Three method of measuring temperature 1.

Thermocouples Description A thermocouple is a simple temperature measuring device that works when two wires of two dissimilar metals are connected each other in one end called measuring or hot junction and the other end of the wire is not joined it is connected to the signal circuitry tracer this junction is called reference junction or cold junction ,the working principle of thermocouple is when two different temperatures are applied on each side of them, the density of the metals change due to difference in the temperature, and that gradient of temperature generates a difference in electron density, which develop a voltage between those two pointsThermocouples are widely used for temperature measuring because they are inexpensive, rugged and reliable and they can be used over a wide temperature range so they are using in labs, industry and other kinds of processes5.

Figure 1: schematic drawing of a thermocouple2

Equations Equation used in thermocouple for measuring the temperature difference is as follows5. (Equation #1) e= e.m.f. generated T= temperature (o C) = constants temperatures that correspond for each voltage generated by the difference in temperature, for most of the metals used in thermocouples3.

Figure 2: shows the relationship between the change in temperature and the voltage generated in a thermocouple3
The following table explain the accuracy and performance of the most common type of thermocouple. Different type of thermocouple are given letter designations B,E,J,K,R,S, and N .Type R,S and B thermocouples that are used to measure high temperature. Type R and S are made up of platinum and rhodium alloy4.
Table -1 Thermocouple performance summary4 Thermocouple Measuring Junction Reference Type Temperature Range Temperature Range J,K,T,N,B,E,R,S -250 C to +25000C -200C to +500C

Accuracy

Power Consumption 1.25 Mw 3mW

+/-0.2 (A-grade) +/- 0.25 (C-grade)

Type K thermocouple is made from metal alloy like Ni-Cr or Ni-Al and this thermocouple are used in industries because of their good resistance to Oxidation power .but it work poorly on low pressure. And T type thermocouple is made from metal alloy like Cu/ Cu-Ni it is used in inert atmosphere over the temperature range -2500c to +8500c and type N (Nicrosil) used in industrial environment of temperature up to 12000c4. Advantage of Thermocouple Temperature range : They can be used over a wide temperature range from -2000C to +25000C Robust : Thermocouple are rugged device that we can use them in any hazard condition Rapid response : thermocouple are small and low thermal capacity rapidly response to temperature change.No self heating : Thermocouple does not have any external power so they are not heating They are also inexpensive. Simple design4.

Disadvantage of Thermocouple
Thermocouple measurement is only accurate as the reference junction temperature can be measured ie temperature measurement with a thermocouple requires a two temperature to be measured on is at hot junction and other is cold junction temperature.To avoid error cold junction temperature is in general composited. This is sometimes difficult in high temperature environments, especially if the given

thermocouple is about to be calibrated at 0o C Because of the metallurgical properties metals are prone to corrosion. Therefore, thermocouples have to be well maintained and cleaned. If it is not well maintained, the corrosion will affect the temperature reading and make the device unreliable4. Price Prices of thermocouples can be as low as $7;Price of the thermocouple is decide by their accuracy and precession. From Engineering tools.com, the most expensive device that was found to be $3484.

2.Semiconductor temperature measurement (Silicon Junction Diode) Diode are used as temperature sensors in wide variety of moderate temperature measurement. Silicon junction diode is an electronic component made of a semiconductor material, it has two terminals. Because of its resistance, the diode allows current to flow from one direction only, . However, it turns out that a silicon diode is sensitive to the change in temperature, so if a current was going through a diode and a change in temperature occurred Typically this is used to measure very low temperature in the range between a 400-800 mV This method is widely used in labs5. Equation Equation used in a silicon junction diode that relates the voltage generated with the temperature7. (Equation#5)

V= voltage (V) K= Boltzmanns constant q= electron charge

Figure 3: shows the temperature-volts characteristics in a silicon diode6. The figure above shows that the relationship between temperature and voltage is linear, and the change in voltage over the change in temperature is always constant.

Figure 4: Shows the circuit where an amplifier is added in order to improve the reading of the devic66.

Accuracy The temperature sensing diode is measured very law temperature at the range of 1.4 K to 475 k (maximum) and the accuracy is in the range on each measurement8. Advantages

The silicon junction diode has two main advantages one is it is used for measuring very law temperature changes and silicon is very sensitive to change in temperature so it has a very good accuracy, precision and resolution. Also, it is very small in size so they can use in very small electronics device6. Disadvantages The silicon junction diode has lot of disadvantage of then one is with high temperature. if heated to over 200o C, it will be destroyed. it is very sensitive to heat, so it has to be insulated from other sources of heat4. Electric Signal Electric signal is already there for the silicon junction diode. Price Silicon junction diodes is expensive. In Engineering tools.com as they start at $200 for CY7 models9. However, the price increases as accuracy and precision increase8.

3.Quartz Thermometer Thermometer is a device used measured the temperature gradient .Quartz is the second most abundant mineral available naturally in the earth, which made up of Oxygen and Si atoms, with an overall formula is SiO2 Quartz thermometers usually have linear temperature-coefficients, that widen the range of measurable temperatures and generates high resolution temperature results1. This thermometer is calibrated at water triple point at 0.01o C2. Equations For calculating the frequency of quartz at given parameters1.

( Equation #6)

f = resonant frequency (s-1) L1= inductor ( mass of the quartz) C0= electrostatic capacitance

Performance of quartz thermometer This thermometer work at a range of -800c to +2500c and has absolute accuracy from 0.040 C from -50 to 150C and 0.075C from -80 to 250C10 Advantages This thermometer is high accuracy and high precision one because of the Quartz it very sensitive because of it piezoelectric properties this mean that they are capable of changing mechanical

energy in to electric current when subject to pressure Also, the device is very stable and so it this thermometer doesnt need to be calibration3 Disadvantages This type of temperature very sensitive to noise. The reading of this thermometer affect the disturbance from the other device .And also, this device is expensive because it is made by very few companies around the world8. Electric signal Most of the quartz thermometer is equipped with a microprocessor Price Price is in the range of $130 to 560 as per engineering tool website depending on accuracy and precision

Task 2 : Measurement of Fluid Pressure 1.Manometer

Description: Manometer is a device for measuring pressure in the fluid .there are many shape available now a days that is U shape Tube , Well type manometer , Inclined manometer are some type. Here in the figure 6 shows a bend glass tube U shaped . the glass is filled with liquid ,typically mercury The glasstube is positioned with the then the mercury is in the bottom and the air is removedThe difference in the height of the columns of the mercury is measure the pressure of the fluid 10

Figure 5: Pressure messurement of the fluid in the pipe10 Pressure exerted by the fluid of height H and density by hydrostatic pressure equation P=hg (Equation#7) Pressure difference between the applied pressure P1 and the reference pressure P0 P1 - P0=hg (Equation#8) P1 is the applied pressure ,P0 is the reference pressure, is the density of the fluid in Kg/m3,g is the acceleration due to graviyu (9.81 m/s2), h is the Liquid Height in meters

U-tube manometer is the basic type manometer among all type of the manometer mechanical part in the manometer the schematic drawing as follows10

Figure 6: Schematic drawing of a U-Tube Manometer9 Advantage of Manometer The advantage of manometers are simple construction ,low cost ,availability in wide verity of ranges it. It give very accurate measurement for small pressure Disadvantage of manometer Large and bulky, and condensation is the other problem with them. not using for large pressure difference. Accuracy and precision of manaometer Standard accuracy of a manaometer is 0.05% Price Price is depend on the accuracy and precision of the manometer it range from 40$ to 2000$13

2.Thermocouple Gauge Description: Thermocouple gauge pressure measurement is based on the thermal conducity principle. thermal conductivity depends highly on pressure. In a circuit of a thermocouple gauge, there are a cold surface glass tube and a thermocouple the temperature change is measured. Because it is low pressure, the thermal conductivity of the gas depends on its pressure. By the change of temperature, calculation is made to find the pressure14 Equations Thermal conductivity on temperature and pressure10. (Equation#9) = thermal conductivity P = pressure
Accuracy and precision

The following are the specifications of the VT 5 Series16.

Range from10mPa to 100 kPa and Accuracy <1%

Advantages Thermocouple gauge measure pressure very low value with good accuracy. It is very expensive10 . Disadvantages Thermocouple gauge does not operate at pressures above atmospheric pressure. Also the measurement reading affect the heat radiation from other sources11. Electric signal In this gauge thermocouple is used. Thermocouples measure temperature using voltage drop, which is no issues in converting the signal into electrical12. Price Thermocouple gage is expensive than the normal thermocouple .Because of it has more additional part11. 3.McLeod Gauge Description: This is one of the oldest devices that work very well. This pressure measurement method is based on the idea of the manometer. It was invented in 1874 by H.G. McLeod. Most important use of McLeod gauge is that it is very accurate for measuring low pressure. The manometer has to be calibrated so that the readings can be accurate17.

Equations The equation based on Boyles law, that is it shows the relationship between the different pressures and volumes17. (Equation#10) P = pressure V= volume The relationship between the pressures and the other parameters involved in the McLeod Gauge18. (Equation#11)

Pu = inlet gas pressure Vu= known volume of the vessel

Accuracy and precision

The following are the specifications of VG-7 McLeod Gauge19. Pressure Range from 10 mm Hg to 0.001 mm Hg that is maximum pressure readable through this instrument is 10 torr and Accuracy of the instrument is 1%21 Advantages This instrument is good for measuring very low pressure with good accuracy. This device has good accuracy than most gauge Disadvantages It is not good for measuring incompressible fluid such as pure O2 gas . For measuring pressure of a condensable gas this gauge is not accurate, if the device wasnt used correctly, mercury can escape to and contaminate the whole system21.
Price Price range from 20$ to 750$ .Price depend on accuracy and precession.

Task : 3 Method of Measuring Flow Rate 1.Orifice Plate Meter Description: Orifice plate is used to measuring the flow rate for reducing pressure it is used to measure either volumetric of mass flow rate .it is used as the same principle of Venturi Nozzle ,the principle used is Bernoullis principle which state the relationship between the pressure of the fluid and velocity of the fluid. When the pressure increase the velocity decrease and vice versa. An orifice plate is a circular thin steel plate that has a small inner diameter, and an outer diameter that is as large is the pipe. Bernoullis equation can be used and the volumetric flow rate or mass flow rate can be found25. Bernoullis Equation used for orifice plate25. (Equation#12) P= pressure = density v= velocity Continuity Equation, shows the flow rate of a fluid25. (Equation#13) q= volumetric flowrate

Accuracy of the orifice plate is 0.75 on each measurement .this is the specification of emersion 3015 SFP23 Orifice plate21 Advantages Measured wide range of flow rates. It is inexpensive compared to many other flow rate and it accurate. meter and its reliable for a long term. Construction is very simple. it has no single parts24. Disadvantages Required homogenous fluids. Required turbulent flow profile that is Reynolds number greater than 4000.
Price

Price from the engineering tools website shows in the range of 20$ to 130$ 2.Target Flowmeter Description: Target flow meter also know as drag force flow meter measure force caused by fluid impacting on a target suspended in the fluid stream. This is used for both liquid and gases for measuring the mass flow rate. Direct indication of flow rate is measured. It is called a Target because its shape where a fluid passes by looks like a target Bernoullis equation, pressure drop across that target is proportional to the square of the flow rate. This flow meter is very suitable for gas flow rate measuring.25 Equations This equation shows the relationship between the mass flowrate and the force exerted by the fluid27.

(Equation#15) W= mass flowrate = mass per unit volume C= numerical factor constant D= pipe diameter

Figure 10: Shows the pipe and target flow meter arrangement28.

Advantages Target flow meter is very accurate, this can capable of operating high fluid temperature .Low intial setup cost ,can be used contaminated or corrosive fluid flow,can be used in gas and liquid21. Disadvantages Calibration will lost when operates on maximum flowrate. And if the fluid Price Price range in engineering tools website it from 150$ to 750$ depending on the accuracy.

3.Thermal Mass Flow Meter Description: Thermal mass flow meter is used only for measuring only for gas flow rate application thermal mass flow uses temperature to measure the flow rate .the principle behind the thermal mass flow is that the flow meter introduce heat in to the flowing stream and measure how much heat dissipates using one or more temperature sensor. The amount of heat lost from the sensor depend on the sensor design and the thermal properties of the fluids One sensor is heated, and has a heater next to it, and the other one remains unheated. When the measurement starts, a

computer-based program would measure the amount of electricity needed to maintain a constant temperature between the two sensors22

Figure 11: Shows the Thermal Mass Flow Meter and its components22.

Equations This equation show the relationship between the mass flowrate and the electrical energy and the different parameters that affect the volumetric flowrate using the second method 21. [ ] Q= mass flowrate W= power used T= temperature k= thermal conductivity of the fluid Pr= Prandtl Number A,B, n = constants determined from flow calibration

(Equation#17)

Figure 12: Shows the Thermal Mass Flow Meter and its components22. . Thermal Mass flow meter Range is from each measurement22 .Operating temperature range and its Accuracy is on

Advantages Thermal mass flow rate is used for gas flow rate measuring and it measure very small flowrate too22. Disadvantages

It requires a lot of energy to rise the temperature, especially for high flow rates and it will not work better with unknown thermal conductivity gases22 Price Price range is from engineering tool website is 95$ to 3500 $ depending upon the accuracy.

Task 4 : Measuring Concentration. 1.Spectrophotometer Every chemical coound absorb and tthe light over a certnain range of wavelength. Sprophotometer use light intensity for meauring the concentration of a solution for that known wavelength of light pass through the and the soluon absrbed the light at differt intensity and this is intesity is mesured and determine the concentration of the species in the solution . spectrophotory is widely used for quitative anasis on various areas like chemical engiering ,clinical application ,physics and more27

Figure 12 :Schematic drawing of a Spectrophotometer27 Equation Where I1 is the light intensity of the beam through the corvette I0 is light intensity before pass through the solution27 Absorbance =- log(T)=-log(I1I0) (Equation#18) Accuracy of the spectrophotometer is range from 1% to 25% and Detection limit from 1ppb to 0.5ppm27 Advantage of Spectrophotometer They are cheap and fast compared to other quantities instruments. They can use wide verity of samples. Measure any wavelength and record the spectrum. it is very accurate analysis27. Disadvantage of Spectrophotometer Sample prepration time will take the analysis goes little bit longer27. Cost Cost depend upon the accuracy and precision range from 3000& to 4500 $

2.Conductivity meter Conductivity meter asure the liquid ionic strength it also relies on which ions are present in the solution in what contration and what forms. Eletric conduivity is the ability of a solution to pass the electic current, it is the oposite to the electrical resistivity there for couctivity is used to measure the contration of dissolved solids which have been ionized in polar solution such as water30.

Figure 13 :Schematic drawing of the conductivity meter probe30 Accuracy of the conduction meter at 1.3 s/cm of 0.1S/cm ,Resolution of 0.1S/cm or greater30 Advantage of the conductivity meter They are simple and accurate measurement ,excellent corrosion resistance , sensor highly resistance to dirt30. Disadvantage of Conductivity resistor Not suitable for measuring low conductivity liquid such as pure water. Not suitable for the liquid whose temperature is fluctuating30 . Cost Cost depend on the accuracy and precession it range from 140$ to 1000$

[1] Hand book of Temperature Measurement By Robin E.Bently . January 1 ,1998 springer publisher page 85-110 [2] Thermal Properties and Temperature Related Behavior of fluid by W.H.Somerton Elsevier Science 1992 [3] Hewlett-Packard, Pressure & Temperature Quartz Thermometer, Model 2804A. 1985. [4] Hammond, D. L.; Benjaminson, A. The Linear Quartz Thermometer -a New Tool for Measuring Absolute and Difference Temperatures. Hewlett-Packard Journal 1965, 16, 1-7. [5] Moore, J. H.; Davis, C. C.; Coplan, M. A.; Greer, S. C. Building Scientific Apparatus (4th Edition). , 602-605. [6] Morris, A. S.; Langari, R. Measurement and Instrumentation - Theory and Application. , 348-362. [7] I. R and S Thermocouple Input Handheld Digital Thermometers. http://www.omega.com/ppt/pptsc.asp?ref=HH501AS-BS_HH501AR-BR&Nav=tema06 (accessed 03/04, 2014). [8] Thermal Properties and Temperature Related Behavior of fluid by W.H.Somerton Elsevier Science 1992 [9] Cryogenic Temperature Sensors Silicon Diodes. http://www.omega.com/Temperature/pdf/CY7.pdf (accessed 03/04, 2014). [10] Measurement of gas and liquid by orifice meter by Hentry Palmer 1998 page 121-134

[24] Derivative spectro-photometry and electron spin resonance (ESR) By Valdimir s.Saakov [25] Measurement of gas and liquid by orifice meter by Hentry Palmer 1998 page 87 to 94 [26] Process Management, Rosemount Integral Orifice Flowmeters. http://www2.emersonprocess.com/en-US/brands/rosemount/Flow/DP-FlowProducts/Integral-Orifice-Flowmeters/Pages/index.aspx (accessed 03/05, 2014). [27] Separation,Preconcentration and Spectophotometry in inorgainic Analysis by z.Marcezenko and MBalcerzak ELSEVIER SCIENCE B.V 2000 [28] The Engineering Toolbox, Target Flow Meters. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/targetflow-meters-d_497.html (accessed 03/05, 2014).

[29] Digital Target Flowmeter (with 4~20ma Output) Buy Intelligent Flowmeter, Water Meter, Gas Meter Product on Alibaba.com. http://www.alibaba.com/productgs/341340416/SBL_digital_target_flowmeter_with_4.html?s=p (accessed 03/05, 2014) [30] Geonics EM39 Borehole conductivity meter .Theory of Operation by J.D.McNeill : Geonics