons.
Bolting may be combined with chainlink mesh or pre-shaped weldmesh. Chainlink
mesh is unfavourable in water tunnels due to corrosion. Weldmesh must be
shotcreted for the same reason.
Shotcreting
Shotcreting alone, or combined with steel fibres or steel beams, is a good rock
support method. Track transport may make the use of wet-mix shotcrete
141
8. GROUND SUPPORT
inconvenient, because of the transport. Dry-mix or other premixed shotcrete is
more practical, but more expensive.
Shotcreting from the TBM or the back-up equipment always involves additional
cleanup work. Special care should be taken when designing the shotcreting
facilities.
Concrete Lining
Concrete lining is used as permanent ground support. Pumping concrete in front of
the cutterhead to fill up larger cave-ins is also a form of "concrete lining". The
concrete may then provide a stable roof when boring starts again.
Concrete Segments
Concrete segments are often used with shield machines in mechanically weak rock.
Where weak rock is expected for long tunnel sections, the segments are a well
suited systematical support method.
Ring Beams
Ring beams of all types and sizes (U-, 1-, H-profiles) are used a lot. Ring beams
may be installed rapidly, and are often combined with weldmesh as rock support
right behind the cutterhead. The ring beams must be shotcreted in water tunnels.
Probe Drilling and Pregrouting
Rational pregrouting work requires that the machine is designed with this in mind.
142
8. GROUND SUPPORT
Summary
There is no universal machine able to handle all stability problems in an economi-
cally justifiable way. It is important to find the best possible solution for the
expected predominant stability problems - yet at the same time to maintain a
certain flexibility.
143
8. GROUND SUPPORT
8.3 TBM VS DRILL AND BLAST
8.3 TBM vs Drill and Blast
The good stability of bored tunnels renders savings in ground support work.
In normal and good rock conditions, rock support costs for tunnel boring may be
1/3 - 2/3 of those for drill and blast for the same cross section.
In some cases, reductions may be even larger. Drill and blast tunnelling will
produce a lot of fall-outs and overbreak in heavily fractured rock mass, necessi-
tating extensive scaling and bolting. Tunnel boring gives a more stable profile, thus
making it possible to reduce or eliminate scaling and bolting.
For such conditions, ground support costs for tunnel boring may be approximately
20 % of those for drill and blast. It is, however, assumed that the machine is
equipped to handle the problems it meets, so that ground support work can be
carried out efficiently and right behind the cutterhead if necessary.
For normal rock conditions, i.e. rock without special demands as to rock support,
the time consumption for rock support will be typically 0 - 20 hr/km, depending on
extent of rock support work and machine diameter. For rock spalling conditions of
medium intensity, the time consumption will add up to 1 - 2 weeks per bored km.
Time consumption for probe drilling and grouting, large water inflows, large
crushed zones etc., shows a large variation and must be evaluated separately.
Capacity and costs for ground support work are treated in the Project Reports
(published in Norwegian):
- 10A-91 TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT Bolts
- 10B-91 TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT Shotcrete
- 10C-91 TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT Concrete Lining.
The reports are based on drill and blast tunnelling, but may be used for estimating
time consumption and costs for rock support of TBM tunnels.
144
APPENDICES Contents
Page
A. LIST OF PARAMETERS 146
B. PREVIOUS REPORTS 150
C. PROJECT REPORTS FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF
BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING 151
D. CALCULATION CHARTS 155
145
APPENDICES A. List of Parameters
A. LIST OF PARAMETERS
The parameters used in the report is listed in the following. The list is according to
when the parameter first appears.
Parameter Description Unit Page
A
b
tunnel cross section, bored

10
m-
Abo
economically optimal cross section,
bored tunnel

10
m-
ac
average cutter spacing - cutterhead mm 23

contact area cutter edge - rock mm
2
113
As
tunnel cross section, blasted m
2
10
A
so
economically optimal cross section,
blasted tunnel m
2
10
AV rock abrasion value tungsten carbide mg/5 min 85
AVS rock abrasion value cutter steel mg/min 85
b penetration coefficient 112
be
cutter edge width mm 113
COb
cutter costs NOKJhrc 42
c
b
averaged cutter costs NOKim 42
Cc
cutter constant - torque demand 25
CAl Cerchar Abrasivity Index mg 86
CLI Cutter Life Index 15
d..
cutter diameter mm 19
d
tbm
TBM diameter m 10
DR! Drilling Rate Index
15
H
o
cutter ring life - individual cutter hr 35
H
f
cutter ring life - cutterhead sm
3
/c 38
H
h
cutter ring life - cutterhead hr/c 28
H
hm
averaged cutter ring life over the tunnel
- cutterhead
hr/c 49
H
m
cutter ring life - cutterhead
m/c 38
H
t
average cutter ring life over the tunnel
- individual cutter
hr 38
I net penetration rate
m/hr 25
1
0
basic penetration
mm/rev 23
I
A
depreciation basis
NOK 52
146
~
average net penetration rate over the tunnel m/hr 42
Ip
indention depth for cutter edge mm 110
k downtime factor of equipment 52
k
a
correction factor for cutter spacing - penetration 23
k
c
cutter coefficient - torque demand 25
k
d
correction factor for cutter diameter
- penetration 23
k
d1
correction factor for TBM diameter for
track transport - labour costs 49
k
DR1
correction factor for DR! *" 49 - penetration 22
k
e
penetration addition for single joints % 122
k
ekv
equivalent fracturing factor 22
kh] correction factor for cutter ring life
- labour costs 49
~
correction factor for net penetration for
track transport - costs for work behind the face 48
~
correction factor for net penetration rate
- power consumption 56
~ r
correction factor for net penetration rate
- repair costs 55
k
1b
correction factor for tunnel length for
track transport - costs for work behind the face 48
k
N
correction factor for no. of cutters
- cutter ring life 36
~ o r
correction factor for porosity - penetration 83
~
correction factor for rock quartz content
k
RPM
correction factor for cutterhead RPM
- cutter ring life
35
k
s
fracturing factor
21
k
S
-
IOl
total fracturing factor
21
k
si
fracturing factor for set no. i
21
147
kip correction factor for cutterhead diameter
lei
ring life for cutter position no. i m 101
lem
ring life for the average cutter on the cutterhead m 133
Is
stroke length of TBM m 28
L
t
tunnel length km 49
M
j
critical thrust for 1 mm/rev penetration kN/c 112
M
B
gross average thrust per cutter kN/c 19
M
ekv
equivalent thrust per cutter kN/c 23
No normal no. of cutters on the cutterhead 20
N
tbm
actual no. of cutters on the cutterhead 25
P
n
necessary installed cutterhead power kW 26
P
tbm
installed cutterhead power kW 20
Q
rock quartz content % 85
Q
o
fresh air delivered to the TBM m
3
/min 75
R rest value
NOK 52
R
B
gross resultant force on cutter kN/c 116
r
e
cutter radius mm 113
r
j
position on cutterhead for cutter no. i m 118
r
tbm
cutterhead radius m 25
RPM cutterhead revolutions rev/min 18
RQD Rock Quality Designation 97
Szo
rock brittleness value % 107
SB
gross drag on cutter kN/c 115
SJ rock Siever's J-value mm/lO 86
Sp type of fracturing - joints 15
St type of fracturing - fissures 16
To
installed cutterhead torque kNm 118
T
a
time for other tunnelling activities hr/km 27
t
B
economical useful life of equipment hr 52
T
b
time for boring hr/km 27
T
bak
time for repair and service
of back-up equipment hr/km 27
148
t
e
time per changed cutter nun 28
T
e
time for cutter change and inspection hr/km 27
t
ei
ring life for cutter position no. i hr 101
T
k
corrected cutterhead torque kNm 118
t
L
economic life of equipment hr 52
Tn
gross torque demand kNm 25
T
t
time for regripping hr/km 27
ttak
time per regrip min 28
T
tbm
time for repair and service of TBM hr/km 27
u machine utilization % 27
U voltage of cutterhead drive motors V 118
VHN Vicker's Hardness Number mineral kg/mm
2
129
VHNR Vicker's Hardness Number Rock kg/mm
2
129
a angle between tunnel axis and
planes of weakness degrees(O) 21
a
f
dip angle of planes of weakness degrees(O) 21
as
strike direction of planes of weakness degrees(O) 21
Ur
tunnel direction degreesC) 21

repair factor NOK/ehr 57
a
e
rock uniaxial compressive strength MPa 84
All cost parameters used in the report is shown in the calculation charts in
Appendix D, pages 163 and 164.
Basic cost calculation method and cost parameters are treated in Project Report
15A-92 HEAVY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY Costs, Performance and
Maintenance (published in Norwegian).
149
APPENDICES
B. PREVIOUS REPORTS
B. Previous Reports
Previous editions of Project Report HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING, with
participating authors:
1-76 Norwegian edition;
Bengt Drageset
Roy-Egil Hovde
Erik Dahl Johansen
Roar Sandnes
O. Torgeir Blindheim
Odd Johannessen
1-79 Norwegian edition;
Knut Gakkestad
Jan Helgebostad
Svein Paulsen
Oddbj0rn Aasen
Erik Dahl Johansen
O. Torgeir Blindheim
Odd Johannessen
1-83 Norwegian and English edition;
Arne Lislerud
Steinar Johannessen
Amund Bruland
Tore Movinkel
Odd Johannessen
1-88 Norwegian and English edition;
Arne Lislerud
Amund Bruland
Bj0rn-Erik Johannessen
Tore Movinkel
Karsten Myrvold
Odd Johannessen
150
APPENDICES c. Project Reports from the Department...
C. PROJECT REPORTS FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING AND
CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
5-75 STEINPRODUKSJON DAM ODDATJ0RN
(ROCK FILL DAM ODDATJ0RN)
6-75 BORBARHET (DRILLABILITY)
1-77 STEINPRODUKSJON DAM STORGLOMVATN
(ROCK FILL DAM STORGLOMVATN)
2-77 FYLLINGSDAM AV KNUSTE MATERIALER
(ROCK FILL DAM WITH CRUSHED MATERIAL)
3-77 KRISTIANSUNDS FASTLANDSFORBINDELSE
Tunnel eller fyUing Frei - Bergs0Y
(STRAIT CROSSING KRISTIANSUND
Tunnel or Rock Fill Frei - Bergs0Y)
5-77 FULLPROFILBORING VED SVARTISVERKENE
5 delrapporter
(TUNNEL BORING AT SVARTISEN
5 reports)
1-78 LASTING I STEINBRUDD
(LOADING IN ROCK QUARRIES)
3-78 MARNES KVARTSITTBRUDD
(MARNES QUARTZITE QUARRY)
6-78 LARVIKITT Driftsplan Vardeasen I
(LARVIKITE Production Plan Vardeasen I)
7-78 LARVIKITT Driftsplan KHistad
(LARVIKITE Production Plan KIastad)
8-78 FL0YFJELLTUNNELEN Fullprofilboring eller konvensjonell drift
(THE FL0YFJELL TUNNELS Tunnel Boring or Drill and Blast)
4-79 TUNNELDRIFT Store tverrsnitt
(TUNNELLING Large Cross Sections)
5-79 TUNNELDRIFT Last og brer
(TUNNELLING Load and Haul)
1-80 STEINPRODUKSJON DAM STORVATN
(ROCK FILL DAM STORYATN)
6-80 LARVIKITT Driftsplan Vardeasen II
(LARVIKITE Production Plan Vardeasen II)
151
APPENDICES
c. Project Reports from the Department...
1-81 SJAKTDRIFT
(SHAFf EXCAVATION)
2-81 TUNNELDRIFf VED OUEUTVINNING TIL HAVS
(TUNNELLING FOR OFFSHORE OIL FIELDS)
5-81 HEKKFJELL KRAFTANLEGG Till0pssystemet
(HEKKFJELL POWER PLANT Headrace Tunnels)
6-81 TOPPKRAFf R0SSAGA
(PEAK POWER AT R0SSAGA Tunnel System)
7-81 LARVIKITT Driftsplan Vardeasen III
(LARVIKITE Production Plan Vardeasen III)
10-81 DRIKKEVANN FRA GULLFJELLET Tunneldriften
(DRINKING WATER FROM GULLFJELLET Tunnelling)
3-82 LARVIKITT Driftsplan Malemd
(LARVIKITE Production Plan Malemd)
8-87 DYPE OG LANGE FJORDTUNNELER
(DEEP AND LONG UNDERSEA TUNNELS)
2-88 TUNNELDRIFT Prognoser konvensjonell drift
2-88 TUNNELLING Prognosis for Drill and Blast
3-88 TUNNELDRIFT Kostnader konvensjonell drift
3-88 TUNNELLING Costs for Drill and Blast
5-88 HALLER I FJELL
5-88 ROCK CAVERNS
8-88 VEGTUNNELER Sprengning og fullprofilboring
(ROAD TUNNELS Drill and Blast or Tunnel Boring)
19-88 TUNNELUTSLAG UNDER VANN
19-88 UNDERWATER TUNNEL PIERCING
11-90 PALLBORING Ytelse og kostnad
11-90 BENCH DRILLING Performance and Costs
13-90 BORBARHET Katalog over borsynkindekser
13-90 DRILLABILITY Drilling Rate Index Catalogue
152
APPENDICES
90 FJELLSPRENGNINGSTEKNIKK
(ROCK BLASTING TECHNIQUE
Dr.ing. thesis by Arne Lislerud)
10A-91 TUNNELSIKRING Bolting
(TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT Bolting)
10B-91 TUNNELSIKRING Spmytebetong
(TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT Shotcrete)
10C-91 TUNNELSIKRING Full utst0ping
(TUNNEL ROCK SUPPORT Concrete Lining)
16-91 FULLPROFILMASSER Materialegenskaper og anvendelse
(TBM MUCK Properties and Utilization)
17-91 TUNNELDRIFT Ventilasjon
(TUNNELLING Ventilation)
12C-92 STEINBRUDD Lasting
12C-92 ROCK QUARRYING Loading
15A-92 ANLEGGSMASKINER Kostnad, ytelse og driftskontroll
(HEAVY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY
Costs, Performance and Maintenance)
15B-92 ANLEGGSMASKINER Kostnadsregning
(HEAVY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY Cost Calculation)
18-92 KNUSING AV STEIN TIL ANLEGGSFORMAL
(CRUSHING OF ROCK FOR CONSTRUCTION PURPOSES)
14A-93 FJELLSPRENGNINGSTEKNIKK Sprengning med restriksjoner
(ROCK BLASTING TECHNIQUE Blasting Vibrations)
20-93 MASSETRANSPORT MED LASTEBIL Kapasitet og kostnad
(TRUCK TRANSPORT Capacity and Costs)
21-93 NATURSTEIN I EIDFJORD Sima-granitt
BUILDING STONE AT EIDFJORD Sima Granite
1-94 FULLPROFILBORING AV TUNNELER
1-94 HARD ROCK TUNNEL BORING
13A-94 BORBARHET Testmetoder
(DRILLABILITY Test Methods)
15C-94 ANLEGGSMASKINER Kostnadsliste
(HEAVY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY Cost List)
153
APPENDICES
15D-94 ANLEGGSMASKINER Kostnadsindeks
(HEAVY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY Cost Index)
22-94 TUNNELDRIFf Vanntunneler - utvidelse ved sprengning
(TUNNELLING Water Tunnels - Erilarging by Blasting)
7-95 DRIVING AV LANGE LODDSJAKTER
Konvensjonell sjaktavsenking
(SINKING OF DEEP SHAFfS Drill and blast)
English titles in parentheses are published in Norwegian only.
Reports may be ordered from:
Institutt for bygg- og anleggsteknikk
Norges tekniske hHgskole
N-7034 Trondheim
NORWAY
Telephone +47 73 59 47 40 Telefax +47 73 59 70 21
154
APPENDICES
D. Calculation Charts
D. CALCULATION CHARTS
Machine Data
[ Tunnel
I Date
ISigned
TBM diameter d
tbm
m Page 8
Type of back-up (track/trackless) Page 8
Cutter diameter d
c
mm Figure 2.4
Cutterhead rpm RPM rpm Figure 2.5
Number of cutters on the cutterhead N
tbm
Figure 2.6
Average cutter spacing
Q
c
=d
tbm
1000/(2 . N
tbm
) mm
Gross thrust per cutter M
B
kN/c Figure 2.4
Installed power P
tbm
kW Figure 2.7
Type of cutterhead (domed/flat)
Position of the average cutter
fmc
Page 25
Stroke length Is
m Page 28
155
APPENDICES
Geological Parameters
I TunneVzon.
I Date
I Signed
Rock type
Length I m
Drilling Rate Index DRl Figure 2.2
Cutter Life Index eLI Figure 2.3
Quartz content
Q
%
St
Type and degree of fracturing
*
Figure 2.1
Sp
Orientation
*
0
[2.1]
a
* When more than one fracturing set is present, see page 21.
156
APPENDICES
Net Penetration Rate
Correction for avg. cutter spacing -::t 70 mm k
a
Correction for cutter diameter -::t 483 mm k
d
Rock mass fracturing factor
Date
I Signed
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.8
[2.3]
kN/c Figure 2.4
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
kN/c [2.4]
mm/rev Figure 2.9
rpm Figure 2.5
m/hr [2.5]
RPM
I =i
o
RPM . 60/ 1000
Gross thrust per cutter
Cutterhead rpm
Correction for DRI -::t 49
Net penetration rate
Equivalent thrust
Basic penetration
Equivalent fracturing*
I Tunnel/zone
* For influence of porosity, see page 83.
157
APPENDICES
Torque Control
I Tunnel/zone
Date
I Signed
Position of the average cutter
fmc
Page 25
TBM diameter d
tbm
m
TBM radius r
tbm
= d
tbm
/ 2 m
Number of cutters N
tbm
Figure 2.6
Gross thrust per cutter
ME
kN/c Figure 2.4
Cutter diameter
de
mm
Cutter constant C
c
Figure 2.12
Basic penetration i
o
mm/rev
Cutter coefficient k
c
=Cc
[2.7]
Required torque Tn = fmc' r
tbm
N
tbm
ME . k
c
kNm [2.6]
Required power P
n
=Tn . 2 . :Jt RPM/ 60 kW [2.8]
Installed power P
tbm
kW Figure 2.7
158
APPENDICES
Cutter Ring Life
I Tunnel/zone
Date
ISigned
Cutter Life Index eLI Figure 2.3
Quartz content Q %
Basic cutter ring life H
o
hr Figure 3.1
Correction for TBM diameter
k<p Figure 3.2
Correction for quartz content k
Q
Figure 3.3
TBM diameter d
tbm
m
tbm
Standard number of cutters No
[3.1]
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.6
[3.2]
hr/c [3.3]
m/hr
mlc [3.4]
sm
3
/c [3.5]
I
Cutter life
Net penetration rate
Cutter life
Cutter life
Correction for cutterhead rpm
k
RPM
= (50/ d
tbm
) / RPM
Correction for number of cutters k
N
= N
tbm
/ No
159
APPENDICES
Net Penetration Rate, Average Over the Tunnel
I Tunnel
I Dale
I Signed
Zone no. j 1 2 3 4 5
Length Ii (m)
Net penetration rate (m/hr)
Average penetration rate 1
m
I
=
Ll
i
=
m/hr
m
LUi / I)
160
APPENDICES
Cutter Ring Life, Average Over the Tunnel
Tunnel Date
Signed
Zone no. j 1 2 3 4 5
Length I
j
(m)
Net penetration rate (m/hr)
Cutter life H
hj
(hr/c)
Cutter life
H
mj
(mle)
Cutter life H
jj
(sm
3
/c)
Average cutter life H
hm
H
hm
=
IU/I)
=
hrlc
I I/Ij
H
hj
mm
H
=
Il
j
=
mlc
mm
IU
j
I H
m
)
Average cutter life Hfm Hfm =
Il
j
=
sm
3
/c
I U
j
I H
jj
)
t
H =H N = brlc
t hm tbm
161
APPENDICES
Weekly Penetration Rate and Machine Utilization
I Tunnel
Date
[ Signed
Net penetration rate 1
m
m/hr
Boring time T
b
= 1000 11
m
hr/km [2.10]
Stroke length
is
m Page 28
Time per regrip
ttak
min Page 28
Regripping time T
t
= 1000 . ttak 1(60 . is) hr/km [2.11]
Time per changed cutter t
c
min Page 28
Cutter ring life H
hm
hr/c Page 161
Cutter time T
c
= 1000 tkl (60 H
hm
1
m
) hr/km [2.12]
Repair and service of TBM T
tbm
hr/km Figure 2.13
Repair and service of back-up T
bak
hr/km Figure 2.13
Other time consumption T
a
hr/km Figure 2.13
Machine utilization
u =(l00' T
b
) I (T
b
+ T
t
+ T
c
+ T
tbm
+ T
bak
+ T
a
)
Working hours
% [2.9]
hr/week
Weekly advance rate
I = u . T . I I 100
u u m
mlweek
* For working hours different from 90 - 110 hr/week, the machine utilization
estimated above must be evaluated, especially for higher working hours.
162
APPENDICES
Standard Costs Page 1 of 2
I Tunnel
IDate
Signed
TBM diameter d
tbm
m
Type of back-up (track/trackless)
i
Tunnel length L
t
km
j
,
Adit (horizontal or declined)
I
1
Net penetration rate 1
m
m/hr
tbm
Figure 2.6
Rigging costs e
rig
NOK Figure 4.1
Rigging costs C
rig
= e
rig
/ L
t
NOK/m
TBM costs c
tbm
NOK/m Figure 4.2
Costs for back-up equipment
cbak
NOK/m Figure 4.3
Cutter ring life H
hm
hr/c Page 161
Cutter ring life
H
t
= H
hm
N
tbm
hr Page 161
Basic cutter costs
COb
NOKlhr'c Figure 4.4
Cutter costs c
b
= COb N
tbm
/ 1
m
NOK/m [4.1]
163
APPENDICES
Standard Costs - Page 2 of 2
[ Tunnel
Date Signed
Basic costs for work behind the face NOK/m Figure 4.5
Correction for net penetration rate Figure 4.5
Correction for tunnel length Figure 4.5
Unforseen C
u
= C
sum
0,10
Efficiency factor k
df
NOK/m
NOK/m Figure 4.6
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.6
NOK/m
NOK/m Figure 4.7
NOK/m
NOK/m Page 41
NOK/m
0.9 - 1.1
Page 41
NOK/m
C
tv
COin
Excavation costs (1994 level) COt =c
sum
+ C
u
Price increase (1994 =1.0) k
p
Correction for TBM diameter
Total excavation costs c
t
= COt k
df
k
p
Costs for work behind the face
Cbs = CObs k
ib
k
lb
Costs for declined adit
Correction for cutter ring life H
hm
Labour costs
Basic labour costs
164

04 - NTH - Project Report 1-94 Hard Rock Tunnel Boring

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